Cee 5111 - Chapter 2

The University of Zambia
School of Engineering
Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering
CEE 5111: Construction Management
Lecturer: Mr. C. Kaliba

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CHAPTER 2 JOB PLANNING AND

MANAGEMENT
CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

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Planning

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INTRODUCTION
 The specific approach to construction begins with a complete analysis of the job down
to its smallest part
 Construction of each element is planned in terms of materials, taking into account
labour and equipment resources
 The whole projects is then fitted into a closely integrated programme of construction,
the ideal being that:
 flow of work should be logical and in a single direction;
 distances travelled and amount of lifting and handling of materials during this flow should be
minimised;
 Equipment and labour should be employed to capacity without breaks or delays due to
shortages or errors in the programme.

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 It would therefore suffice to say that:
 Construction planning is generally concerned with completing a contract in the shortest

possible time, within budget and according to specifications.
 On the other hand, management is the art of physically making the plan work.

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Principles of planning
 Planning should:
 give the client intended completion or hand-over dates.
 notify suppliers and sub-contractors when their goods or services will be required.
 give contractor knowledge of future commitments to staff, labour, and plant.
 Before starting site operations, adequate time should be made available for:
 proper planning of equipment and methods
 ordering of materials.
 preparation of a balanced programme.

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 Each operation should commence as soon as possible:

 without necessarily waiting for the completion of the preceding work activity; and
 should continue without interruption at maximum practical speed.
 Balanced gangs must be established on repetitive work-cycle and continuous work
made available until each is due to leave the site.
 High productivity entails:
 elimination of double–handling;
 Careful timing of bulky materials deliveries; and
 strategic siting of mixing plant, casting bays, hoists and stock piles.

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Advantages of Planning
 Planning shows possible problems in advance and thus provide opportunities for their
avoidance.
 Increased productivity is made possible by reduction in double-handling, and improved
operational methods devised by work study techniques also result in reduced labour
and plant costs.
 The continuity essential for early completion of the works can be maintained by
introduction of financial incentives scheme, this gives a higher level of earning and
motivation to the operatives.

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 Faster, more efficient construction means a shorter contract period, with less on-costs
and lower overheads, so that the resultant total cost is effectively reduced.
 Programmes also provide a useful basis for ordering materials and a comparative
reference for assessing progress.
 To all these advantages, add the growing record of comprehensive and realistic
company standards made possible by the detailed analysis of achievement against
plans for completed jobs, which in due course is reflected in more accurate and keener
estimating.

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Construction Stages
 Construction stages (work packages) –which might contain different operations.

 On large construction projects, it may be desirable or essential to divide the project into several
construction stages, which may be constructed independently or in conjunction with each other.
 Each of the stages may be constructed under a separate contract. The aim for dividing the project into
stages is to make known the quantities of work and the duration of construction for each in advance in
order that each may be constructed in the proper sequence.
 The construction of a new water supply for a city might include the following stages:
 clearing the reservoir site
 earth-fill dam
 concrete dam, spill way and controls
 pump station
 transmission line, tunnels, etc.
 water treatment plant.

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 The reservoir site must be cleared before the dam is completed and the storage of
water begins.
 It may be necessary to complete the concrete portion of the dam, and to install control
gates in order that this structure may serve as a means of diverting the water in the
stream while the earth fill is being placed.
 The pump station, transmission line and treatment plant should be completed by the
time the reservoir has stored sufficient quantity of water to be usable.

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Construction Operations (specialisations)
 Projects are usually divided into construction operations to facilitate job planning. A
construction operation is a portion of a project which may be performed by a
classification of labourers or a single type of equipment.
 In constructing a reinforced concrete retaining wall, the project might be divided into
the following operations:
 Excavation, machine
 Excavation, hand
 Formwork
 steel fixing
 Concreting.

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 In planning the construction of a highway requiring a new location, the project might be
divided into the following operations (which in this case can be stages):
 moving to the project and setting up equipment
 cleaning and grubbing the right of way
 Earthwork, cut and fill
 Drainage structures, box culverts.
 Pavement
 Clean-up and removal of plant.

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 To estimate the progress in constructing a project, the job planner should determine the
quantity of work to be constructed for each operation, expressed in an appropriate unit.
 Then estimation should be made of probable rate at which work will be performed,
allowing for estimated loss in time due to bad weather or any other cause.
 From this information, it is possible to estimate the total time required to complete each
operation.
 It can be seen that stages may comprise various operations. If a project is thoroughly
analysed and the operation durations and sequence in each construction stage are
known, total estimated project duration can be arrived at.

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Assignment 1
 Project 1:Construction of a multi-storey shopping complex on a built up site in Lusaka

inner city. The complex will have an underground basement with a pile supported
foundation.
 Project 2:Construction of 85Km of the Senanga-Sesheke Road in Western Province. The
road is to be upgraded to bituminous standards.
 Q: For each project, Sequentially identify the various construction stages and
operations in each stage.

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Construction Schedules
 A schedule is a time-table. In scheduling construction operation, the job planner should

consider the desirable sequential relationships between the operations. E.g., in
constructing a concrete foundation unit, it will be necessary to complete the
excavation before concrete can be placed.
 A construction schedule is usually in the form of a bar chart, which shows for a given
project; the operations, quantity, unit and rate of construction for each operation and
the estimated date of starting and completing each operation.
 The schedule should have provision for reporting or indicating the actual amount of
work completed on each operation at any given date, end of week or month. If the
actual progress is indicated on the schedule, it is possible to determine very quickly
whether construction is progressing according to the original plan.

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 Projects with durations of less than a year may be divided into weeks, while schedules
for projects requiring more than a year generally will be divided into months. The
schedule should show the dates clearly. If the time is divided into weeks, it is good
practice to show the end of the week, Saturday, as the effective date, with a notation
reading “For week ending.”
 Every construction schedule should be identified with the particular project by placing
on it:
 the job number;
 the name of the project;
 the name of the client;
 the location; and
 possibly names of consulting firms.

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Preparing a construction schedule
 Before preparing a construction schedule:

 a project should be divided into desirable operations;
 the amount of work in each operation should be determined;
 the rate of performing the work should be estimated for each operation; and
 an appropriate allowance should be made for loss of time due to bad weather.

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Example
 In the preparations of a construction schedule, consider a project requiring the

relocation of a highway. The project will involve the following quantities and operations.
 Length, 13.786 km
 Width of right of way, 30.478 m.
 Clearing and grubbing, 64 acres, medium timber, distributed along the project.
 Drainage structures, 12 multi-box concrete culverts, 3 openings, average length, 9.75 m.
 Earth fill in excess of cut, from borrow pits, with average haul distance of 1.2km, a total of
104,524 m3 bank volume.
 Concrete pavement, width 7.3m, average thickness 0.23m, total area 100 638m2

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 Job description:
 The area in timber is slightly more than one-half of the total area of the right of way. The
specifications require the contractor to remove all trees and roots to a depth of 0.46m and to
burn the timber on the right of way.
 The earth is a mixture of sand and clay, whose average borrow-pit weight is 1488 kg/m3. The
average swell will be 25%. It is estimated that the average initial moisture content will be 8% by
weight. Specifications require a moisture content of 12% during compaction. The earth is to be
placed in layers not exceeding 20cm in thickness when loose, and compacted to a density of
1554kg/m3
 Task
 Prepare a construction schedule for the job.

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Solution
 Identify the various operations and their sequence in the job.

 Operations:
 Moving in
 clearing and grubbing
 drainage structures
 Earth-fill
 concrete pavement
 general clean-up and moving out.
 In the operations identified, it is assumed unforeseen circumstances cause delays amounting to

approximately 20% of the actual time required for construction. In preparing the schedule, a
week is considered to be 5 days of 8 hours each.

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 Moving in
 The moving-in operation consists of transporting to and setting up at the project:
 a two compartment aggregate - batching bin
 a bulk-cement storage bin
 a tools warehouse
 offices
 testing laboratory
 equipment - repair and servicing facilities
 construction equipment required for the project.
 The equipment that will be needed first should be moved to the project as early as possible,
though it may not be desirable to transport all the construction equipment to the project prior to
beginning construction.
 It is estimated that 1 week will be required for moving in and setting up the plant.

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 Clearing and grubbing

 Bulldozers mounted on diesel crawler tractors developing 96.2 KW drawbar power will be used in
clearing timber from the right of way. It is estimated that a bulldozer can clear 1 acre per day or 5
acres per week. Two bulldozers will be used to clear 10 acres per week.
 The total time to remove the timber will be;
 Actual operating time, 64 acres @ 10 acres per week = 6.4WK
 Add 20% for lost time = 1.3WK
 Total time = 7.7WK
 Roundup time out to 8 weeks
 A single crawler tractor, pulling a rooter, should be able to remove all tree roots to a depth of 46 cm at
the same time that the bulldozers push down the trees. The roots will be stacked on piles of trees, by
labourers and burnt.
 It should be possible to start this operation before moving in is completed. Therefore the construction
schedule should provide for clearing to start immediately.

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 Drainage structures
 If water courses are dry during the construction of drainage structures, the operations will consist
of excavating to the required grade and constructing the concrete slab, walls, roof and wing
walls.
 If flowing water is expected during construction, it may be desirable to construct temporary
earth dams upstream and downstream the structure to divert the water through a ditch dug to
the side of the culvert, using a bulldozer to excavate the earth from the ditch.
 The actual time required to construct a culvert may be determined as follows:
 Bulldozer constructing temporary dams, excavating diversion ditch, and excavating culvert base
1 day
 Fine grading, by hand 1 day
 Erecting forms & placing reinforcing steel for base 1.5 days
 Placing concrete for base 0.5 days

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 Erecting forms for walls and roof & placing reinf. steel 3 days
 Placing wall & roof concrete 1 day
 Removing & cleaning forms 1 day
 Total 9 days
 Add 20% for lost time 2 days
 Total time 11 days

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 It is not necessary to complete one culvert prior to starting another. Assume that three culverts
are under construction at the same time. Under this schedule, one culvert should be finished
each week, with time allowed for the curing of concrete. Thus, a total of 12 weeks will be
required to complete the culverts.
 Construction on the culverts should not be started until a sufficient portion of the right of way is
cleared to permit the construction to be continued without interruption. The culverts will be
started 2 weeks after clearing is started.
 Earth fill
 The earth for the fill will be excavated with a 1.14m3 power shovel, whose output should be
approximately 114m3 per hour bank volume. A truck having a struck capacity of 4.56m3 should
haul 4.56m3 bank volume if the heaped capacity is 5.6m3 loose measure.
 Under reasonably good haul-road conditions, a truck should make a round trip in 12 min. If it is
assumed that a truck will operate an average of 50min per hr, because of necessary delays, the
number of trucks required will be obtained as follows:

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 Trips per hr per truck, 50min/hr ÷ 12min/trip = 4.17

 Volume hauled per hr per truck, 4.17×4.56m3 = 19 m3
 Number of trucks required, 114m3/hr ÷19m3 = 6
 An extra truck should be provided as a stand-by unit for use in the event of a breakdown by one
of the trucks.
 Volume of earth placed in a week will be, 114m3/hr x40 = 4560m3
 Time required to complete the fill will be;
 Working time, 104 524 m3 @ 4560m3 per week = 22.9wks
 Lost time = 5.7wks
 Total time = 28.6 wks
 Round time to: 29 weeks

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 In addition to the shovel and trucks, it will be necessary to provide one or more heavy-duty
graders to smooth and shape the earth in the fill and to maintain the haul roads, one or more
sheep’s-foot rollers to compact the earth, and enough sprinkler trucks to supply the required
water.
 It is estimated that placing the fill can be started 2 weeks after clearing & grubbing is started.
 Pavement
 Area of concrete pavement =100,638m2
 Volume will be 100,638x0.23= 23,147m3 (with no allowance for wastage or overrun in thickness)
 A 34E dual-drum paving mixer, producing 1.156 m3 of concrete per batch, can mix a batch in 1
min. under favourable conditions.
 Assume that the mixer will actually operate 50min. per hr, an average of 50 batches per hr can
be mixed and placed.

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 This is equal to, 1.16x50 = 58 m3 per hour or 58×40÷(1/0.23) = 10,087m2 per wk.
 Time required to complete the operation will be:
 Working time, 100,638 m2 @ 10,087 m2 per wk = 10 wks
 Add 20% for lost time = 2 wks
 Total 12 weeks
 Unless it is practical to increase the rate of placing the fill, the concrete pavement should not be
started until 21 weeks after the construction of the fill is started. This will permit the last portion of
the fill to cure 4 weeks prior to placing the last pavement, as required by the specifications.
 General clean-up & moving out
 Assuming this operation will take 2 weeks, it can be started 11 weeks from the date work started
on the pavement.

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Resource Leveling and

Smoothing

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Resource levelling/smoothing
 There are the two basic possibilities of utilising available resources. In the case of
resource levelling, available resources are fixed crew right from the beginning to the
end whilst in resource smoothing there is variation in number of crews to be used but the
variation is not large.
 In the example below in resource levelling 3 persons have been used from first to the last day of
the work while in resource smooth 3 persons have been used for 6 days and there is variation in
number of persons from 2 to 4 persons depending upon the amount of work to be executed.
 In construction (building and civil), resource smoothing is applied mostly. The nature of
construction works does not make resource levelling economical.

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 Resource levelling  Resource smoothing
Crew Crew
Duration in days Duration in days

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Resource Aggregation
 This involves the summing together of resources on all activities during the same period.
For activities having float time, there is a choice between aggregating the resources
anywhere between the earliest time and the latest time.

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Classification of Resource Scheduling
Problem
 Time-Constrained Project:
 A project that must be completed by an imposed date
 Time is fixed, resources are flexible: if additional resources are required to ensure project meets
schedule, they may be obtainable.
 Resource-Constrained Project:
 A project in which the level of resources available cannot be exceeded
 Resources are fixed, time is flexible: inadequate resources will simply delay the project.

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Time-Constrained Projects
 …Are projects that must be completed by an imposed date

 Require the use of levelling techniques that focus on balancing or smoothing resource
demands by using slack to manage resource utilization over the duration of the project:
 Peak resource demands are reduced.
 Resources over the life of the project are reduced.
 Fluctuation in resource demand is minimized.

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Example: Botanical Garden Project
 Given the following project network, we would like to:

 minimize total resources (rented backhoes) used
 smooth capacity requirements (avoid large fluctuations)

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 Pre and Post Resource Smoothing

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Time-Constrained Projects
 Resource Demand Levelling Techniques for Time- Constrained Projects

 Advantages
 Peak resource demands are reduced.
 Resources over the life of the project are reduced.
 Fluctuation in resource demand is minimized.
 Disadvantages
 Loss of flexibility that occurs from reducing slack
 Increases in the criticality of all activities

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Resource-Constrained Projects
 …Are projects that involve resources that are limited in quantity or by their availability
 There are two fundamental approaches to Resource-Constrained allocation problems:
 Heuristic Methods
 Optimization Models
 Heuristic approaches employ rules of thumb that have been found to work reasonably
well in similar situations
 Optimization approaches seek the best solutions but are far more limited in their ability
to handle complex situations and large problems

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Heuristic-Based Resource Scheduling
 Scheduling of activities through use of heuristics (rules-of- thumb), according to the

following priorities:
 Start from beginning of project time and, when resources used exceed the resources available,
retain activities first by:
 Minimum slack
 Smallest (least) duration
 Lowest activity identification number
 …and push the others out further in time
 An unarticulated rule: in later periods, do not move activities that have already started
 Additional caveat: when considering activities not to delay, consider the resources each
activity uses.

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Example: Resource-Constrained Project
 Assume we only have 3 people available to do the following project, and we cannot
afford to hire more.

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 Before Resource Balancing

 Early Start Resource Load Chart (slack shown in grey)

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 Resource Load now Feasible

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The Impact of Resource-Constrained
Scheduling
 Reduces delay but reduces flexibility
 Increases sensitivity of the network
 Increases scheduling complexity
 Can break the sequence of events
 May cause parallel activities to become sequential and change the critical path

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Materials Management

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Ordering materials
 Construction schedule may be used as a guide in specifying the delivery dates for
materials. Materials should be delivered to a project far enough in advance of their
need to assure that there will be no delays.
 However, it is not good practice to have materials at the job site too far in advance of
their need as they may:
 deteriorate
 be damaged
 be lost
 congest the working area
 If proper information is given to material suppliers, they can arrange to furnish the
materials as they are needed. Revisions in delivery dates (from schedule) can be made,
if necessary, during the construction of the project.

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Stores
 The term generally applies to all items and materials purchased for use in construction. It
includes issuable articles, tools, equipment, fixtures, etc.
 Fool-proof arrangements for receipt and issue are essential for stores. The storage
department should be divided into the following three sections:
 receipt section
 holding section
 issue section
 Complete record of all the materials received and issued should be maintained.

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Objectives of materials management
 to reduce materials cost

 efficient control of inventories helps in releasing working capital for production purposes
 ensure uniform flow of materials for production
 ensure right quality at right price
 establish and maintain good relations with suppliers
 economy in using imported items and to find their substitutes.

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Scope of materials management
 The following are areas covered by the materials management function:

 materials planning and programming
 storekeeping
 inventory (formal detailed list of goods, e.g. stock) control
 condition checking and standardisation in stores
 transportation
 materials handling
 disposal of scrap and surplus.

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Selective control techniques
 It is very costly and difficult to give equal attention to all the items of inventory
 1. A-B-C Control Policy
 A-B-C analysis is meant for relative inventory control in which maximum attention is given to
items which consume more money and a fair attention to medium value items, while the
attention to low value items can be reduced to routine procedure only
 If a cost examination in terms of project materials consumption is undertaken, it will be found
that about:
 10% of the items accounts for about 70% of the total project materials cost.
 20% of the items account for about 25% of the total material cost
 70% account for 5% of the total material cost
 The first category, small number of high cost consumption items are called A - items. The
second category of medium cost consumption value items are known as B- items. The third
category, large number of items with small total cost are C - items.

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Percentage of item used

C
30
10 B
A 70 95
Percentage of total cost
Graph between percentages of total items in each category Vs percentage of total project cost consumption
for each category

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 A-B-C analysis does not depend on the unit cost of the item but on its project cost consumption.
It also does not indicate the importance of any item. The category of every item is important.
 A-B-C analysis is a basic technique of materials management and can be applied over almost
all aspects of materials management such as:
 Purchase
 Sale
 Inspection
 inventory control
 store keeping
 The control policies for A, B and C items are based on two principles
 to keep capital tied up inventory as low as practicable
 to ensure that all the materials would be available when required.

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 a)Policies for A - items

 since they account for over 70% of the total materials value, they should be ordered more frequently, but
in small quantities, in order to reduce capital locked up at any time
 the requirements of such items must be planned in advance for expected future use, so that only required
quantities arrive a little before they are used.
 since A items should be stocked as minimum as possible, maximum effort should be made to expedite
delivery. Deliveries within a specific period of order must be adhered to
 two or more suppliers for each item may be engaged, so as to avoid dependence on one supplier, as a
safe guard against failure to deliver by any one supplier.
 ordering quantities, re-order points and minimum stock levels should be revised more frequently.

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 b)Policies of B-items
 the policies for B items in general are in between those for A and C items
 orders for these items must be placed less frequently than for A items.
 c) Policies for C items

 since C items do not involve much capital tie up, the entire project stock for such items may be kept
 half project or total project orders should be placed to reduce paper work and ordering costs and to get
advantage of quantity discounts for bulk purchases

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 2 SDE Analysis
 Items can be classified according to their use, consumption, value, etc. A-B-C analysis is the
oldest and commonly used method. SDE analysis is based on availability position of each item.
In this analysis:
 S - refers to Scarce items, which are in short supply and their availability is scarce. This includes
imported items
 D - refers to Difficult items, which cannot be produced easily
 E - refers to Easily available items

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Materials handling
 This is an art and science involving:

 movement
 packaging
 storing of materials in any form
 by means of:
 gravity,
 manual effort, or
 power driven m/c
 The cost of materials handling operations can be as high as 50% of the wage bill in any
industrial concern. Thus efforts must be made to reduce the cost of materials handling
and its time.

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Disposal of surplus materials
 A periodical study is necessary for finding obsolete or surplus (not being used for a
considerable period) items.
 Such items should be re-examined for their alternative use. If they cannot be used
anywhere, they must be disposed off.
 Mode of disposal must be decided in the following priority:
 send it back on resale to the original supplier if they are interested
 sell it at best possible price. If not possible then
 sell at any available price, even at scrap value
 if it could not be sold at scrap or at any rate, give it away for keeping it year after year blocks
space

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Inventory control
 This displays a detailed list of movable goods

 raw materials
 materials in process
 finished products
 general supplies and equipment
 and gives quantity and value of each item

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Need for inventory control
 To maintain a reserve of goods that will ensure requirements at the lowest possible
ultimate cost. Losses from improper inventory include:
 purchases in excess than is needed
 cost of slowed down production resulting from materials not being available when needed.
 Proper inventory control can greatly reduce costs by
 promoting smooth operations
 preventing materials pile up
 preventing m/c idle time

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Functions of inventory control
 To run the stores effectively - This includes layout, storage media (bins, shelves, & open space,
etc.)
 To ensure timely availability of materials and avoid build up of stock levels.
 Technical responsibility for the state of materials; This includes:
 methods of storing
 maintenance procedures
 studies of deterioration and obsolescence
 Stock control system: Physical verification (stock taking) of records, ordering policies procedures.
 Maintenance of specified raw materials: general supplies and component parts in sufficient quantities
to meet demand of production.
 Protecting materials from losses due to improper handling and storing of goods and unauthorised
removal from stores
 Pricing all materials supplied to the stores so as to estimate material cost.

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Advantages of inventory control
 it creates buffer between input and output

 it ensures against delays in deliveries
 it allows for a possible increase in production
 it allows advantage of quantity discounts
 it takes care of problem of scarcity of materials in the market
 it utilises the benefit of price fluctuations

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Inventory build-up
 Inventory build up starts because, either:

 items get ordered in excess of the requirements
 they do not get used at the same rate at which they are received.
 To overcome the first possibility, orders should be placed after considering the past
consumption data and knowing the utilisation programme of particular type of
equipment. The danger here is that such materials may:
 deteriorate in storage;
 get pilfered; or
 get damaged.

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 In the second possibility, consumption rate may fall because of any of the following
reasons:
 due to change in production plans; or
 due to change in utilisation programme of a particular type of equipment.
 In this case, rescheduling of the deliveries, or reducing the quantities of the pending
order must be resorted to, or if necessary pending orders be cancelled

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Stock-taking (Physical verification)
 Various records are kept in maintaining receipt and issue of materials such as;
 receipt book
 store issue register
 bin cards
 store ledger and issue indents, etc.

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 To avoid theft or errors in accounts of stores, a set of procedure called stock-taking is

adopted. Main errors which are usually responsible for differences in actual stock and
book figures are:
 clerical mistakes - wrong issue or wrong entries of issue or receipt in the record
 improper storage-deterioration or loss due to evaporation
 Pilferage
 Careless handling
 leakage loss e.g. industrial gases.

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Project Control and

Supervision

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Control
 This is the process of putting the project back on track should adverse deviations from
what is planned occur. Control involves progress monitoring using the various
management instruments available and taking corrective action when deviations
occur.
 At specified time intervals - daily, weekly, monthly; - reports should be submitted by
project supervisors to management, showing actual progress on each operation during
the specified time interval or at the effective date of the report.
 This permits close monitoring of progress on a project. If progress on one or more
operations or on the entire project is behind schedule, such information will be known
early enough to take corrective steps.

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 It is better to take corrective steps during the early part of construction period instead of
waiting until there is no sufficient time to overcome the difficulties. Having to correct
time delays on short notice can be very expensive.
 Project control is therefore a continuous activity. Effective control involves a regular
comparison of actual progress against required performance followed by appropriate
action to achieve desired objectives. This requires a constant interchange of
information which in turn pre-supposes good communications systems for effective
transmission of ideas, instructions and details.

69
Supervision
 Supervision is that aspect of construction which facilitates smooth execution of the

project. Project supervision mainly deals with organisational problems to ensure that
operations follow the planned schedule and practices of construction.
 Two-way Radio System

 The use of two-way radios, in supervising construction projects is very helpful in improving
communication on projects covering large areas. Among the advantages of using radios, are
the following:
 Permits quick contacts among key personnel on the job.
 Reduces time spent by key personnel in rushing from one operation to the other.
 Saves time and cost by increasing efficiency on a project.

70
 Permits equipment to be shifted quickly from one operation to another, thereby reducing delays due to
equipment failure or reduces the amount of equipment required on a project because of efficient use.
 Permits quick contact with the workshop in the event emergency repairs are required for equipment.
 Expedites the distribution of materials to different operations.
 Gives excellent control between concrete-mixing and placing operations. In the event of failure at either
location, the other can be notified immediately.
 Permits quick calls for first aid or an ambulance in the event of injuries to personnel.

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Objectives of Project Supervision
 The aim of project supervision is to carefully monitor each of the individual project
components to ensure efficiency and cost saving.
 Such supervision involves the following elements:
 Labour
 A regular comparison with anticipated project requirements of particular tradesmen would be more
helpful. The maintenance of the requisite labour force must be judged in conjunction with the progress
record
 Plant
 The plant schedule, from the method statement, prepared during the planning stage should be used to
ensure that machines are brought to the site at the appropriate time. Equally important is the necessity to
return equipment as soon as its use is finished. Instruction in the correct use and insistence on regular
maintenance is essential if standing time due to breakdowns is to be avoided.

72
 Materials
 Timed schedules of requirements prepared in conjunction with the contract programme should ensure that
materials are requisitioned and ordered in good time and assist the chasing of deliveries when suppliers fall
back or earlier despatch has to be effected. To check that all components are requisitioned, it is helpful to
prepare a materials scheduled for every drawing. This provides a means of supervising the initiation of
purchasing.
 Information
 It is necessary to institute a reliable record of site instructions in order to prevent later misunderstandings
and disputes. All verbal instructions given should be confirmed in writing and signed against.
 Sub-contractors
 Copies or abstracts of all relevant programmes, drawings, schedules, instructions, etc., must be passed on
to contractors concerned. Their labour strengths and progress achievements should be recorded and any
labour, material and information difficulties noted and followed up. Site meetings assist in settling queries.

73
Methods of Project Supervision & Control
 Putting together the various parts of a project is one half of site management, while the
practical application of control techniques for their integration is another.
 Progress
 All agents should keep a site diary in which to record:
 weather observations
 work executed
 delays experienced
 comments and any noteworthy occurrences
 Physical progress can be indicated on the programme bar chart.

74
 Variations
 The client, site conditions, or unforeseen circumstances, will inevitably produce a number of
variations as the contract proceeds. In order that financial adjustments may be settled
amicably, it is imperative that all changes should be methodically agreed and measured.
Original and final site levels, extra depths of excavation or concrete and all additional
construction details must be placed on record drawings and submitted signed.
 works not immediately measurable should be recorded in day work sheets on a time and
material basis.
 variation of price records should be kept right up-to-date and presented for regular inspection.
 Grounds for claims should be notified in writing as quickly as circumstances allow, so that they
may be discussed and if possible settled at the next site meeting.
 Prompt adjustment of variations is advantageous to all parties and promotes that friendly co-
operation so essential to a successful project execution.

75
 Quality
 Quality control includes accurate setting-out and levelling, fair faced brickwork and concrete
finishes, etc. Maintenance of quality is a most important factor in modern construction.
 Co-ordination
 An efficient network of communication both written and verbal is necessary for linking together
the various separate members of the construction team. The following procedures are widely
known (though not always practised).
 Site report
 Such a report may include the following; labour strength, plant, material; subcontractor’s labour, plant and materials
and any other information considered important or subcontractor shortages, delays incurred with causes e.g. weather,
breakdowns, instructions received, etc. A weekly (or daily) report should be submitted in order that the pulse of the job
can be watched and any assistance provided.

76
 Weekly meetings
 Such meetings for supervisory, technical and senior clerical staff together with chosen sub-contractors, are an excellent
way of exercising control. Progress can be related to the programme, shortages discussed and means of overcoming
them decided, anticipated problems settled or by-passed. Such a meeting every Friday to review the past week and
survey the week ahead can prove very useful.
 Site meetings
 Held at start of a contract and thereafter regularly each month, or as required during the progress of the work are highly
desirable. Well organised site meetings;
 maintain the impetus of the job
 help to avoid delays
 can resolve differences before they generate friction and lead to misunderstanding.

77
 The agenda for such a meeting should always be sent out before hand. Any procedure for meetings should
include the following on its agenda;
 list of persons present
 acceptance of previous minutes
 Matters arising from the minutes
 progress of the works and causes of any delays; labour, plant or material shortages
 outstanding information
 review of nominated subcontractors and suppliers
 variations/claims for extras
 any other business and date of the next meeting
 From what has been discussed it may seem that construction control and supervision is a
matter of checking and cross-checking. However, the sixth sense born of training and
experience is the irreplaceable of the personality in control because construction is subject to
chance in the form of weather, type of labour available and the vagaries of supplies.

78
Cost Control
 Losses may be made on a construction project because of one or several reasons, such as:
• low bid
• insufficient knowledge of job conditions
• increase in costs of materials and labour
• adverse weather conditions
• improper selection of construction equipment
• inefficient management and supervision
 The elements of any control system are:
• observation
• comparison of observation with some desired stand
• corrective action to take if necessary
 A cost control system should enable a manager to observe current cost levels, compare them with a
standard plan, and institute corrective action to keep costs within acceptable bounds. The system should
help to identify where corrective action is necessary and to provide pointers as to what action should be.

79
Two fundamental points in cost control
methods
 All costs must be allocated on a cost coding arrangement.
 If some costs are ignored as minor, the whole site might be incurring disastrous hidden losses.
 There must always be a standard against which to compare recorded costs. In simple
projects, this might be the bill of quantities. However, a properly prepared and
appropriately updated contract budget forms a better basis.

80
Disadvantage of Cost Control System
 Most control systems have a long response time. Even the best current system provides
information on what was happening the previous week or month.
 As the work is part of a one-off project, it is quite likely that the information is only partly
relevant to the work going on.
 The system might, for example, indicate on May 1, that the formwork operation in March
cost too much. If formwork operations are still continuing, the Manager will give this
work particular attention, but if formwork is complete, nothing can be done to correct
the situation.

81
Cost Control System in Current use
 The selection of a system depends in part on the size and complexity of the contact, but
more on the attitudes and level of sophistication of top management.
 Overall Profit or Loss
 The contractor waits until the contract is complete and then compares the sums of money that have been
paid to him with the monies incurred in purchasing materials, payment for labour, subcontractors, plant
and overheads.
 This system is useful only on very small contracts of short duration. It scarcely qualifies as a control system as
the information it produces can only be used to avoid recurrence of gross errors in later contracts.

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 Profit or Loss on each Contract or Valuation

 The total cost to date are compared with valuation gross of retentions. Cost of materials already delivered
and built into the works though not invoiced must be included but cost of materials on site not yet built into
the permanent work should be excluded.
 Disadvantage - There is no breakdown of profit or loss figure between types of work; it therefore provides
guidance only on which contract requires management attention.

83
 Unit costing
 Costs of various types of work, such as mixing and placing concrete are recorded separately.
 The costs, both on a periodic basis and cumulatively, are divided by the quantity of work of each type that
has been done. This provides unit cost which can be compared with those in tender.
 Care must be taken to ensure that all costs are accounted for as mentioned earlier.
 Any miscellaneous costs must be recorded and allowed for in some way, e.g., by proportional distribution
over the defined work types.
 It is usually best to record site costs only and compare these with bill rates net of contribution for profit and
head office overheads.

84
Optimum cost control
 Any cost control involves an addition Total cost

to overheads.
 As expenditure on cost control
Break-even point
increases, the direct cost on the
project can be expected to decrease.
Direct cost of project
Cost
 However, there will come a point at
which extra effort will ensure no further Cost of control
cost reduction Optimum cost control level
Expenditure on control as % of direct cost of project

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The University of Zambia

CEE 5111: Construction Management

Lecturer: Mr. C. Kaliba

CHAPTER 2 JOB PLANNING AND

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 It would therefore suffice to say that:

 Construction planning is generally concerned with completing a contract in the shortest

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Each operation should commence as soon as possible:

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Construction stages (work packages) –which might contain different operations.

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Project 1:Construction of a multi-storey shopping complex on a built up site in Lusaka

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 A schedule is a time-table. In scheduling construction operation, the job planner should

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Before preparing a construction schedule:

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 In the preparations of a construction schedule, consider a project requiring the

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Identify the various operations and their sequence in the job.

 In the operations identified, it is assumed unforeseen circumstances cause delays amounting to

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Clearing and grubbing

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Trips per hr per truck, 50min/hr ÷ 12min/trip = 4.17

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

Resource Leveling and

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Resource levelling  Resource smoothing

Duration in days Duration in days

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 …Are projects that must be completed by an imposed date

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Given the following project network, we would like to:

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Pre and Post Resource Smoothing

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Resource Demand Levelling Techniques for Time- Constrained Projects

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2

 Scheduling of activities through use of heuristics (rules-of- thumb), according to the

CEE 5111 Lecture Notes Chapter 2