1 Project Scheduling in Civil Engineering Construction Projects

Definition:

Project scheduling in civil engineering construction projects refers

to the process of planning, organizing, and managing the sequence

and timing of tasks and activities required to complete a con-

struction project. It involves creating a timeline that outlines

when each task will start and finish, ensuring that the project is

completed on time and within budget.

Methods of Project Scheduling:

1. Critical Path Method (CPM): CPM is a widely used method for

scheduling construction projects. It identifies the critical

path, which is the longest sequence of dependent tasks that

determines the project’s overall duration. CPM helps project

managers focus on tasks that can impact the project’s com-

pletion date.

2. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT): PERT is a

probabilistic scheduling technique that considers uncertainty

in task durations. It uses three time estimates (optimistic,

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 pessimistic, and most likely) to calculate expected durations

and probabilities. PERT is suitable for projects with uncertain

task durations.

3. Gantt Charts: Gantt charts provide a visual representation of

project schedules, showing task durations and dependencies

over time. They are valuable for communication and monitor-

ing progress.

Advantages of Project Scheduling:

1. Time Management: Project scheduling helps ensure that con-

struction projects are completed on time, allowing for effi-

cient resource utilization and meeting client deadlines.

2. Resource Allocation: It facilitates the efficient allocation of

resources by identifying when and where they are needed,

preventing resource conflicts and bottlenecks.

3. Risk Management: Scheduling allows project managers to iden-

tify and manage risks by assessing the impact of delays on the

project timeline. Contingency plans can be developed based on

the schedule.
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 4. Cost Control: Effective scheduling can lead to cost savings

by minimizing idle time, reducing overtime expenses, and pre-

venting delays that could incur additional costs.

5. Improved Communication: Schedules serve as a communica-

tion tool, ensuring that all stakeholders, including the project

team, clients, and subcontractors, have a clear understanding

of the project’s timeline and milestones.

6. Performance Monitoring: Scheduling provides a baseline against

which project progress can be measured. Deviations from the

schedule can be identified and addressed promptly.

7. Efficient Decision-Making: Project managers can make informed

decisions based on the schedule, such as resource adjust-

ments, task prioritization, and risk mitigation strategies.

2 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) in Civil Engineering Con-

struction Projects:

The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a hierarchical decom-

position of a civil engineering construction project into smaller,

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manageable components or work packages. It is a fundamental

project management tool that helps organize, plan, and track all

project activities. Each level of the WBS represents progres-

sively detailed tasks, allowing for better control and management

of the project.

Example of a Work Breakdown Structure in a Civil Engineering

Construction Project:

Let’s consider a WBS for the construction of a new bridge:

Level 1: Project

1.0 Bridge Construction Project

Level 2: Major Phases

1.1 Preliminary Design Phase

1.2 Permitting and Regulatory Approval Phase

1.3 Site Preparation Phase

1.4 Foundation Construction Phase

1.5 Superstructure Construction Phase

1.6 Finishing and Testing Phase

1.7 Project Closeout Phase

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 Level 3: Preliminary Design Phase

1.1.1 Site Survey and Assessment

1.1.2 Conceptual Design

1.1.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

1.1.4 Cost Estimation

Level 3: Permitting and Regulatory Approval Phase

1.2.1 Permit Application

1.2.2 Environmental Clearances

1.2.3 Regulatory Agency Approvals

Level 3: Site Preparation Phase

1.3.1 Clearing and Grading

1.3.2 Soil Testing and Foundation Design

1.3.3 Utility Relocations

Level 3: Foundation Construction Phase

1.4.1 Pile Installation

1.4.2 Abutment Construction

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1.4.3 Pier Construction

Level 3: Superstructure Construction Phase

1.5.1 Bridge Deck Installation

1.5.2 Girder Erection

1.5.3 Substructure

Level 3: Finishing and Testing Phase

1.6.1 Pavement Installation

1.6.2 Safety Railings

1.6.3 Electrical and Lighting

1.6.4 Load Testing

Level 3: Project Closeout Phase

1.7.1 As-Built Documentation

1.7.2 Handover to Client

1.7.3 Final Inspections

1.7.4 Project Report

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 In this example, the WBS starts at the highest level (Level

1) with the entire project and progressively breaks it down into

major phases (Level 2) and further into detailed tasks (Level 3).

Each task represents a specific activity or work package required

for the construction of the bridge.

The WBS provides a clear, organized structure for project

management, making it easier to allocate resources, assign re-

sponsibilities, estimate costs, and track progress. It also helps

ensure that no essential task is overlooked during the planning

and execution of the civil engineering construction project.

3 Line of Balance (LOB) Technique

Line of balance is a method used for planning repetitive tasks.

With this approach, we figure out what resources are needed for

each step, so that the work can flow smoothly without delays, and

we can meet our goals. This technique is handy for repetitive jobs

like building many houses, tall buildings, or tunnels.

In projects where we do the same kind of work over and over,

we can save time and money by using standardized designs for dif-
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ferent parts of the job. We also make sure that the workers and

resources are scheduled in a way that keeps everything moving

steadily. This way, we can keep putting similar pieces in place one

after the other, making the most of our workers and equipment

to get things done efficiently.

The Line of Balance (LOB) method is a way to put together,

pick, understand, and show important things about a construc-

tion project from the very beginning to when it’s all done, using

pictures and timelines. It’s really good for finding problems and

figuring out what needs to be fixed right away.

LOB in Construction

• Line of Balance in Construction: In construction, ”line of bal-

ance” means that various parts of a project, like housing, in-

frastructure, and buildings, need to be built in a way that they

support each other’s needs and follow an agreed-upon sched-

ule.

• Application of LOB: Using LOB in construction means dividing

the project into different stages and carefully planning and

tracking each stage’s progress. This helps the whole project

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 stay on schedule. Milestones, which are important points in

the project, are useful here.

• Mass Construction Example: For big projects with lots of sim-

ilar work, LOB can show how much work needs to be done at

key points to meet the project’s goals. When LOB is used, two

things happen:

i Work gets done as promised.

ii Work is only done when it’s needed, so resources aren’t

wasted.

• Buffer Time: Sometimes, LOB includes extra time between

stages. This helps handle uncertainties and keeps the project

balanced in terms of resources and risks.

Scheduling LOB

The preparing a line of balance schedule, the following proce-

dures should be adopted:

• (i) Prepare a logic diagram.

• (ii) Estimate the man-hours required to complete each oper-

ation.
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 • (iii) Choose buffer times that will guard against the risk of

the interface between operations,

• (iv) Calculate the required output target in order to meet a

given project completion date.

• (v) Complete the LOB schedule. ;

• (vi) Examine the schedule and assess possible alternatives to

bring about a more ‘balanced’ schedule.

The method of construction of a proper LOB schedule is given

above. The basic approach is to determine the resources available

and calculate the rates of construction that can be achieved. Con-

sider an example to illustrate how the line of balance technique

can be used for scheduling of a residential building project, where

five buildings are to be constructed.

Advantages of LOB Techniques

1. Combining the logic of network analysis with the principles of

line of balance provides a very detailed picture of any repet-

itive project.

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 2. Reduces the amount of network planning and scheduling since

only one network is used for each type of unit.

3. Provides a simple and effective tool for programming the or-

dering and delivery of materials and subsequently their incor-

poration into the construction.

4. By monitoring progress, individual jobs that are falling behind

schedule can be easily identified and early corrective action

taken.

Solved example of LOB: Refer the link

4 Development of network

Event

In a network diagram, events symbolize significant project mile-

stones like the initiation or conclusion of tasks, marking specific

moments when a particular aspect of the project has been accom-

plished or is scheduled to be. These events are typically depicted

as circular nodes within the network diagram.

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 Merge Event: An event that represents the joint completion of

more than one activity is known as a merge event. This is shown

in Figure 1 (a)

Burst Event: An event that represents the initiation (begin-

ning) of more than one activity is known as a burst event. This is

shown in Figure 1 (b)

Figure 1: Event types

Events in the network diagram are identified by numbers. Each

event should be identified by a number higher than that of the

one allotted to its immediately preceding event to indicate the

progress of work. The numbering of events in the network dia-

gram must start from left (start of the project) to right (com-

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pletion of the project) and top to bottom. Care should be taken

that there is no duplication in the numbering.

Activities

Activities in the network diagram represent project operations

(or tasks) to be conducted. As such each activity except the

dummy activity requires resources and takes a certain amount of

time for completion. An arrow is commonly used to represent an

activity with its head indicating the direction of progress in the

project.

Activities are identified by the numbers of their starting (tail

or initial) event and ending (head, or terminal) event, for example,

an arrow (i, j) between two events; the tail event i represents

the start of the activity and the head event j represents the

completion of the activity as shown in Fig

Activity-on-Node (AON) network

In this type of precedence network, each node (or circle) rep-

resents a specific task while the arcs represent the ordering be-

tween tasks. AON network diagrams place the activities within

the nodes, and the arrows are used to indicate sequencing re-

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 Figure 2: Activity

quirements. Generally, these diagrams have no particular starting

and ending nodes for the whole project. The lack of dummy ac-

tivities in these diagrams always makes them easier to draw and

interpret.

Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) network In this type of precedence

network at each end of the activity arrow is a node (or circle).

These nodes represent points in time or instants when an activity

is starting or ending. The arrow itself represents the passage of

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time required for that activity to be performed. These diagrams

have a single beginning node from which all activities with no pre-

decessors may start. The diagram then works its way from left

to right, ending with a single ending node, where all activities with

no followers come together. Three important advantages of using

AOA are as follows:

(i) Many computer programs are based on AOA network.

(ii) AOA diagrams can be superimposed on a time scale with the

arrows drawn, the correct length to indicate the time require-

ment.

(iii) AOA diagrams give a better sense of the flow of time through-

out a project.

Rules for AOA Network Construction

Dummy (or Redundant) Activity

The following are the two cases in which the use of dummy ac-

tivity may help in drawing the network correctly, as per the vari-

ous rules.

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 (i) When two or more parallel activities in a project have the

same head and tail events, i.e. two events are connected with

more than one arrow.

(ii) When two chains of activities have a common event, yet are

completely or partly independent of each other, as shown in Figure

4. A dummy which is used in such a case, to establish proper logical

relationships, is also known as logic dummy activity.

Numerical on Network construction form given data

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Figure 3: Dummy activity for parallel activities

Figure 4: Dummy activity for proper logic

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Draw a network diagram of activities for the project.
Activity Description Predecessor Activity
A Open work order –
B Get material for X A
C Get material for Y A
D Turn X on lathe B
E Turn Y on lathe B, C
F Polish Y E

Solution

Figure 5: Network diagram for given project data

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5 Critical Path Method

The main goal of critical path analysis is to figure out how long a

whole project will take and when each part of the project should

begin and end. This helps us see if the project is going as planned.

For each task in the project, we can either know exactly how

long it will take (if we use CPM) or have a range of possible times

(if we use PERT). We use these to find out:

1. How long the entire project will take.

2. When each task can start and finish.

3. Which tasks are super important and can’t be delayed (critical

tasks).

4. How much extra time some tasks can take without slowing

down the whole project (float time).

Consider the following notations for the purpose of calculating

various times of events and activities.

• Ei = Earliest occurrence time of an event, i. This is the earli-

est time for an event to occur when all the preceding activities
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 have been completed, without delaying the entire project.

• Li = Latest allowable time of an event, i. This is the latest

time at which an event can occur without causing a delay in

project’s completion time.

• Estij = Early starting time of an activity (i, j). This is the

earliest time an activity should start without affecting the

project completion.

• Lstij = Late starting time of an activity (i, j). This is the lat-

est time an activity should start without delaying the project

completion.

• Ef tij = Early finishing time of an activity (i, j). This is the

earliest time an activity should finish without affecting the

project completion.

• Lf tij = Late finishing time of an activity (i, j). This is the lat-

est time an activity should finish without delaying the project

completion.

• tij = Duration of an activity (i, j).

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 Forward Pass Method (For Earliest Event Time)

In this method, calculations begin from the initial event 1, pro-

ceed through the events in an increasing order of event numbers

and end at the final event, say N.

At each event, its earliest occurrence time (E) and earliest

start and finish time for each activity that begins at that event

is calculated. When calculations end at the final event N, its ear-

liest occurrence time gives the earliest possible completion time

of the project.

1. Start at the Beginning: Identify the first activity in your

project network, usually the project’s initiation or starting

point.

2. Assign a Time: Assign a time value of zero to the starting

activity since it occurs at the beginning of the project.

3. Move to Immediate Successors: Move to the next set of ac-

tivities that directly follow the starting activity (immediate

successors). Calculate the earliest occurrence time for each

of these activities.

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4. Time Calculation: To calculate the earliest occurrence time

for each activity, add the duration of the preceding activity

to its earliest occurrence time. This gives you the earliest

start time for the current activity.

5. Continue Forward: Keep moving forward through the network,

calculating the earliest occurrence time for each activity based

on the earliest start times of its immediate predecessors.

6. Account for Multiple Predecessors: If an activity has multiple

immediate predecessors, choose the one with the latest ear-

liest occurrence time since you want to ensure all preceding

activities are completed before it can start.

7. Repeat Until Completion: Continue this process until you’ve

calculated the earliest occurrence time for all activities in

the project network, including the final project completion

activity.

8. Identify Critical Path: The critical path is the longest path

through the network in terms of earliest occurrence times.

Activities on the critical path have no float or slack, meaning

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 any delay in these activities will directly impact the project’s

overall duration.

Backward Pass Method (For Latest Allowable Event Time)

In this method, calculations begin from the final event N. Pro-

ceed through the events in the decreasing order of event numbers

and end at the initial event 1. At each event, latest occurrence

time ( L) and latest finish and start time for each activity that is

terminating at that event is calculated.

1. Start at the End: Begin with the last activity in your project

network, typically the project’s completion or finishing point.

2. Assign the Latest Allowable Time: Initially, assign the latest

allowable time (LAT) to the last activity. This LAT is equal

to the earliest occurrence time of the project’s completion,

which is usually the total project duration.

3. Move to Immediate Predecessors: Move to the set of activ-

ities that directly precede the current activity (immediate

predecessors). Calculate the latest allowable time for each

of these activities.

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4. Time Calculation: To calculate the latest allowable time for

each activity, subtract its duration from the LAT of the ac-

tivity it leads to. This gives you the latest start time for the

current activity without delaying the project’s completion.

5. Continue Backward: Keep moving backward through the net-

work, calculating the latest allowable time for each activity

based on the LAT of its immediate successors.

6. Account for Multiple Successors: If an activity has multiple

immediate successors, choose the one with the earliest latest

allowable time since you want to ensure all succeeding activi-

ties start as late as possible.

7. Repeat Until Starting Point: Continue this process until you’ve

calculated the latest allowable time for all activities in the

project network, including the initial project starting activity.

8. Calculate Float/Slack: The float or slack for each activity is

the difference between its latest allowable time and earliest

occurrence time. Activities with zero float are on the critical

path, meaning any delay in these activities will directly impact

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 the project’s overall duration.

Float (Slack) of an Activity and Event

The float (slack) or free time is the length of time in which a

non-critical activity and/or an event can be delayed or extended

without delaying the total project completion time.

Slack of an Event

The slack (or float) of an event is the difference between its

latest occurrence time (Li ) and its earliest occurrence time (Ei

). That is:

Event float = Li–Ei

Slack of an Activity

It is the amount of activity time that can increased or delayed

without delaying project completion time.

This float is calculated as the difference between the latest

finish time and the earliest finish time for the activity.

There are three types of floats for each non-critical activity

in a project.

(a) Total float:

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 This is the length of time by which an activity can be delayed

until all preceding activities are completed at their earliest pos-

sible time and all successor activities can be delayed until their

latest permissible time.

For each non-critical activity (i, j) the total float is equal to the

latest allowable time for the event at the end of the activity mi-

nus the earliest time for an event at the begining of the activity

minus the activity duration. That is:

Total float (T Fij ) = (Lj –Ei ) – tij = Lstij – Estij = Lf tij – Ef tij

(b) Free float:

his is the length of time by which the completion time of any

non-critical activity can be delayed without causing any delay in

its immediate successor activities. The amount of free float time

for a non-critical activity (i, j) is computed as follows:

Free float (F Fij ) = (Ej – Ei ) – tij

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 (c) Independent float:

This is the length of time by which completion time of any non-

critical activity (i, j) can be delayed without causing any delay in

its predecessor or the successor activities. Independent float

time for each non-critical activity is computed as follows:

Independent float (IFij ) = (Ej – Li) – tij = (Estij – Lstij ) – tij

The negative value of the independent float is considered to be

zero.

Critical Path

The critical path in a project is like the project’s ”to-do” list.

It’s made up of tasks that must be done in a certain order, and if

any of these tasks get delayed, the whole project will take longer.

These critical tasks are shown with a thick line on the project

plan, so everyone knows they are super important. The total time

it takes to finish all these critical tasks is what determines how

long the entire project will take.

To find the critical path:

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 • Look for tasks where the ”early finish time” (E) is the same

as the ”late finish time” (L).

• The difference between the early start time (Ei) and early

finish time (Ef tj ) of a task on the critical path is the same

as the difference between the late start time (Lsti) and late

finish time (Lj ), which is called ”tij .”

In simple terms, the critical path is like the project’s backbone,

and any delays in it can slow down the whole project.

Numerical on CPM

An established company has decided to add a new product to

its line. It will buy the product from a manufacturing concern,

package it, and sell it to a number of distributors that have been

selected on a geographical basis. Market research has already in-

dicated the volume expected and the size of sales force required.

The steps shown in the following table are to be planned.

(a) Draw an arrow diagram for this project.

(b) Indicate the critical path.

(c) For each non-critical activity, find the total and free float.

Solution
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 The forward pass method;

The backward pass method;

The complete network diagram;

The critical path in the network diagram has been shown. This

has been done by double lines by joining all those events where

E-values and L-values are equal.

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 The critical path of the project is: 1 – 2 – 5 – 6 – 9 – 10 and

critical activities are A, B, C, L and M.

The total project completion time is 25 weeks.

Earliest Time Latest Time Float
Activity ( i, j ) Duration ( t ij ) Start ( E i ) Finish ( E i + t ij ) Start ( L j – t ij ) Finish L j Total ( L j – t ij ) – E i Free ( E j – E i ) – t ij
1–3 2 0 2 2 4 2 0
1–4 13 0 13 1 14 1 0
2–6 9 6 15 8 17 2 2
2–7 2 6 8 9 11 3 0
3–4 10 2 12 4 14 2 1
4–9 6 13 19 14 20 1 1
7–8 4 8 12 11 15 3 0

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