Targeting Diamonds

e-Training on

Fundamentals of Mineral Prospecting and Exploration

(13.07.2020 to 15.07.2020)

Dr. S. Ravi, Director (G)m NCMT

Geological Survey of India Training Institute
Hyderabad

Geological Survey of India

Training Institute
Mission-V

14.07.2020
 Diamonds
• Commercial Diamonds
All that can be recovered can be sold
Practical - +1mm stones
Gem, Near Gem, Industrial, Boart
Gem avg. US$400pc, Industrial $2-5pc
•Diamond Types
By Morphology
By Quality
By Gem cuttability

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 Source Rocks

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 MANTLE PETROLOGY

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 Mantle: 68% by mass of Earth

Lherzolite:
* Olivine: 60–80
%
* Opx: 20–40 %
* Cpx: < 14 %
* Spinel and/or
garnet: 1–10 %

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 Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
(after Mitchell, 2006)

Eclogites
1. Subducted
2. Magmatic

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 Zones in the Earth’s upper mantle

GSITI Green II, H.W. & others, 2010

 PHASE TRANSITIONS IN THE UPPER
MANTLE

410 km:
Mg2SiO4 (Olivine) = Mg2SiO4 (Wadsleyite)

520 km:
Mg2SiO4 (Wadsleyite) = Mg2SiO4 (Ringwoodite)

Why does olivine assume spinel structure?

SiMg2O4 Ξ MgAl2O4

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 LOWER MANTLE DIAMOND INCLUSIONS

660 km:
Mg2SiO4 (ringwoodite) = Mg
MgXIISiVIIIO3 (Mg-Si perovskite)
+ MgO (magnesiowustite)

Mg-
wustite:
Super-deep diamond inclusions: 400 µ
• Mg-Si perovskite
• Magnesiowustite
TAPP
• TAPP (tetragonal almandine pyrope phase) (green)
: 150 µ
• Stishovite
GSITI Stachel et al., 2005
 Interior of
the Earth

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 Ferropericlase (MgFeO)
Enstite(MgFeSiO3)
Olivine (MgFeSiO4)

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 Superdeep diamond occurrences in the world
(McCammon, 2001)

Enstatite

Ferropericlas
e

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 WHAT IS 4-D LITHOSPHERIC
MAPPING?

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  Evolution of Earth’s lithosphere in space (3-D) and time (4th D)

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 Cros-section of typical cratonic lithosphere
(Pearson & Nowell, 2002)

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  A methodology based on xenoliths and
xenocrysts in kimberlites, lamproites and
basalts

 Integration of:
1. Rock types in lithospheric mantle (SCLM)
2. P–T conditions of equilibration in the SCLM
3. Geochemical signatures of mantle metasomatism
4. Petrophysical properties of large xenoliths
Note: 1 and 2 give mantle stratigraphy
because calculated pressure gives depth
information

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 XENOLITHS & XENOCRYSTS
GEOTHERMOBAROMETRY

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  Geothermometers (T calculation):
1. Garnet–clinopyroxene Fe-Mg exchange
2. Orthopyroxene-clinopyroxene solvus
3. Mn-in-garnet
4. Ni-in-garnet (trace element from LA-ICP-MS)
5. Zn-in-garnet (trace element from LA-ICP-MS)

Geobarometers (P or depth calculation):

1. Cr-in-clinopyroxene
2. Al-in-orthopyroxene

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 Xenolith geotherm

Eastern Dharwar Craton: 45 mW/m2

Implication: Deeper source of diamond
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 ASTHENOSPHERIC MELT-RELATED
METASOMATISM

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 Models of metasomatism

1. Volatile- and K-rich low viscosity melt derived from

from asthenosphere that freeze in the SCLM as veins

2. Re-enrichment of cratonic lithosphere in

several stages without direct involvement
of the asthenosphere

3. Subduction-derived melts

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 MARID-type nodule (3 mm size) from NK3 pipe

Phl

Cpx

0.2 mm

Photomicrograph (PPL)
(Nodule NK3-N1)

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 Trace element fingerprinting
(LA-ICP-MS data)
Signatures of mantle metasomatism
1. High values of Ti – Y – Zr – Ga in garnet
2. Sinosuidal REE patterns in garnet

Garnet xenocrysts from Aries after Stachel et. al , 2008

kimberlite (Griffin et al., 1999)

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 Types of metasomatising fluid / melt
1. Silicate melt
2. Carbonate melt
3. Amphibole–apatite melt

Distinct major- and trace- element signatures

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 IMPLICATION ON DIAMOND EXPLORATION

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 Metasomatism in the SCLM:
Transformation or erosion of cratonic lithospheric keels

 Asthenosphere-derived melts / fluids heat and oxidise

the surrounding lithosphere and therefore destroy
diamond

 Result in thinner, hotter and metasomatised

lithosphere

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 Depth of asthenosphere–derived melt metasomatism

> 180 km 150 km 150 km & extensive

Unresorbed Resorbed Poor diamond

diamonds diamonds potential

GSITI O’Reilly & Griffin, 1996

 KHOKHRYAKOV & PALYANOV,2007

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 Diamond Exploration Fundamentals
Diamond exploration has unique characteristics…..
♦Diamonds are not formed where they are found
♦Diamonds are sourced through volcanic pipes, called
kimberlites/lamproites
♦Exploration is about finding new mines
♦Diamond exploration is capital-intensive & high-risk

The probability of finding

economically viable
Kimberlite / Lamproite
deposits (i.e. pipes) is
inherently low…..

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Source: De Beers Group Exploration
 India & Diamonds
♦ India was the chief source of diamonds up to 18th century
and produced many historically celebrated diamonds

♦The diamond industry, though perhaps dates back to 2nd /

3rd century B.C., flourished mostly during 13th –17th
centuries A.D.

♦ Majghawan (NMDC) in Madhya Pradesh is the only Primary Source

Rock being mined in India

♦ India is the world’s largest diamond cutting centre

 Over 1 million people are employed in diamond cutting
and polishing business
 In 2012, India imported rough diamonds worth US$ 15.1 billion and
exported cut and polished diamonds worth US$ 16.69 billion
 11 out of every 12 diamonds set in jewellery worldwide are processed
in India

♦India still holds significant potential for

discovery of new diamond resources!

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Source: India Gem and Jewellery Council
 Diamond provinces of India

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 Exploring For Diamonds :
An Introduction To The exploration
Techniques Used In The Search For
Diamond Deposits

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 Exploration Strategy
A. Geological, Geophysical & Geochemical aspects

Meaningful understanding of

Upper mantle processes

Archaean – Proterozoic tectonics
Different tectono-thermal events
Deep seated fractures
Heat-flow regimes

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 B. Tools and methodologies

Database of all the known diamond occurrences and host-rocks

Characterisation of known ultrabasic / ultramafic rocks
State-of-the-art technology
Remote Sensing & Photogeological studies
Airborne & ground geophysics
Indicator mineral survey
Dedicated laboratories
Morphological studies of diamonds
Studies on diamond inclusions

c. Administrative & Financial aspects

Skilled and trained personnel

Well funded and consistent
programmes

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 (1) Programme design:
Definition of goals and target
Literature study
Geological studies
DIAMOND EXPLORATION
(Different stages involved)
(4) Prospect evaluation:
Delineation mapping
Character sampling
Micro-diamond sampling
Drilling
Bulk sampling
Leading to feasibility studies
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(2) Reconnaissance exploration:
Remote sensing
Photogeology
Airborne geophysics
Stream sediment surveys
Leading to area selection
(3) Detailed exploration:
Detailed mapping
Ground geophysics
Heavy mineral sampling
Soil sampling
Leading to prospect identification
 TOOLS FOR AREA SELECTION
• Geological maps and Radiometric age data give information as to
the antiquity of the rocks.
• Geophysical data –
Gravity and aeromagnetic - help identifying major structural
features.
Seismic tomography is a useful tool to identify the subsurface
mantle structures.
Surface heat flow indicates the nature of geothermal gradient.
• Remote sensing studies (including satellite imagery and aerial photo
interpretation, air borne geophysical surveys) are important tools,
which can be used to identify major faults cutting across the
regional trend, resultant faults, fold closures and splay faults which
form the locii of kimberlite emplacement.

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 Studies for Regional
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

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 GRAVITY MAP OF SOUTH INDIA SHOWING
KIMBERLITE – LAMPROITE LOCATIONS

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 AEROMAGNETIC MAP OF DHARWAR CRATON

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 IMAGERY OF CUDDAPAH BASIN

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 Studies for Local
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

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 Remote Sensing Studies

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 GENERALISED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF WAJRAKARUR KIMBERLITE FIELD

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 IRS 1D LISS3 Imagery of Wajrakarur Kimberlite Field

Wajrakarur
Uravakonda

GSITI
 Exploring For Diamonds :
An Introduction To The exploration
Techniques Used In The Search For
Diamond Deposits

GSITI
 Exploration Strategy
A. Geological, Geophysical & Geochemical aspects

Meaningful understanding of

Upper mantle processes

Archaean – Proterozoic tectonics
Different tectono-thermal events
Deep seated fractures
Heat-flow regimes

GSITI
 B. Tools and methodologies

Database of all the known diamond occurrences and host-rocks

Characterisation of known ultrabasic / ultramafic rocks
State-of-the-art technology
Remote Sensing & Photogeological studies
Airborne & ground geophysics
Indicator mineral survey
Dedicated laboratories
Morphological studies of diamonds
Studies on diamond inclusions

c. Administrative & Financial aspects

Skilled and trained personnel

Well funded and consistent
programmes

GSITI
 (1) Programme design:
Definition of goals and target
Literature study
Geological studies
DIAMOND EXPLORATION
(Different stages involved)
(4) Prospect evaluation:
Delineation mapping
Character sampling
Micro-diamond sampling
Drilling
Bulk sampling
Leading to feasibility studies
GSITI
(2) Reconnaissance exploration:
Remote sensing
Photogeology
Airborne geophysics
Stream sediment surveys
Leading to area selection
(3) Detailed exploration:
Detailed mapping
Ground geophysics
Heavy mineral sampling
Soil sampling
Leading to prospect identification
 TOOLS FOR AREA SELECTION
• Geological maps and Radiometric age data give information as to the
antiquity of the rocks.
• Geophysical data –
Gravity and aeromagnetic - help identifying major structural features.
Seismic tomography is a useful tool to identify the subsurface mantle
structures.
Surface heat flow indicates the nature of geothermal gradient.
• Remote sensing studies (including satellite imagery and aerial photo
interpretation, air borne geophysical surveys) are important tools,
which can be used to identify major faults cutting across the regional
trend, resultant faults, fold closures and splay faults which form the
locii of kimberlite emplacement.

GSITI
 Studies for Regional
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

GSITI
GSITI
 GRAVITY MAP OF SOUTH INDIA SHOWING
KIMBERLITE – LAMPROITE LOCATIONS

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 AEROMAGNETIC MAP OF DHARWAR CRATON

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GSITI
 IMAGERY OF CUDDAPAH BASIN

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 Studies for Local
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

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 Remote Sensing Studies

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 GENERALISED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF WAJRAKARUR KIMBERLITE FIELD

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 IRS 1D LISS3 Imagery of Wajrakarur Kimberlite Field

Wajrakarur
Uravakonda

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 IRS 1 D IMAGE OF WAJRAKARUR AREA

Wajrakarur

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 IRS 1 D IMAGE SHOWING THE FAULT HOSTING KIMBERLITES

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 Airborne Geophysical Surveys

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 Low altitude high - resolution
airborne multisensor data

•Airborne geophysics, especially magnetics,

has played an important role in diamond
exploration elsewhere in the world.

• Most kimberlites in Siberia, Canada and

lamproites in Australia were discovered by
airborne magnetic surveys.

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 Parameters of Aeromagnetic data used in kimberlite search vis-à-
vis data available
Parameters Data used AMSE Wing NGRI NGRI
world wide (Twin Otter ) 1980-81 (Heliborne
1986-87 surveys)
1998
Terrain clearance < 80 m 60 m 150 m 30m

Flight spacing <300 m 500 m 1 km 200 m

Resolution < 0.002 nT <0.002 nT 1 nT 1 nT

Noise envelope <0.1 nT <0.1 nT 1 nT -

Sampling rate 15m, 7m or < 10m - -

3.5m

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 HYEPRSPECTRAL SCANNING

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 Hyperspectral scanning is based on the
principle of recording of the strong absorption
of the EM spectrum in the specific wave length
regions (in nanometer level) characteristically
shown by the constituent minerals of the
rock material.
Kimberlites upon weathering and alteration
give rise to carbonate and clays rich in Mg

GSITI
 Multispectral and Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Involves imaging in narrow spectral bands over a contiguous spectral
range, and produce the spectra of all pixels in the scene.

In hyperspectral RS data that interval narrows to 5-10 nanometers.

Thus, we can subdivide the interval between 380 and 2500 µm into
217 intervals, each approximately 10 nanometers (0.01 µm) in width.

GSITI
GSITI
 Exploring For Diamonds :
An Introduction To The exploration
Techniques Used In The Search For
Diamond Deposits

GSITI
 Exploration Strategy
A. Geological, Geophysical & Geochemical aspects

Meaningful understanding of

Upper mantle processes

Archaean – Proterozoic tectonics
Different tectono-thermal events
Deep seated fractures
Heat-flow regimes

GSITI
 B. Tools and methodologies

Database of all the known diamond occurrences and host-rocks

Characterisation of known ultrabasic / ultramafic rocks
State-of-the-art technology
Remote Sensing & Photogeological studies
Airborne & ground geophysics
Indicator mineral survey
Dedicated laboratories
Morphological studies of diamonds
Studies on diamond inclusions

c. Administrative & Financial aspects

Skilled and trained personnel

Well funded and consistent
programmes

GSITI
 (1) Programme design:
Definition of goals and target
Literature study
Geological studies
DIAMOND EXPLORATION
(Different stages involved)
(4) Prospect evaluation:
Delineation mapping
Character sampling
Micro-diamond sampling
Drilling
Bulk sampling
Leading to feasibility studies
GSITI
(2) Reconnaissance exploration:
Remote sensing
Photogeology
Airborne geophysics
Stream sediment surveys
Leading to area selection
(3) Detailed exploration:
Detailed mapping
Ground geophysics
Heavy mineral sampling
Soil sampling
Leading to prospect identification
 TOOLS FOR AREA SELECTION
• Geological maps and Radiometric age data give information as to the
antiquity of the rocks.
• Geophysical data –
Gravity and aeromagnetic - help identifying major structural features.
Seismic tomography is a useful tool to identify the subsurface mantle
structures.
Surface heat flow indicates the nature of geothermal gradient.
• Remote sensing studies (including satellite imagery and aerial photo
interpretation, air borne geophysical surveys) are important tools, which
can be used to identify major faults cutting across the regional trend,
resultant faults, fold closures and splay faults which form the locii of
kimberlite emplacement.

GSITI
 Studies for Regional
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

GSITI
GSITI
 GRAVITY MAP OF SOUTH INDIA SHOWING
KIMBERLITE – LAMPROITE LOCATIONS

GSITI
 AEROMAGNETIC MAP OF DHARWAR CRATON

GSITI
GSITI
 IMAGERY OF CUDDAPAH BASIN

GSITI
 Studies for Local
Targeting of Diamond Deposits

GSITI
 Remote Sensing Studies

GSITI
 GENERALISED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF WAJRAKARUR KIMBERLITE FIELD

GSITI
 IRS 1D LISS3 Imagery of Wajrakarur Kimberlite Field

Wajrakarur
Uravakonda

GSITI
 IRS 1 D IMAGE OF WAJRAKARUR AREA

Wajrakarur

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 Airborne Geophysical Surveys

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 Low altitude high - resolution
airborne multisensor data

•Airborne geophysics, especially magnetics,

has played an important role in diamond
exploration elsewhere in the world.

• Most kimberlites in Siberia, Canada and

lamproites in Australia were discovered by
airborne magnetic surveys.

GSITI
 Parameters of Aeromagnetic data used in kimberlite search vis-à-
vis data available
Parameters Data used AMSE Wing NGRI NGRI
world wide (Twin Otter ) 1980-81 (Heliborne
1986-87 surveys)
1998
Terrain clearance < 80 m 60 m 150 m 30m

Flight spacing <300 m 500 m 1 km 200 m

Resolution < 0.002 nT <0.002 nT 1 nT 1 nT

Noise envelope <0.1 nT <0.1 nT 1 nT -

Sampling rate 15m, 7m or < 10m - -

3.5m

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GSITI
GSITI
GSITI
 HYEPRSPECTRAL SCANNING

GSITI
 Hyperspectral scanning is based on the
principle of recording of the strong absorption
of the EM spectrum in the specific wave length
regions (in nanometer level) characteristically
shown by the constituent minerals of the
rock material.
Kimberlites upon weathering and alteration
give rise to carbonate and clays rich in Mg

GSITI
 Multispectral and Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Involves imaging in narrow spectral bands over a contiguous spectral
range, and produce the spectra of all pixels in the scene.

In hyperspectral RS data that interval narrows to 5-10 nanometers.

Thus, we can subdivide the interval between 380 and 2500 µm into
217 intervals, each approximately 10 nanometers (0.01 µm) in width.

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GSITI
 Case Study From India
De Beers India Pvt. Ltd - Hy Map airborne scanner
Flight Altitude: 2500m to 5,000m A.G.L. and can collect data
from up to 2200 km2 per survey day.
System Assembly:
Consists of three spectrometers mounted on an optical bench
beneath which is a two facet axe head mirror assembly. As the
mirrors rotate, light from each pixel is focused onto the detectors
via mirrors, a collimator, lenses, and diffraction gratings that
distribute the light across the detector arrays.
Each detector has 32 elements resulting in the generation of 32
images per spectrometer at 15nm intervals.

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 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
IFOV: 2.5 m along track, 2.0 m across track
FOV: 61.3o (512 pixels)
GIFOV: 5m -10m (at flying heights 2,500m to 5,000 AGL)
SPECTRAL BANDS: 96 - BAND WIDTH: 15nm
•VNIR: ~530 - 1010 nm (0.53 – 1.01 µm)
•SWIR1:~1400 - 1995 nm (1.4 – 1.995 µm)
•SWIR2:~2014 - 2488 nm (2.014 – 2.488 µm)
SPECTRAL RESOLUTION - ~15nm
SNR: > 500:1 ( 50% reflector at noon)
DATA COLLECTION RATE: 3 GIGABYTE PER HOUR
Daily Coverage: 1200 km2 – 2500 km2 (5m - 10m pixels)
Geometric Correction: - +/- 20m (C-MIGITS IMU/GPS)
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 Results
De Beers India Pvt. Ltd - Hy Map airborne scanner

Heliborne hyperspectral Scanning

Granite gneiss terrain in the southern part of Gulbarga
district Karnataka.
Western extension of the hitherto known Narayanpet
Kimberlite Field.
Regolith comprises rock fragments, clay and calcareous
concretions.
Mg-clay that have a strong 2,300 nm absorption feature.
17 kimberlite intrusions out of 28 located by the company are
through Hyperspectral scanning

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 INDICATOR MINERAL SURVEYS
by stream sediment sampling

Principal method employed by GSI

with success

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 Diagnostic Characters of Kimberlite Indicator Minerals
(KIM’s)

• Resistant to weathering
• Dispersed into surface environment
• Transported over considerable distance
• Unique chemistry

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 General Characteristics of the Indicator Minerals

Mineral Composition Colour H S.G.

Garnet Mg3Al2(SiO4)3 Orange to red, 6.5 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.3

purple to pale lilac,
mauve, rarely green
Picro- FeTiO3 with Black to grey-brown 5–6 4.5 – 5.0
ilmenite chromium
Chromite FeCr2O4 Brown to black 5.5 4.5 – 4.8

Chrome- CaMg(Si2O6) Bright green to 5–6 3.2 – 3.6

diopside with chromium emerald green

Zircon ZrSiO4 Colourless, yellow, 7.5 4.7

honey coloured,
pink, reddish-brown
and grey
Diamond Carbon Colourless, shades 10 3.52
of yellow, brown,
often fancy
coloured.
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2 SiO4 Shades of green, 6–7 3.2 – 4.3
pale-yellow to pale-
brown
Phlogopite KMg3(AlSi3)O10 Bronze, reddish 2.5 – 3 2.78 _
(OH,F)2 brown 2.85

(H: Hardness; S.G.: Specific gravity)

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 Drainage Map of Gadwal -Pebberu Area(56H/16 &57E/13)
showing Stream sediment sample locations

GADWAL PEBBERU

Krishna.R

CGK-2
CGK-1

Blank sample

Cr-pyrope
Picro-ilmenite
Tungabhadra.R Cr-spinel
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 Trap Sites for Heavy Minerals

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 GERRYTZ JIG
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 MANTLE XENOCRYSTIC MINERAL FROM CHAGAPURAM KIMBERLITE

Cr-pyrope Cr-spinel

Eclogitic
garnet
Picro-ilmenite
Cr-diopside

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 De Beers Mineral Processing
Lab, Bangalore

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 KIMBERLITE INDICATOR MINERAL CHEMISTRY
Garnet Spinel

Pyroxene Ilmenite
N=7

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 Drainage Map of Chagapuram Area(56H/16 &57E/13)
showing concentration of Cr-pyropes

CGK-2

CGK-1

Cr-pyropes
>50
>50
>25

>10

>5
<5
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 Kimberlite WELL SECTION
EXPOSING GRANITE -
KIMBERLITE CONTACT

~6 m

Granite

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 WELL SECTION
EXPOSING
KIMBERLITE

KIMBERLITE

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 SURFACE EXPRESSION OF MALDAKAL KIMBERLITE

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 IRS-1D IMAGERY SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF KIMBERLITES
AND ASSOCIATED FRACTURE SYSTEM OF SIDDANAPALLI –
CHAGAPURAM AREAS

SK-1
SK-2

SK-3 PENCHUKULAPAD
SIDDANAPALLI CGK-4

MALDAKAL

CGK-3

CGK-2 CHAGAPURAM
CGK-1

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 Kimberlite CLASS-II PIPE Lamproite

Generalised Model of Kimberlite & Lamproite Intrusions

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 WAJARAKARUR KIMBERLITE FIELD

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 Pipe-12 : A macrocrystal hypabyssal kimberlite

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 Globular segregations within Chigicherla kimberlite (CC-5)

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 Macrocrystal hypabyssal texture related to root zone facies

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 Pelletal texture related to diatreme zone facies

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 CHAGAPURAM PYROCLASTIC KIMBERLITES

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 Geological Survey of India Training Institute
Hyderabad

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