Generation & Detection of X-Rays

Jake Oxley
Objective
The goals of the experiment were to investigate the production of x-rays, to measure the
full spectrum of an x-ray source using Bragg diffraction, to calculate energy values of x-ray
peaks for copper that are reasonably close to accepted values and values calculated by Moseley’s
law, and to understand the physics behind discrete x-ray lines.
Background
A modern setup for the production of x-rays is not much different than one used in the
1895 when x-rays were first discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen. It consists of a cathode, heated by
an AC voltage, and an anode, in this experiment copper. A DC voltage either 20kV-30kV is
applied between the cathode and anode, and the electrons in the cathode are accelerated towards
the anode, until they are suddenly stopped.
There are two physical processes that produce x-rays here, and both involve the
interactions of the energetic electrons hitting the copper atoms. First, the copper nucleus causes
the electron to change direction very suddenly (~1ps), and this continuous acceleration produces
x-rays. This process is known as bremsstrahlung, or breaking radiation. Second, the energetic
electrons can actually “knock off” the copper atom’s electrons, most likely the K shell electrons.
This causes other electrons in the atom to “jump” down, and this creates an x-ray, one that is
characteristic of the emission lines of copper atoms.
Just like visible light can be scattered by diffraction through a slit or a prism, x-rays can
be diffracted as well, using a crystal. Because of the structure of the crystal, constructive
interference can occur if the angle of the x-rays that satisfy the Bragg condition
n λ=2 d sin θ
Where ‘n’ is the order of Bragg reflection. For angles that do not satisfy this equation,
destructive appearance occurs, and only background radiation is detected.
Experimental Procedures
To begin, a lithium fluoride crystal was placed inside a TEL-X-OMETER #580M and
secured by screwing in a clamp. A 1mm slit was placed in front of a Geiger tube that would
detect x-rays that pass through. The device was then set to 30kV, and the power was switched
on. Attached to the TEL-X-OMETER was a monitor which functioned as a Geiger counter and
delivered the number of signals recorded by the Geiger tube in a 10 second period. A speaker
attached gave audio feedback to the signals as well. First, a full scan of angles was done to
record the approximate location of the four peaks. Then, measurements were made, recording the
number of counts in 10 seconds for every ½ degree, from 6 to 55 degrees. When the peaks were
found, measurements were repeated starting with the angle before the peak, with the interval now
one measurement per 1/8 degree.
 Afterwards, measurements were repeated, with a 3mm slit instead of a 1mm one. Only
the Ka peak was measured for the 3mm slit. The measurements were then repeated again with a
1mm slit and the device set to 20kV
Data & Analysis
After data was taken and the peaks identified, graphing software Kaleidagraph was used
to create a Gaussian fit for the peaks, so the centroid angle could be identified. Below is the data
and the Gaussian fit for the Ka peak for n=1
Now that the angle of the peak has been identified (44.525/2 = 22.26), we can use the Bragg
condition to calculate the wavelength, frequency, and energy of these x-rays.
2d sin θ
λ=
n
hc hcn
E= =
λ 2 d sin θ

(6.63 ×10−34)(3 ×10 8)(1)

E= =1.306 ×10−15 J
2(2.01 ×10−10)sin(22.26)
Or 8.15keV. This is close to the order calculated by Moseley’s law, 8.05 keV. For the same
calculation using the Kb peak, we get 9.06keV, further away but still close to the 8.91 value.
Finally, by modifying n to 2 and entering the centroids of the n = 2 Ka and Kb peaks into the
above equation, we get 8.08 and 8.93kev respectively, close to accepted values, showing that
they are certainly Bragg peaks.
When a 3mm slit was used to find the Kb, we found that the detector was much more
sensitive and was reporting higher counts all around. Other than finding a centroid one degree
away than what was expected, this was the only change – we did not see the expected change in
resolution.
Conclusions
Overall, the experiment showed practically how x-rays are generated, and allowed us to
see firsthand the creation of an x-ray spectrum and the different physical processes that produce
the spectrum. The lack of a change of resolution for the 3mm slit, and the lack of a real
bremsstrahlung “peak” is concerning, but other than that the experiment went well.
Appendix