Mauryan Period

(322 BCE to 187 BCE)

Five important features –

1. First pan-India Empire in ancient India. It

extended from Bangladesh to
Afghanistan, from foothills of Himalayas in
Nepal to Karnataka (and not extreme
South India)
a. Source – location of Ashokan
inscriptions.
b. Second Major Rock Edict –
Ashoka mentions Chola, Chera
and Pandya as his neighbours
2. Highly centralized Empire with the
concentration of power in the hands of the
king
a. The king ruled with the help of
large bureaucracy
b. Bureaucracy was paid in cash –
suggests a strong economic base
c. Terms used for coins – Pana,
Karshapana
d. Mauryan era – the maximum
number of punch-marked coins in
the ancient period
3. Ashoka – the famous king known for his
policy of Dhamma – belonged to the
Mauryan period
4. This period represents the earliest period
of stone art and architecture in historical
India
5. First time – inscriptions in large number
that act as an important source for the
reconstruction of history

Ashokan edicts at Junagarh, Gujarat

 Punch-marked coins (PMC)

The first documented coinage is deemed to start with 'Punch

Marked' coins issued between the 7th-6th century BC and
1stcentury AD. These coins are called 'punch-marked' coins
because of their manufacturing technique. Mostly made of
silver, these bear symbols, each of which was punched on
the coin with a separate punch. Issued initially by merchant
Guilds and later by States, the coins represented a trade
currency belonging to a period of intensive trade activity and urban development. They are broadly
classified into two periods: the first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small local states) and the
second period (attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period). The motifs found on these coins were mostly
drawn from nature like the sun, various animal motifs, trees, hills etc. and some were geometrical
symbols.

Thousands of punch-marked coins have been found all over India, though there were some regional
differences. The coins are also found buried in hoards, indicating that they were viewed as a form of
wealth. Ancient texts refer to early coins as karshapana, masha, pana and purana. Silver coins were
generally called purana or dharana.

Source – Arthashastra
(Author – Chanakya/Kautilya)

The Arthashastra summarizes the political thoughts of Kautilya. This book was lost for many centuries
until a copy of it, written on palm leaves, was rediscovered in India in 1904 CE. The book contains detailed
information about specific topics that are relevant for rulers who wish to run an effective government.
Diplomacy and ancient Indian warfare (including military tactics) are the two points treated in most detail
but the work also includes
recommendations on law, prisons,
taxation, irrigation, agriculture,
mining, fortifications, coinage,
manufacturing, trade,
administrations, diplomacy, and
spies.

The ideas expressed by Kautilya

in the Arthashastra are completely practical and unsentimental. Kautilya openly writes about controversial
topics such as assassinations, when to kill family members, how to manage secret agents, when it is
useful to violate treaties, and when to spy on ministers. It is fair to mention that Kautilya's writing is not
consistently without principles in that he also writes about the moral duty of the king.
Kautilya's Arthashastra depicts a bureaucratic welfare state, in fact some kind of socialized monarchy, in
which the central government administers the details of the economy for the common good. The
Arthashastra offers a list with the seven components of the state: (Saptanga Theory)

 सख
ु स्य मल
ू ं धममः । धममस्य मल
ू ं अर्मः ।
the king
 the ministers
 the country (population, geography and natural अर्मस्य मल
ू ं राज्यं । राज्यस्य मल
ू ं इन्द्रिय
resources) जयः । इन्द्रियाजयस्य मल
ू ं विनयः ।
 fortification विनयस्य मल ू ं िद्ध
ृ ोपसेिा॥
 treasury
The root of happiness is Dharma
 army
(ethics, righteousness), the root of
 allies
Dharma is Artha (economy, polity),
Kautilya goes on to explain each of these individual components the root of Artha is right governance,
and stresses the importance of strengthening these elements in the root of right governance is
one’s kingdom and weakening them in the enemies’ states by victorious inner-restraint, the root of
using spies and secret agents. Here are a few important aspects victorious inner-restraint is humility,
– the root of humility is serving the
aged. – Kautilya
1. Idea of Kingship
It is the first available Indian book on statecraft. Kautilya recommends a unified empire under the king
whose word is the law. At the same time, he cautions the king to use the power for the welfare of common
people. He says that it is in the welfare of the people lies the happiness of the king.
Praja sukhe sukham rajnah
Although king’s word is the law unto itself and it is not bound by Prajanam ca hite hitani
tradition or norms, he should be advised by a trustworthy group Natma priye hitam rajnah
of ministers (mahamatras and amatyas). Prajanam tu priyam hitam
2. Economy and Taxation (In the happiness of the subjects’ lies
the happiness of the king and in what
According to Chanakya, no empire can survive without a strong is beneficial to the subjects is his own
treasury. Thus, the king should promote three important benefit. What is dear to himself is not
economic activities – agriculture, industry and trade – and beneficial to the king, what is dear to
exploit the revenue from it. For such revenue collection, various subjects is beneficial to him)
adhyakashas (superintendents) be appointed. Chanakya refers
to many adhyakshas, more than two dozens of them are listed.

 Sutradhyaksha –cotton and textile industry

 Lohadhyaksha – iron
 Shulkadhyaksha – octroi and tax
 Sitadhyaksha – agriculture (increasing cultivation)
Arthashastra stipulates restraint on taxes imposed, fairness, the amounts and how tax increases should
is implemented. It states that taxes should only be collected from ripened economic activity, and should
not be collected from early, unripe stages of economic activity. Tax was exempted in cases of famine,
epidemic, and settlement into new pastures previously uncultivated and if damaged during a war. New
public projects such as
irrigation and water works Kautilya on Forests

were exempt from taxes for five years. Arthashastra states that forests be
protected and recommends that the
3. Foreign Policy – Mandala Theory state treasury be used to feed
One of the most interesting ideas presented by Kautilya is the animals such as horses and
“Mandala theory of interstate relations”. A mandala is a elephants that are too old for work,
schematic visual representation of the universe, which is a sick or injured. However, Kautilya
common artistic expression in many Asian cultures. Kautilya also recommends that wildlife that is
explains that, if we can imagine our kingdom in the centre of a damaging crops should be restrained
circular mandala, then the area surrounding our kingdom should with state resources. He
be considered our enemies’ territory. The circle surrounding our recommends that the
enemies’ territories belongs to our enemies’ enemies, who Superintendent of Forest Produce
should be considered our allies since we will share many appointed by the state for each forest
interests with them. The circle surrounding our enemies’ zone be responsible for maintaining
enemies' territory will be the allies of our enemies. Kautilya then the health of the forest, protecting
goes on analyzing twelve levels of concentric circles and offers forests to assist wildlife such as
detailed advice on how to deal with each state according to the elephants (hastivana), but also
layer they belong to in the mandala construct. producing forest products to satisfy
economic needs. The Arthashastra
The various types of foreign policy are also explained in the also reveals that the Mauryas
Arthashastra: peace, war, neutrality, preparing for war, seeking designated specific forests to protect
protection and duplicity (pursuing war and peace at the same supplies of timber, as well as lions
time with the same kingdom). and tigers, for skins.

4. Intelligence
Kautilya puts lot of emphasis on intelligence. The most important requirement of the king is the safety of
his own person. Thus, numerous spies are to be appointed at various places to get information from all
the sources. That’s how a king should rule.
 Source – Indica
Author – Megasthenes (Greek governor at the court of Chandragupta for six years)

The oldest and most comprehensive record we have on India

comes from Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador from the
court of the Seleucid Emperor to that of Chandragupta Maurya.
He wrote the Indica, a description of India, based on his sojourn.
Megasthenes was a companion of Alexander of Macedon on his
short-lived invasion of North Western India. On the
establishment of friendly relations between Chandragupta and
Seleucus, he was sent as an ambassador to Chandragupta’s
court by the latter. Sandrocottus has been mentioned by him in
the Indica and has been identified with Chandragupta Maurya,
placing the book squarely in fourth century BCE.

The major faults of Megasthenes’ work were mistakes in details,

an uncritical acceptance of Indian folklore, and a tendency to idealize Indian culture by the standards of
Greek philosophy. There are many marvellous stories in the Indica with gold digging ants, one-eyed men,
a paradise of Hyperboreans located in India, ferocious dogs which could capture or kill lions, dog-headed
men, one-horned horses and the miraculous spring “Silas” in which nothing could float.

Megasthenes has narrated many observation in his book Indica. Two things are important to us here.

 Description of Pataliputra – It is surrounded by a massive wooden wall, which has number of

towers and gates for protection. It is governed by a board of 30 members divided into 6
committees of 5 members each. Each committee is assigned a different part of the administration.
 Social comment – Megasthenes says that people are divided into different categories who neither
inter-marry nor inter-dine. Society was thus said to be divided into seven classes, according to
the Indica; the sophists or philosophers, overseers, farmers, herders, artisans, soldiers and
councillors. Later, historians have tried to correlate this to “caste” in India but this suffers from
some problems.
Another controversy is, according to Megasthenes, Indians did not know the art of writing. However, this
is in contrast to statements by Nearchus, the Admiral of Alexander, about writing in India and the evidence
of Ashokan inscriptions, Indica’s own descriptions of milestones along the royal roads and records of
births and deaths.

Over time, the book itself was lost. However, Greek and Roman writers— Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian,
Eratosthenes, Pliny and many others— have quoted from his book over millennia. Its fragments lay
scattered which were later collected and published.
 Source – Ashokan Inscriptions
The earliest inscriptions found in the country issued by the king himself.
Ashoka issued these inscriptions to propagate the policy of dhamma i.e.
the policy of love and peace. These inscriptions are in the form of edicts
(royal orders).

 Ashokan edicts are divided into three categories

o Major Rock Edicts – 14 in total
o Minor Rock Edicts – 2 or 3 in number
o Pillar Edicts – less than 10
 Language – Prakrit in India, while local languages were used
outside India. (eg. Kandhahar inscription is bilingual Greek +
Aramaic, Lampak inscription only in Aramaic). (Note – Although
Ashoka was Buddhist, he didn’t use Pali for inscriptions) The first known inscription by
 Script – it is the earliest reference to script in historical India. Ashoka, the Kandahar
Ashoka used Brahmi script in India while in northwest he used Bilingual Rock Inscription, in
Kharoshthi script. Kharoshthi is written from right to left while Greek and in Aramaic,
Brahmi is written from left to right. written in the 10th year of his
reign (260 BCE)

Major Rock Edicts Locations Minor Rock Edicts Locations

As centuries passed, the knowledge of Brahmi was gradually lost and nobody could read the inscription.
In 1837 finally it could be read again. It is when James Princep of East India Company deciphered the
script. Still, people didn’t know who ordered these edicts, as the king’s name is not mentioned in the
inscription. The king is known only through the title – Devanampiya, Piyadasi. This puzzle was finally
resolved in 1915 when an inscription found in Maski (Karnataka) where Ashoka is mentioned. It was then
the whole history of Ashoka unfolded.
Some Quick facts –

 Largest Ashokan Inscription – Major Rock Edict No 13. It is the

inscription that mentions conquest of Kalinga by Ashoka and his
later repentance. Here he mentions his policy of Dhamma and
abjuration of the policy of war.
 Bhabhru Edict – In this Ashoka says he has faith in Buddha,
Dhamma and Sangha. It gives a clear indication that Ashoka was
a follower of Buddhism. It is the only one of its kind, describing
Buddhist scriptures recommended by Ashoka for study. This edict
was the basis for the efforts at deciphering Brahmi, led by James
Prinsep in 1837.
 Allahabad Inscription – Mention of queen Karuvaki and son
Tivala. Here, it is said that Karuvaki was the wife of Ashoka. It is
called as Queen’s Edict.
 Barabar Hills rock-cut cave (near Gaya) inscription – Here the
inscription indicates that Ashoka donated this cave to Ajivika sect.
It thus indicates Ashoka’s tolerant policy. The Allahabad pillar of Ashoka,
erected by Ashoka. It is
particularly notable for
containing later inscriptions
attributed to the Gupta emperor
Samudragupta (4th century
CE). Also engraved on the
stone are inscriptions by the
Mughal emperor Jahangir,
from the 17th century.

Ashoka's Edict at Maski, Raichur district, Karnataka. This Edict

Confirmed the Name Ashoka for "Devanampiya Piadassi"
 Translation of the 13th Major Rock Edict

When king Devanampriya Priyadarsin had been anointed eight years, (the country of) the Kalingas
was conquered by (him). One hundred and fifty thousand in number were the men who were deported
thence, one hundred thousand in number were those who were slain there, and many times as many
those who died.

After that, now that (the country of) the Kalingyas has been taken, Devanampriya (is devoted) to a
zealous study of morality, to the love of morality, and to the instruction (of people) in morality. This is
the repentance of Devanampriya on account of his conquest of (the country of) the Kalingyas. For,
this is considered very painful and deplorable by Devanampriya, that, while one is conquering an
unconquered (country), slaughter, death, and deportation of people (are taking place) there,

But the following is considered even more deplorable than this by Devanampriya. (To) the Brahmanas
or Sramanas, or other sects or householders/ who are living there, (and) among whom the following
are practised: obedience to those who receive high pay, obedience to mother and father, obedience to
elders, proper courtesy to friends, acquaintances, companions, and relatives, to slaves and servants,
(and) firm devotion, to these then happen injury or slaughter or deportation of (their) beloved ones. Or
if there are then incurring misfortune the friends, acquaintances, companions, and relatives of those
whose affection (for the latter) is undiminished, although they are (themselves) well provided for, this
(misfortune) as well becomes an injury to those (persons) themselves.

This is shared by all men and is considered deplorable by Devanampriya.

There is no country where these (two) classes, (viz.) the Brahmanas and the Sramanas, do not exist,
except among the Yona; and there is no (place) in any country where men are not indeed attached to
some sect.

Therefore even the hundredth part or the thousandth part of all those people who were slain, who
died, and who were deported at that time when (the country of) the Kalingas was taken, (would) now
be considered very deplorable by Devanampriya.

.......desires towards all beings ..... self-control,

impartiality, (and) kindness.

But this by Devanampriya, viz, the conquest by

morality.

And this (conquest) has been won repeatedly by

Devanampriya both [here] and among all (his)
borderers, even as far as at (the distance of) six
hundred yojanas where the Yona king named
Antiyoga (is ruling), and beyond this Antiyoga, (where) four kings (are ruling), (viz, the king) named
Tulamaya, (the king) named Antekina, (the king) named Maka, (and the king) named Alikyashudala,
(and) likewise towards the south, (where) the Chodas and Pandyas (are ruling), as far as Tamraparni.
Likewise here in the king's territory, among the Greeks (Yonas) and Kambojas, among the Nabhakas
and Nabhapanktis, among the Bhojas and Pitinikyas, among the Andhras and Paladas, everywhere
(people) are conforming to Devanampriya's instruction in morality.

Even those to whom the envoys of Devanampriya do not go, having heard of the duties of morality,
the ordinances, (and) the instruction in morality of Devanampriya, are conforming to morality and will
conform to (it).

This conquest, which has been won by this everywhere; causes the feeling of satisfaction. Firm
becomes this satisfaction, (viz.) the satisfaction at the conquest by morality.

But this satisfaction is indeed of little (consequence). Devanampriya thinks that only the fruits in the
other (world) are of great (value).

And for the following purpose has this rescript on morality been written, (viz,) in order that the sons
(and) great-grandsons (who) may be (born) to me, should not think that a fresh conquest ought to be
made; (that), if a conquest does please them, they should take pleasure in mercy and light
punishments; and (that) they should regard the conquest by morality as the only (true) conquest.

This (conquest bears fruit) in this world (and) in the other world. And let all (their) pleasure be the
pleasure in exertion. For this (bears fruit) in this world (and) in the other world.
 Policy of Dhamma
Even though it was Chandragupta who, with the help of Chanakya, overthrew Nanda dynasty, established
Mauryan dynasty and extended it to the subcontinental empire by waging wars, it is Ashoka who is of
more significance to us who tried to win over the people with the policy of love and peace.

What is Dhamma?

It is essentially based on four principles.

1. Abjuration of anger, pride, jealousy, cruelty and imbibe love, peace, charity, liberality.
2. Respecting All – People should respect all those who come into contact everyday – parents,
siblings, friends, servants as well as Brahmins and Shramans.
(Brahmanas – people who survive on daan and dakshina out of rituals and ceremonies
Shramans – wandering monks like Jainas, Buddhists and Ajiikas)
3. Religious toleration – people should respect all religions and not criticize any religion. To maintain
religious peace in the country, Ashoka also appointed religious offiers called Dhamma-
mahamattas. Their job was to inform him of the religious situation.
4. Ahmisa – Ashoka banned violent and vulgar rituals like the large-scale slaughter of animals and
drinking. Some scholars believed that this affected the livelihood of Brahmanas but in reality
Ashoka never enforced any blanket ban. He allowed a few animals to be killed even in the royal
kitchen.
Was it Buddhism?

Since Dhamma technically means Buddhist doctrine and Ashoka was himself a Buddhist, many scholars
believe that Ashoka was trying to spread Buddhism through a different way, form and style. But it is not
true. Because Ashoka never used any Buddhist doctrine while propagating Dhamma (like four noble
truths, eight-fold path, mahaparinirvana). He didn’t even refer to Buddha. His focus seems rather more
on propagating a universal code of ethical conduct, which could be followed by everybody without
reservations. It is actually an essence of all religions in which there was no god, no ritual, no ceremonies.
It is said that it was his own invention.

Romila Thapar believes that it was a clever move on part of Ashoka to hold together a vast empire
consisting of many ethnic communities with many traditions. Had Ashoka favoured any one religion, there
could be political turmoil. To avoid that, Ashoka had to follow a policy that would be acceptable to all.
Ashoka rather used the policy of Dhamma as a cementing force to hold the vast and varied empire.

Ashoka was not propagating Buddhism. If one looks at Ashoka as a person, he was a Buddhist. But as
a king, he respected all religions.

How did Ashoka spread his Dhamma?

1. Hunting trips and pilgrimages (dhamma-yatras) – meeting local people, interacting with them and
convince them of principles of dhamma personally.

2. Officers like Pradeshika (district heads), Rajukas (revenue officers with judicial powers), Ayuktas
(accounts officers) – all were asked to appraise people of dhamma principles
3. Inscription of Dhamma on pillars and located them on important places so that people read and follow
them.

Dhamma and the Decline of Maurya

No sooner after Ashoka, the Mauryan empire declined. Many scholars believe that Ashoka was
responsible for the decline, due to his policy of peace. For three decades he waged no war and thus the
army became weak. Later on when invaders came from north-west, the army couldn’t stop them. So,
Ashoka’s policy of dhamma was responsible for the decline of the empire.

However, this is not accepted. The entire country was already conquered and there was nothing left.
Entire subcontinent was united. Also, nobody really attacked him from outside. Moreover, the policy of
peace didn’t mean that he disbanded the army. In his own inscription, he mentions the army being ready
always.

The second argument is that by banning certain rituals and practices, he antagonized Brahmins. It
reflected in the murder of the last Mauryan king Brihadrath by his own commander in chief Pushyamitra
Shunga (who was a Brahmin). This view is not acceptable as the it is known that the assassination of the
king was not because of a religious reason but to further the political ambition of the individual.

So, today we don’t hold Ashoka responsible for the decline of the Mauryan empire. There are other
reasons – weak successors. Since it was a large unified empire, it required an efficient and strong king
at the top to function. Unfortunately, there was no such king after Ashoka. So, as the centre became
weak, the distant provincial governors got the opportunity to assert independence and gradually the
empire disintegrated.
 Mauryan Art and Architecture
Mauryan period marks the earliest stone art and architecture in India. Since this art was promoted by the
king, it is also known as crown art or royal art. It is generally studied under different categories – Stupas,
Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Caves.

1. Stupas
Ashoka was the first person to introduce stupa architecture in a massive way. Stupas are semi-circular
dome-shaped structure raised over some relics of Buddha or important Buddhist monks. These are
sacred sites. Buddhist go around them chanting Mantras. Chaityas were the place of worship in
Buddhism, whereas Viharas were dwelling place of monks.

Ashoka built many stupas but two are very important – Sanchi and Bharhut (both in MP). Ashoka’s stupas
were made in bricks but later they were dressed with stone and decorated with sculptures – during
Shunga and Satvahana period.

Ashokan Era Brick Stupa

Typical Stupa Nomenclature as it evolved later

According to legend, King Ashoka, who was the first king to embrace Buddhism, created 84,000 stupas
and divided the Buddha’s ashes among them all. While this is an exaggeration (and the stupas were built
by Ashoka some 250 years after the Buddha’s death), it is clear that Ashoka was responsible for building
many stupas all over northern India and the other territories under the Mauryan Dynasty in areas now
known as Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.

One of Ashoka's goals was to provide new converts with the tools to help with their new faith. In this,
Ashoka was following the directions of the Buddha who, prior to his death (parinirvana), directed that
stupas should be erected in places other than those associated with key moments of his life so that “the
hearts of many shall be made calm and glad.” Ashoka also built stupas in regions where the people might
have difficulty reaching the stupas that contained the Buddha’s ashes.
 2. Pillars
Ashokan pillars not only carry inscriptions of dhamma, but also exhibit prominent Mauryan art. These
pillars are made of sandstone quarried from Chunar in UP. These are huge pillars, monolithic and buff
coloured. Each one is in the range of 50 tons in weight and some are more than 50 feet in height. Carrying
such huge monolithic pillars from one place to all across India and erecting them required a high level of
engineering skills.

There are three parts of each pillar – shaft, abacus, capital.

 Shaft – circular pillar tapering at the top

 Abacus – slab on the shaft, sometimes squarish while other
times roundish. This slab is carved with animal sculptures and
vegetal pattern relief.
 Capital – animal on top of the abacus. Most important capital is
the lion capital of Sarnath pillar where Buddha gave his first
sermon. Four animals separated with the chakra are sculpted
on its abacus – bull, horse, elephant, and lion. Another
important capital is the bull capital of Rampurva pillar (Bihar).
Another significant feature of Ashokan pillars is its bright shining polish.

Persian origin?

Some scholars believe Ashoka borrowed this idea of erecting pillars

from Persia. Other people dispute this by referring to the dissimilarities Rampurva Bull Capital
between the two types of pillars. For example, Ashokan pillars are
Rashtrapati Bhavan houses it
monolithic, circular, tapering – all these features are missing in Persian
today. It is noted for its
pillars.
delicately sculpted model
3. Sculptures demonstrating superior
representation of soft flesh,
Apart from beautiful pillar sculptures, there are other important sensitive nostrils, alert ears
sculptures. and strong legs. The
Rampurva Bull sculpture is
 Dhauli elephant carved out of solid rock.
said to have a velvet touch. It
 Didargangh Yakshi
weighs upto 5 tonnes.
 Lohanipur Torso of a naked male, supposed to be of Jaina
tirthankara
 4. Rock-cut cave architecture
Ashoka was the first to introduce rock-cut cave architecture in India. There are several rock-cut caves
belong to the Mauryan period, of which four caves at Barabar hills belong to Ashoka while caves at
Nagarjuni belong to his grandson Dasharatha.

Inscriptions inside Ashokan caves indicate that these caves were donated by him to Ajivika monks to stay
during the rainy season. It shows his tolerant policy as Ajivika sect was a rival sect to Jainism and
Buddhism. Most important cave in this complex is called Lomas Rishi cave. Its roof is semi-circular. Most
caves at Barabar consist of two chambers, carved entirely out of granite, with a highly polished internal
surface, the Mauryan polish also found on sculptures, and exciting echo effects.

Caves at Barabar Hill

 Lomas Rishi cave

 Sudama cave
 Karan Chaupar cave
 Visvakarma cave
Nagarjuni Caves

 Gopika cave
 Vadathika and Vapiyaka caves
Lomas Rishi cave has an arched facade that
probably imitates contemporary wooden
architecture. On the periphery of the door, along
the curve of the architrave, a line of elephants advances in the direction of stupa emblems. This is the
characteristic form of the "Chaitya arch" or chandrashala, to be an important feature of architecture and
sculpture in the rock for many centuries.

Apart from these, there are many terracotta figurines of males and females, toys. There are also remains
of Ashoka’s palace. These remains were later discussed by Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien as something made
by gods. All these evidence indicate that the Mauryan period was marked by robust art and architecture
activity.

Kumrahar – Ashokan era Assembly Hall of 80 Pillars

(Kumrahar and Bulandi Bagh near Patna today have revealed remains of Ashokan era capital
structures including palaces, walls and pillars.)