Grammar Reference

01 Phrasal verbs 1.2 Collocations with do 1.3 Collocations with have

do the housework have a drink
do the cooking have a haircut
do the washing up have a holiday
1 Form do your best have a rest
A phrasal verb is made up of a verb Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. Other verbs are transitive. This do your hair have lunch
plus one or two particles. They are This means that they are used with means that they are used with a do your homework have dinner
sometimes called multi-word verbs. only a subject and no object. subject and a direct object. do the shopping have a good time
do nothing have a problem
Wait until I come back. He got in the car.
The prisoner ran away. She took off her coat.

03
1.1 Intransitive 1.2 Transitive inseparable Present simple, present continuous,
For intransitive phrasal verbs the particle always comes Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. This present perfect
directly after the verb. Nothing can come in the middle. means that nothing can come between the verb and the
particle.
He checked in at six o’clock. 1 Form
The noise gradually died away. I can’t do without coffee in the morning.
The forms of the present simple, present continuous, and present perfect are presented in Efekta English Grammar 1.
Let’s go over the document.

1.3 Transitive separable
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. This
means that the particle can come after the verb or after
the direct object.
He filled in the form. or He filled the form in.
She called off the wedding. or She called the wedding off.
1.4 Transitive + two particles
Some transitive verbs have two particles. These are
inseparable, i.e. the particles have to come straight after
the verb. The object cannot come in the middle.
He caught up with his friends after work.
He ran out of petrol.
2 Uses
2.1 Present simple
We use the present simple to talk
about things which happen all the
time, repeatedly, or to talk about facts
which are always true. In many ways
it’s a timeless tense.
The Earth goes round the sun.
Computers cost a lot of money.
We use the present simple to talk We often use the present simple with
about present habits or routines. adverbs of frequency, such as always,
often, sometimes, seldom, and never.
I get up at seven o’clock, but I don’t
have breakfast until eight. He never does the washing up.
I get my lunch from the bakery by the We often go to Italy on holiday.
canal. I seldom eat out.
Sometimes I feel like sleeping in.

2 Uses 2.2 Present continuous

Phrasal verbs are used in less formal
English. For some phrasal verbs the
meaning is literal: it can be worked
out from the meaning of the verb and
the meaning of the particle. For most
phrasal verbs, though, the meaning is
idiomatic: there is no way of working it
out, you have to learn it.
He took off his jacket.
(literal meaning: remove)
The plane took off on time.
(idiomatic meaning: leave the ground)
Sometimes there is more than one
idiomatic meaning:
The thief took off when he heard the
police sirens.
(idiomatic meaning: flee)
Phrasal verbs often have more formal,
one-word equivalents.
carry on = continue
blow up = explode
give back = return
point out = indicate
throw away = discard
We use the present continuous to talk
about things which are happening
now. In some ways it’s the real
present tense.
It’s raining.
Shh! I’m talking on the phone.
2.3 Present perfect
We use the present perfect to talk
about things that happened in the
past but have a link to the future.
We often use the present continuous
with the word always to talk about
things that happen again and again.
You’re always dropping things.
He’s always talking in class.
We often use the present perfect to We often use the word never to make
talk about past events when we don’t the present perfect negative.
say when they happened. If we say

02
I’ve never been to France.
Collocations with when it happened we use the simple
I’ve finished my homework. We’ve never heard of him.
do, make, and have past.
(I did my homework in the past but
We often use the word ever to ask
now it’s done.) He’s written a book.
questions in the present perfect.
(He wrote a book last year.)
1 Collocations He’s gone out.
Have you ever been to Canada?
(He left in the past and now he’s not They’ve flown on an A380.
A collocation is a fixed relationship between two or more Has she ever spoken to him?
1.1 Collocations with make here.) (They flew on an A380 in January.)
words in a language. It means that the words are often
found and used together. They sound natural to native make a mess We also use the present perfect to

Grammar Reference
English speakers. make a noise talk about our experiences.
make money
Grammar 2

There are many collocations using the verbs do, make, and She’s seen that film five times.
make room
have. There is no rule about why we use one of the verbs in We’ve ridden an elephant.
make a difference
a phrase and not the others. You just have to learn them.
make trouble
106 make a mistake 107
make progress
 Grammar Reference
04 Present perfect,
present perfect continuous
1 Form
The form of the present perfect is presented in Efekta English Grammar 1.
Present perfect continuous
1.1 Positive statements
subject + have + been + present participle
I’ve been watching TV.
You’ve been watching TV.
He’s / She’s / It’s been watching TV.
We’ve been watching TV.
You’ve been watching TV.
They’ve been watching TV.
1.3 Yes / no questions
have + subject + been + present participle …?
Have I been watching TV? Yes, you have. No, you haven’t.
Have you been watching TV? Yes, I have. No, I haven’t.
Has he / she / it been watching TV? Yes, he / she / it has. No, he / she / it hasn’t.
Have we been watching TV? Yes, you have. No, you haven’t.
Have you been watching TV? Yes, we have. No, we haven’t.
Have they been watching TV? Yes, they have. No, they haven’t.
1.4 Other questions
question word + have + subject + been + present participle …?
How long have I been watching TV?
How long have you been watching TV?
How long has he / she / it been watching TV?
How long have we been watching TV?
How long have you been watching TV?
How long have they been watching TV?
Present perfect continuous:
I’ve been playing football at this club since 2011.
began playing at the club in 2011
Past
Present perfect
I’ve lived here for three years.
Grammar 2
moved here three years ago
108
Past
05 Comparatives
and superlatives
1 Comparatives
1.1 Form
1.1.1 Positive comparisons 1.1.2 Negative comparisons
b. Two-syllable adjectives
The form of comparatives For negative comparisons we put the word
1.2 Negative statements If a two-syllable adjective ends
depends on the length of the less before all adjectives.
in -y we delete the -y and add
subject + have + not + been + present participle adjective in syllables.
-ier. less fast less careful
I haven’t been watching TV. less nice less expensive
a. One-syllable adjectives happy ➞ happier
You haven’t been watching TV. less hot less interesting
For most one-syllable funny ➞ funnier
He / She / It hasn’t been watching TV. less happy
adjectives we add -er.
We haven’t been watching TV. For most other two-syllable
You haven’t been watching TV. fast ➞ faster adjectives we put the word
They haven’t been watching TV. slow ➞ slower more before the adjective.
1.1.3 Irregular comparatives
If the one-syllable adjective careful ➞ more careful There are some adjectives which do not
ends in -e we just add -r. polite ➞ more polite follow the spelling rules for comparatives.
You just have to learn these forms.
nice ➞ nicer
c. Three or more syllable
late ➞ later good ➞ better bad ➞ worse
adjectives
If the one-syllable adjective For three or more syllable
ends with a single vowel + a adjectives we put the word
single consonant, we double more before the adjective. 1.1.4 The most common structure used with
the consonant and add -er. comparatives is as follows:
expensive ➞ more expensive
hot ➞ hotter interesting ➞ more interesting first thing + be + comparative + than +
big ➞ bigger second thing
Elephants are bigger than cats.
2 Uses 1.2 Uses
We use the present perfect continuous to talk
We use comparatives to compare two things. They tell us The tablet is $400. The laptop is $800.
about actions which started at some point in the
that one thing is more or less than another thing. We call
past and continued, or happened continuously The laptop is more expensive than the tablet.
these positive or negative comparisons.
until the present. The tablet is less expensive than the laptop.
I’ve been watching TV, but the programme has
just finished.
I’ve been coming here regularly. 2 Superlatives
We use the present perfect continuous with 2.1 Form
for and since to say when the action started,
or happened for the first time. We use for with a 2.1.1 Positive superlatives 2.1.2 Negative superlatives
length of time and since with a point of time. The rules for forming superlatives are the same as for comparatives For negative superlatives we put the word
but we use -est instead of -er and most instead of more. least before all adjectives.
I’ve been eating at this restaurant for three years.
We’ve been seeing each other since February. fast ➞ fastest careful ➞ most careful least fast least careful
nice ➞ nicest expensive ➞ most expensive least nice least expensive
We use the present perfect with for and since to hot ➞ hottest interesting ➞ most interesting least hot least interesting
say when a present state started. We use for with happy ➞ happiest least happy
Now Future
a length of time and since with a point of time.
I’ve lived here for three years.
We’ve been married since 1988. 2.2 Uses
Grammar Reference
2.1.3 Irregular superlatives 2.1.4 Superlatives are usually
We use superlatives to compare two or more
The difference here is that we use the present There are some adjectives used with the word the.
things. They tell us which thing is more or less
perfect continuous to talk about actions but the which do not follow the rules
still living here August is the hottest month (of a certain quality) than all the others.
present perfect to talk about states. above and you just have to
in Spain.
learn the forms. The smartphone is $200. The tablet is $400.
This one is tasty but the other
The laptop is $800.
good ➞ best one is the tastiest. 109
bad ➞ worst The laptop is the most expensive.
Now Future
The smartphone is the least expensive.
 Grammar Reference

Some verbs are always followed by a gerund as the *In the last two examples, the gerund is more common in

06 Too, enough,
at all
object and cannot be followed by an infinitive:
He postponed getting married.
British English. In American English both are very common.
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive
They quit worrying about the problem. and there is a difference in meaning.
1 Form We were discussing buying a new car.
She stopped eating.
Do you deny saying that?
(She was eating and then she stopped.)
too + adjective / adverb / determiner (not) + verb + adverb + enough not + adjective / adverb + at all
Other verbs are always followed by an infinitive and She stopped to eat.
not + at all + adjective / adverb
This coffee is too hot. He’s walking quickly enough. cannot be followed by a gerund: (She stopped in order to eat.)
You’re walking too quickly. He’s not walking quickly enough. This coffee is not hot at all.
I agreed to go to the party. I remember giving him the keys.
There’s too much water in the glass. This coffee is not at all hot.
(not) + enough + noun They promised to help. (I gave him the keys and still remember the experience.)
You’ve put too many things in the bag.
You’re not walking quickly at all. Why did you refuse to see him? I remembered to give him the keys.
There’s enough coffee.
You’re not walking at all quickly. He claimed to be John’s brother. (I didn’t forget to give him the keys.)
(not) adjective + enough There’s not enough sugar.
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive With verbs like this, if we use the gerund, that action came
Is the coffee hot enough for you?
and there is no difference in meaning: first. If we use the infinitive, that action came second.
The coffee is not hot enough.
If you continue talking / to talk I will ask you to leave. There are not many verbs like this but they are important.
Would you prefer eating / to eat before the movie or after? Other examples include: stop, remember, regret, and try.
2 Uses I love reading / to read when it’s cold outside.*
We use too to say that something is far Not enough is like the opposite of too. I hate doing / to do the washing up.*
in excess. He’s far too confident.
The soup is too hot.

08
There are too many people. a little The soup is not hot enough.
(There is an excess of people.) The food is a little too spicy for me. Question tags
He’s driving too fast.
It’s too hard. He’s not driving fast enough.
We use enough to say that something
(It’s excessively hard.)
is (or isn’t) in the correct degree.
We use at all to emphasise a negative 1 Form
We can modify too with the following
It’s warm enough to go swimming. adjective or adverb.
words:
1.1 Positive tag 2 Uses
You’re not speaking loudly enough. I’m not angry at all.
much A question tag is used to check that the information in a statement is
I can’t hear you. He doesn’t play the piano badly at all. negative statement + , + auxiliary verb +
It’s much too cold to walk today. correct. It is like saying you are fairly sure, but you want the person you are
subject pronoun + ?
talking to to confirm.
(The auxiliary verb depends on the
If the statement is positive, we use a negative tag. If the statement is negative,

07 Gerunds and tense of the negative statement.)

we use a positive tag. The reply to the tag is positive or negative according to
infinitives I don’t look messy, do I? the statement.
He’s not coming tonight, is he?
You’ve replied to the client, haven’t you? Yes, I have.
You haven’t been to France, have you?
1 Form You didn’t see anything, did you? No, I didn’t.
We didn’t get the package, did we?
You weren’t coming, were you? We use intonation to say how sure we are of the answer. If we are very sure,
1.1 Gerunds
They hadn’t finished, had they? we use a falling intonation. If we are not very sure, we use a rising intonation.
A gerund is a noun made If the base form of the verb If the base form of the verb If the base form ends in -ic, I won’t get hurt, will I?
He’s finished, hasn’t he? (99% sure)
out of a verb and represents ends in -e, then we remove ends in a single consonant we add -king. There are not
the name of the action. It is the -e and add -ing. after a single vowel, we many of these words. He’s finished, hasn’t he? (less sure)
made up of the base form double the consonant and
dance ➞ dancing mimic ➞ mimicking 1.2 Negative tag We sometimes use question tags to show we are surprised about a fact. In this
of the verb + -ing. add -ing.
love ➞ loving panic ➞ panicking case we use a positive tag with a positive statement and a rising intonation.
positive statement + , + auxiliary verb +
base form + -ing move ➞ moving stop ➞ stopping picnic ➞ picnicking
not + subject pronoun + ? You’re married, are you?
hum ➞ humming
walk ➞ walking Gerunds look like the
sit ➞ sitting (We usually use the contracted We often use question tags on their own to comment on what other people
do ➞ doing present participle of the
negative of the auxiliary verb.) have said. We use a positive question tag with a positive statement and a
sing ➞ singing verb but their use is different.
negative tag with a negative statement. A rising intonation shows interest
I look messy, don’t I?
in the statement. You are inviting the speaker to tell you more. A falling
He’s coming tonight, isn’t he?
1.2 Infinitives intonation expresses boredom or sarcasm.
You have been to France, haven’t you?
The infinitive is the most basic form of the verb. It does not to + base form We got the packaged, didn’t we? A: They didn’t go on holiday after all.
show time like the different tenses. In English, it is made You were coming, weren’t you?
to walk to sing to read B: Didn’t they? (Interested)

Grammar Reference
up of the word to + the base form of the verb. They had finished, hadn’t they?
to do to play to think
I’ll get hurt, won’t I? A: We’ve bought a new house.
Grammar 2

Note that the negative tag for I when B: Have you? (Bored)
2 Uses the auxiliary verb is be, is aren’t I?
Since a gerund is a noun, it can act as the subject or object We can sometimes use infinitives as the subject and object When the main verb of the statement is positive but has a negative meaning
of another verb. of another verb in the same way as gerunds. I’m so clumsy, aren’t I? because it is modified by a negative adverb (such as, never, rarely, barely,
110 scarcely), we use a positive question tag. 111
Dancing makes you tired. To be brave takes a lot of courage.
I tried dancing but I didn’t like it. I want to swim. You’ve never flown before, have you?
 Grammar Reference

2.4 Quantifiers:

09 Pronouns and
determiners
some
any
much
many
each
every
either
neither
all
both

We use some and any to talk about indefinite amounts. We We use either and neither to talk about choices or
1 Pronouns use them with plural and uncountable nouns. Some is used alternatives between two things. Either is used to talk about
Pronouns are small words which are used to replace nouns in sentences. There are different types of pronouns:
in positive statements and any in negative statements and a positive choice or alternative, neither for negative. Either
questions. We use them just before the noun they refer to. is often used with the word or and neither with nor. We
1.1 Subject pronouns: 1.2 Object pronouns: 1.3 Possessive pronouns:
cannot use them to talk about more than two things.
I me mine There are some pens on the table.
you you yours He poured some milk in his glass. You can have either soup or salad.
he, she, it him, her, it his, hers, its There aren’t any potatoes. He likes neither meat nor fish.
we us ours He said there wasn’t any orange juice. Which one do you want?
you you yours Do you have any apples? Neither. (Not one nor the other.)
they them theirs Is there any butter? Which one do you want?
Either. (I don’t care.)
Subject pronouns replace nouns as Object pronouns replace nouns as Possessive pronouns replace a
We use much and many to talk about quantity. Much is
the subject of the sentence. the object of the sentence. possessive adjective and a noun.
used with uncountable nouns and many with countable. We use all to talk about every member of a group. We can
I play tennis. Give it to me. This is my pen. ➞ This is mine. Much is used only in questions and negatives whereas use it with plural or uncountable nouns. It’s followed by the
It likes the new cat food. He put it on the table. Their car is green. ➞ Theirs is green. many is used in positive statements as well. We can use a word the and then the noun.
lot of instead of much and many in positive statements.
I’ll take all the apples, please.
Subject, object, and possessive pronouns are often used to avoid repetition.
Do you have much money? Who’s drunk all the milk?
Luca is from Italy and Luca is a teacher. ➞ Luca is from Italy and he’s a teacher. I don’t have much milk left.
My book is interesting but your book is boring. ➞ My book is interesting but yours is boring. There was a lot of food left after the party. We use both to talk about every member of a group of
Do you have many friends? two. We use it with plural nouns only. It comes just before
She doesn’t have many books. the noun it refers to. We use it with positive statements. In
1.4 Relative pronouns:
There were a lot of / many people in the street. negative statements or questions we use either of.
who We use relative pronouns to replace nouns at the beginning of relative
whom clauses. We can use all of them with both defining and non-defining I’ve lost both my socks.
We use each and every to talk about individual members
which relative clauses, except for that, which we only use with defining. Have you seen either of my socks?
of a group. Each means all the items in a group of two or
where
The guy who you were speaking to is my brother. more. Every means every item in a group of three or more.
why
I can’t understand what you are talking about. We use them with singular nouns.
what
The reason why he likes football is that it’s good exercise.
that He put a glove on each hand.
He knocked on every door in the street.
2 Determiners
Determiners are small words used to identify things or say how much there is. There are different types of determiners:

2.1 Articles:
the
a / an
There are two types of articles:
definite (the) and indefinite (a/an).
We use the to talk about one in
particular.
Have you got the red pen?
I want the big orange.
We use a/an to talk about one of
many. We can only use a/an with
singular nouns as they both mean
‘one’:
Have you got a pen?
(any pen, it doesn’t matter which one)
I want an orange.
2.2 Possessive adjectives:
my
your
his, her, its
our
your
their
We use possessive adjectives to say
who or what something belongs to.
They come just before the noun they
refer to. We use them on their own
without an article. We can use them
with singular or plural nouns.
Do you know my friend, Tom?
Is this your phone?
His car broke down.
Her teacher is called Mrs Meadows.
2.3 Demonstrative adjectives:
this
that
these
those
Demonstrative adjectives tell us which
one. They always come just before
the noun they refer to.
This and that are singular. We use this
for something near to us, and that for
something far from us.
These is the plural of this and those is
the plural of that.
Do you want this biscuit?
No, thanks. I’ll have that one.
What shall I do with these books?
10 Conjunctions for
cause and effect
Conjunctions are small words which
join two clauses in a sentence. The
most common conjunctions are and,
but, and or.
It was very hot. He was thirsty. ➞
It was very hot and he was thirsty.
I want to go to the party. I don’t have
time. ➞
I want to go to the party, but I don’t
have time.
I may have tea. I may have coffee. ➞
I may have tea or I may have coffee.
We use the following conjunctions to
Because, as, and since introduce the
cause of another action:
He wasn’t paying attention. He had
an accident. ➞
He had an accident because / as /
since he wasn’t paying attention.
Although and even though say that
despite one thing, another thing
happened.
He was being careful. He dropped the
tray. ➞
He dropped the tray even though /
although he was being careful.
So and (and) as a result introduce the
effect of another action:
He wasn’t paying attention. He had
an accident. ➞
He wasn’t paying attention so / and
as a result he had an accident.
So and (and) as a result go after the
main clause.
If the clauses in a sentence with
conjunctions are very long, we often
use commas, regardless of where the
main clause comes.
On Friday afternoon I wasn’t very

Grammar Reference
The dog was sitting outside its house. Clauses beginning with because, as,
(any of the oranges) Put them on those shelves over there. show that something was caused by productive and I was having trouble
Our lessons are about to begin. since, although, and even though can
something else: concentrating on my work, because
Grammar 2

Articles come just before the noun Did you tell your parents? go at the beginning of the sentence or
I was excited about the weekend.
they refer to. If we use an adjective, How big is their apartment? because, as, since, after the main clause. If they go at the
it goes between the article and the beginning of the sentence, we put a
although, even though,
noun. comma before the main clause.
112 so, (and) as a result 113
a book ➞ a good book Because he wasn’t paying attention,
the man ➞ the tall man he had an accident.
 Grammar Reference

11 Relative clauses
12 Prepositional phrases

1 Form
1.1 Non-defining relative clauses
relative pronoun + verb + predicate
relative pronoun (object) + subject + verb
+ predicate
(The predicate is all the parts of a clause
which are not the subject or the verb.)
The car, which was red with white stripes,
was always parked outside my apartment.
The house, which we painted blue, was at
the end of the lane.
Non-defining relative clauses are always
separated from what they describe by
commas. This is very important.
The relative pronouns for non-defining
relative clauses are:
who (people)
which (things)
whom (people; formal use only, as object
of a clause—especially after a preposition)
whose (possessive; object or subject)
where (places)
John, who lives next door, is Anthony’s
best friend.
The picture, which was very old-fashioned,
hung on the wall of my grandfather’s house.
My brother, to whom my parents left all
their money, lives in a big house.
Mr Jones, whose lessons were the most
interesting, retired from teaching last year.
My parents sold their house, where I
spent many happy hours as a child.
A preposition is a small word that tells us where something is or when it happens, for example:
in, on, under, next to, behind.
1.2 Defining relative clauses
relative pronoun + verb + predicate 1 Prepositional phrases that function 2 Prepositional phrases that function as adverbs
as adjectives Sometimes we use a group of words to do the same job as an
relative pronoun (object) + subject + verb + predicate
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition adverb. When a prepositional phrase is used to give more information
I like food which has a lot of flavour. and a noun phrase. When a prepositional phrase is about a verb, it functions in the same way as an adverb. It answers
People who spend a lot of time reading usually have more to used to give information about a noun, it functions the question how, where, when or why the action happens.
talk about. in the same way as an adjective. These phrases
He sat down. (How did he sit down?) ➞
always follow the noun they refer to and answer
Defining relative clauses have the same structure as non-defining He sat down as fast as he could.
the question which one?
relative clauses. However, they come immediately after the word to
She went for a walk. (Where did she go for a walk?) ➞
which they refer and are not separated using commas. Give me the book. (Which book?) ➞
She went for a walk in the countryside.
Give me the book on the table.
The relative pronouns for defining relative clauses are the same as
We saw Julie. (When did we see Julie?) ➞
for non-defining relative clauses, with the addition of that: Put it in the wardrobe. (Which wardrobe?) ➞
We saw Julie on the day we went to the cinema.
Put it in the wardrobe in my bedroom
That can be used instead of any relative pronoun except whose.
The man who / that was wearing the black jacket was the thief. We can have a number of different prepositional phrases in one sentence that function either as
The hotel which / that we stayed at was very nice. adjectives or as adverbs.
The writer to whom the prize was awarded was American. /
The man in the blue suit asked them to meet him at the café in an hour.
The writer that the prize was awarded to was American.
The woman whose car was stolen gave evidence to the police. • in the blue suit defines the noun (it talks about which man) so it functions as an adjective
It’s very hot in the country where / that I am from. • at the café and in an hour define the verb (they talk about where and when to meet) so they
function as adverbs
In defining relative clauses, we usually leave out the object relative
pronoun (whom, which) completely or replace it with that. In such
cases, if there is a preposition, it goes to the end of the clause.
The man whom we saw was wearing dark glasses. ➞
The man we saw was wearing dark glasses.
13 Direct and
reported speech
The man that we saw was wearing dark glasses.
This is the book which I gave you. ➞
1 Form
This is the book I gave you. 1.1 Direct speech
This is the book that I gave you.
To express the exact words that were The main saying verb is say. For ‘I love learning languages’ she said.
The writer to whom the prize was awarded was American. ➞ said, we put them in quotation marks questions we can use ask. We can ‘Are you from Italy?’ asked James.
The writer the prize was awarded to was American. (‘hello’ or “hello”) and use a saying use other verbs to make things more I whispered, ‘We have to be really
verb to say who spoke the words. interesting: shout, whisper, reply, think quiet.’
The room in which we stayed had a lovely view. ➞
and so on.
The room we stayed in had a lovely view.
We never leave out the subject relative pronoun (who, which). 1.2 Reported speech

2 Uses
2.1 Non-defining relative clauses
We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra
information about someone or something. They are like
complex adjectives. The information is not vital to the
meaning of the sentence and there is no problem if the
relative clause is removed.
2.2 Defining relative clauses
We use defining relative clauses to give essential
information about someone or something. This tells us
which one of many things we are talking about.
The book belongs to Patrick.
(We need to explain which book we are talking about.)
1.2.1 Statements
subject + reporting verb + that + original language
If the reporting verb is in the present tense, we do
not make any changes to the original language, with
the exception of pronouns. If the original words use
pronouns, we have to change them so that the new
sentence makes sense.
‘John’s coming to the party,’ he says. ➞
He says that John’s coming to the party.
present simple ➞ past simple
‘It’s a very nice car,’ she said. ➞
She said that it was a very nice car.
present continuous ➞ past continuous
‘John’s coming to the party,’ he said. ➞
He said that John was coming to the party.
present perfect ➞ past perfect
‘Peter’s been to Spain,’ he said. ➞
He said that Peter had been to Spain.

Grammar Reference
My wallet was stolen. The book which / that is on my desk belongs to Patrick.
‘We’re going to the museum,’ she says. present perfect continuous ➞ past perfect continuous
My wallet, which contained all my credit cards, was stolen.
Grammar 2

I won first prize in the competition.
I won first prize in the competition, which made me very happy.
114
I prefer people
(We need to explain which kind of people we are talking about.)
I prefer people who are quiet in the mornings.
She says that they’re going to the museum.
If the reporting verb is in the past tense, we usually
change the tense of the verb in the original language.
We usually shift it back a tense, as follows:
‘They’ve been watching TV all morning,’ she said. ➞
She said that they had been watching TV all morning.
past simple ➞ past perfect
‘Mary handed the wallet in to the police,’ he said. ➞ 115
He said that Mary had handed the wallet into the police.

continues …
 Grammar Reference
past continuous ➞ past perfect continuous
‘My husband was sleeping when I got home,’ she said.
➞ She said that her husband had been sleeping when
she got home.
Some other verb changes we usually make are:
imperative ➞ infinitive
‘Go to your room!’ his dad said. ➞
His dad told him to go to his room.
will ➞ would
‘I’ll help,’ she said. ➞
She said that she would help.
can ➞ could
‘We can pay,’ they said. ➞
They said that they could pay.
would / could ➞ would / could
‘I would go, but …’ she said. ➞
She said that she would go, but …
Sometimes, if the original verb is in the past tense, we
might not change the tense.
‘My husband was sleeping when I got home,’ she said. ➞
She said that her husband was sleeping when she got home.
We cannot change the past perfect.
‘I had already left when …’ he said. ➞
He said that he had already left when ….
1.2.2 Reported questions
There’s an additional change we need to make when we
report questions: the word order changes from question
form to statement form, and the auxiliary do is omitted.
Yes / no questions
subject + reporting verb + if / whether + subject + verb
‘Are you coming?’ ➞
He asked if / whether I was coming.
‘Do they like fish?’ he asked. ➞
He asked if / whether they liked fish.
2 Uses
We use direct speech when we want to say the exact
words that someone said. This is usually used when we
are writing stories.
John said ‘I can’t understand French very well.’
Grammar 2
116
In addition to tense changes, we often have to change
pronouns so that the new sentence makes sense.
‘You look really nice,’ she said. ➞
She said that I looked really nice.
We do the same with time expressions, some verbs of
movement, and adverbs of place. The changes depend on
what we need to say so that the reported language makes
sense in the time and place where we are when we speak.
‘The new shop opened yesterday,’ they said. ➞
They said that the new shop had opened the day before.
‘She’s coming with me to the park’ he said. ➞
He said that she was going with him to the park.
‘It’s here next to the bed,’ she said. ➞
She said that it was (there) next to the bed.
We usually change this to that in reported speech.
‘I love this dress,’ she said.
She said that she loved that dress.
We can leave the word that out of reported speech
sentences. This is a bit less formal.
She said (that) it was a very nice car.
He said (that) Mary had handed the wallet into the police.
Other questions
subject + reporting verb + question word + subject + verb
‘When does the concert start?’ she asked ➞
She asked when the concert started.
‘Where’s my wallet?’ he asked. ➞
He asked where his wallet was.
We use reported speech when we want to make the
speaker’s words part of what we say. We say the
meaning of what someone said. This is more common
than direct speech.
John said that he couldn’t understand French very well.
14 Used to, would
1 Form
1.1 Used to
1.1.1 Positive statements 1.1.2 Negative statement
subject + used to + base form subject + did + not + use to + base form
I used to live in Paris. I didn’t use to live in Paris.
You used to live in Paris. You didn’t use to live in Paris.
He / She / It / used to live in Paris. He / She / It didn’t use to live in Paris.
We used to live in Paris. We didn’t use to live in Paris.
You used to live in Paris. You didn’t use to live in Paris.
They used to live in Paris. They didn’t use to live in Paris.
1.1.3 Yes / no questions 1.1.4 Other questions
did + subject + use to + base form …? question word + did + subject +
use to + base form …?
Did I use to live in Paris? Yes, you did. No, you didn’t.
Did you use to live in Paris? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. Where did I use to live?
Did he / she / it use to live in Paris? Yes, he / she / it did. No, he / she / it didn’t. Where did you use to live?
Did we use to live in Paris? Yes, you did. No, you didn’t. Where did he / she / it use to live?
Did you use to live in Paris? Yes, we did. No, we didn’t. Where did we use to live?
Did they use to? Yes, they did. No, they didn’t. Where did you use to live?
Where did they use to live?
1.2 Would
1.2.1 Positive statements 1.2.2 Negative statements
subject + would + base form subject + would + not + base form
I would go to the cinema at the weekend. I wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
You would go to the cinema at the weekend. You wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
He / She / It would go to the cinema at the weekend. He / She / It wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
We would go to the cinema at the weekend. We wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
You would go to the cinema at the weekend. You wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
They would go to the cinema at the weekend. They wouldn’t go to the cinema at the weekend.
1.2.3 Yes / no questions 1.2.4 Other questions
would + subject + base form …? question word + would + subject + base
form …?
Would I play tennis as a child? Yes, you would.
No, you wouldn’t. Where would I play tennis as a child?
Would you play tennis as a child? Yes, I would. Where would you play tennis as a child?
No, I wouldn’t. Where would he / she / it play tennis as
Would he / she / it play tennis Yes, he / she / it would. a child?
as a child? No, he / she / it wouldn’t. Where would we play tennis as a child?
Would we play tennis as children? Yes, you would. Where would you play tennis as a child?
Grammar Reference
No, you wouldn’t. Where would they play tennis as a child?
Would you play tennis as children? Yes, we would.
No, we wouldn’t.
Would they play tennis as children? Yes, they would.
No, they wouldn’t.
117
continues …
 Grammar Reference

2 Uses 1.2.3 Yes / no questions 1.2.4 Other questions

We use both used to and would to talk about past habits,
and repeated actions. They are a little different from the
simple past because they imply that you do not do the
action any more. The habit is completely finished.
I went swimming every weekend when I lived in London.
I still do now I live in Oxford.
I used to / would go swimming every weekend when I lived
in London. Now, I only go once a month.
We use used to to talk about past states, but not would.
I used to live in Paris, but now I live in Rome.
He used to be frightened of dogs, but now he loves them.
We often use would to talk nostalgically about past habits.
When I was a child, I would spend every holiday at my
grandparents’ house. My grandmother would cook all my
favourite food. It was wonderful.
In spoken English there is no difference in pronunciation
between used to and (didn’t) use to. However as you can
see above they are written differently.
We can’t use used to or would to talk about something that
happened only once. We use the past simple in this case.
My dad took me to Paris when I was five years old.
(It happened only once.)
My dad used to take me to the zoo once a month.
(It happened many times.)
had + subject + been + present participle …? question word + had + subject + been +
present participle …?
Had I been watching TV? Yes, you had. No, you hadn’t.
Had you been watching TV? Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t. How long had I been watching TV?
Had he / she / it been watching Yes, he / she / No, he / she / it How long had you been watching TV?
TV? it had. hadn’t. How long had he / she / it been watching TV?
Had we been watching TV? Yes, you had. No, you hadn’t. How long had we been watching TV?
Had you been watching TV? Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t. How long had you been watching TV?
Had they been watching TV? Yes, they had. No, they hadn’t. How long had they been watching TV?
2 Uses
We use the past perfect to emphasize that one past action He had been visiting his friends when the accident
happened before another. The action which is further back happened.
is in the past perfect and the other one is in the simple past.
We also use it to put emphasis on how long something had
He had just left home when his phone rang. been going on in the past before something else happened.
We also use it to say that something had already been He had been working there for 15 years before he decided

15 Past perfect and

past perfect continuous
completed before a certain point in the past.
By September 2010, they had bought a new house.
to quit.
The main difference between the past perfect and the past
perfect continuous is that we use the continuous form to
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about an
1 Form talk about longer, continued actions.
action which started before another action in the past and
1.1 Past perfect had been going on for some time until then. He had been studying in England when he met his wife.

1.1.1 Positive statements 1.1.2 Negative statements Past perfect: Past perfect continuous: He had been working there for 15 years before
He had just left home when his phone rang. he decided to quit. decided to quit
subject + had + past participle subject + had + not + past participle left home phone rang working for 15 years
I had finished. I hadn’t finished.
You had finished. You hadn’t finished.
He / She / It had finished. He / She / It hadn’t finished.
Past Now Future Past Now Future
We had finished. We hadn’t finished.
You had finished. You hadn’t finished.
They had finished. They hadn’t finished.

16 Narrative tenses: past simple,

past continuous, past perfect
1.1.3 Yes / no questions 1.1.4 Other questions
1 Form
had + subject + past participle …? question word + had + subject +
The form of the past simple and the past continuous are presented in Efekta English Grammar 1.
past participle …?
Had I finished? Yes, you had. No, you hadn’t. The form of the past perfect is presented in this book in Lesson 15.
Had you finished? Yes, I had. No, I hadn’t. When had I finished?
Had he / she / it finished? Yes, he / she / it had. No, he / she / it hadn’t. When had you finished?
2 Uses
Had we finished? Yes, you had. No, you hadn’t. When had he / she / it finished?
When we are narrating, or telling stories, we often use the past simple, past continuous, and past perfect.
Had you finished? Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t. When had we finished?
Had they finished? Yes, they had. No, they hadn’t. When had you finished? We use the past simple to talk about a single action or a series of actions. We also use it with stative verbs
When had they finished? like know, believe, own, smell, etc.
She walked away slowly. Past simple: She walked away slowly.

He woke up, jumped out of bed, and opened the curtains. She walked
1.2 Past perfect continuous They believed in us.
We use the past continuous to give background information
1.2.1 Positive statements 1.2.2 Negative statements
to a story. Past Now Future
subject + had + been + present participle subject + had + not + been + present participle
The sun was shining and the birds were singing.
I’d been watching TV. I hadn’t been watching TV. In the distance, someone was singing.

Grammar Reference
Past continuous: He was watching TV when he heard an enormous
You’d been watching TV. You hadn’t been watching TV. crash from the kitchen.
We often use the past continuous with the past simple to
He’d / She’d / It’d been watching TV. He / She / It hadn’t been watching TV. heard crash
Grammar 2

say that one action interrupted another one or took place

We’d been watching TV. We hadn’t been watching TV. start watching finish watching
at the same time as another one.
You’d been watching TV. You hadn’t been watching TV.
They’d been watching TV. They hadn’t been watching TV. He was watching TV when he heard an enormous crash
118 from the kitchen. 119
For past perfect see above. Past Now Future
 Grammar Reference

17 Zero and first 2 Uses 3 I wish / if only

conditionals We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or hypothetical situations. We often use I wish or if only with
It refers to the present or future even though the verb forms used are past tense. second and third conditionals to
suggest regret.
If you were here now, I would show you.
1 Form (This is hypothetical—you are not here now and I can’t show you now, but there If only he had been on time, the
is a chance it may happen in the future.) accident wouldn’t have happened.
1.1 Zero conditional 1.2 First conditional If I had longer arms, I could reach.
I wish I had worked harder at school,
(This is imaginary because there is no possibility of this happening, not now nor
If + present simple + , + present simple or imperative If + present tense + , + future form then I would have a better job now.
in the future.)
Present simple or imperative + if + present simple Future form + if + present tense
We use the third conditional to talk about imaginary situations in the past. They
are imaginary because the past is finished and cannot be changed.
If you cool water, it freezes. If you lend me $10, I’ll pay you back tomorrow.
Water boils if you heat it. I’m going to buy a new dress if I get paid on time. If you had been here, you would have met him.
Tell John to call me if you see him. I’ll be really happy if he’s done the housework. (This is imaginary because you weren’t here.)
If you go to the shops, buy me some toothpaste. If the plane is on time, I’ll be sitting on the beach If he had been on time, the accident wouldn’t have happened.
tomorrow afternoon. (This is imaginary because he wasn’t on time.)
If you’re eating, I’ll come back later.

2 Uses
2.1 Zero conditional 2.2 First conditional We often use the first conditional to
19 Future tenses

We use the zero conditional to talk
about things which always happen,
or happen repeatedly, as the result of
something else.
If you leave the window open, the cat
comes in.
We also use it to ask or tell people to
do something.
If you make pizza, don’t put too much
chilli on top.
We use the first conditional to talk
about real actions or situations now
that have a single consequence in
the future. We choose the present
tense (simple, continuous, or perfect)
and the future form according to their
normal use.
If you look to the right, you’ll see the the first action is definitely going to
Houses of Parliament.
If you have already bought a ticket,
I’ll buy one tomorrow.
If she comes, I’m going to leave.
If it’s raining, you’ll get wet.
make threats and promises.
1 Form
If you don’t stop, I’ll get really angry. The form of the future simple, going to, present simple and present continuous are presented in Efekta English Grammar 1.
If you are good, I’ll buy you an ice cream.
Future continuous
2.3 If or when?
1.1 Positive statements 1.2 Negative statements
We can use when instead of if in
conditional sentences if we know that subject + will be + present participle. subject + will + not + be + present participle.
I’ll be shopping. I won’t be shopping.
happen.
You’ll be shopping. You won’t be shopping.
When we stop, I’ll buy you lunch. He’ll / She’ll / It’ll be shopping. He / She / It won’t be shopping.
I’ll answer the email when I’ve spoken We’ll be shopping. We won’t be shopping.
to my boss. You’ll be shopping. You won’t be shopping.
They’ll be shopping. They won’t be shopping.

18 Second and third

conditionals; I wish / if only
1 Form
1.1 Second conditional
If + past simple + , + would + base form
We can use the past continuous instead of the past simple.
We can use could or should instead of would.
We can use be + present participle instead of the base form.
If you played tennis, you’d understand the rules.
If you weren’t having fun, you wouldn’t be laughing.
If you spoke French, you could order our food.
1.3 Yes / no questions
will + subject + be + present participle …?
1.4 Other questions
question word + will + subject + be
+ present participle …?
Will I be shopping? Yes, you will. No, you won’t.
Will you be shopping? Yes, I will. No, I won’t When will I be shopping?
Will he / she / it be shopping? Yes, he / she / it will. No, he / she / it won’t. When will you be shopping?
Will we be shopping? Yes, we will. No, we won’t. When will he / she / it be shopping?
Will you be shopping? Yes, we will. No, we won’t. When will we be shopping?
Will they be shopping? Yes, they will. No, they won’t. When will you be shopping?
You wouldn’t be working here if you were a millionaire.
When will they be shopping?
It is considered formally correct when we use the verb be
after if to use were instead of was for I and he / she / it.
If I were you, I wouldn’t go.
2 Uses
If he were here now, he would answer.
We use the future simple to talk about things which are We use the going to future to talk about things we have
simply in the future. already decided to do.

Grammar Reference
It will be my birthday next week. I’m going to book tickets to see Four Dimensions next week.
1.2 Third conditional It’ll be easier to clean your glasses with this cloth. So what are you going to do about dinner?
Grammar 2

If + past perfect + , + would + have + past participle
We can use the past perfect continuous instead of the
120 past perfect.
We can use could or should instead of would.
If you had closed the door, we wouldn’t have been
burgled.
If you had been paying attention, you would have seen it.
We also use it to make predictions based on our opinions.
We often use it with verbs like think, hope, expect, know.
I think it will rain later.
In my opinion Brazil will win the World Cup next time.
We also use it to make predictions based on evidence.
He’s carrying too much. He’s going to drop something!
I read the weather forecast. It’s going to snow next week. 121

continues …
 Grammar Reference

We use the present continuous to talk about future things We use the future continuous to talk about things that will
2 Future in the past
that have already been arranged. An arrangement is an be in progress at some point in the future. They start before
We use the future in the past to talk about things which To talk about things that had been arranged but didn’t
agreement between at least two people. the future point and finish after.
should have happened but didn’t. happen we use the past continuous.
I just spoke to Janet. She’s coming to dinner tonight. I’ll be having dinner at 7.30. Can you call later?
To talk about things we intended to do, but didn’t we use I was travelling to London tomorrow but my flight just got
The tickets have arrived. I’m going to Florida in October. This time next week you’ll be sunbathing on a beach.
the going to future but make the verb be past. cancelled.
We use the present simple to talk about future events They were coming to dinner tonight but Tom’s ill.
He was going to buy the new smartphone but he didn’t
which happen according to a timetable. Future continuous: tomorrow morning
I’ll be working tomorrow have any money.
The train for London leaves at twenty-past two. morning. start work finish work Hi! I was just going to call you.
The next showing of the film is at eight o’clock.

Past Now Future

21 Modals of
probability

20 Future perfect, 1 Form

future in the past
1.1 Positive statement 1.2 Negative statement
subject + modal + base form subject + modal + not + base form
1 Future perfect
subject + modal + be + present participle subject + modal + not + + be + present participle
1.1 Form
subject + modal + have + past participle subject + modal + not + + have + past participle
1.1.1 Positive statements 1.1.2 Negative statements
They might come. We might not be available then.
subject + will + have + past participle. subject + will + not + have + past participle It might be raining. They might not be coming.
He could have got lost. She can’t have managed to convince him.
I’ll have finished. I won’t have finished.
You’ll have finished. You won’t have finished.
He’ll / She’ll / It’ll have finished. He / She / It won’t have finished.
We’ll have finished. We won’t have finished.
1.3 Yes / no questions 1.4 Other questions
You’ll have finished. You won’t have finished.
They’ll have finished. They won’t have finished. modal + subject + base form …? question word + modal + base form …?
modal + subject + be + present participle …? question word + modal + be + present
participle …?
modal + subject + have + past participle …?
1.1.3 Yes / no questions 1.1.4 Other questions question word + modal + have + past
Can I help you? Yes, you can. No, I can’t.
participle …?
will + subject + have + past participle …? question word + will + subject + Will you be coming to the party? Yes, I will. No, I won’t.
have + past participle …? Should they have arrived by now? Yes, they should. No, they shouldn’t. When might he arrive?
Will I have finished? Yes, you will. No, you won’t.
What could they be doing?
Will you have finished? Yes, I will. No, I won’t When will I have finished?
Where must he have been?
Will he / she / it have finished? Yes, he / she / it will. No, he / she / it won’t. When will you have finished?
Will we have finished? Yes, we will. No, we won’t. When will he / she / it have finished?
Will you have finished? Yes, we will. No, we won’t. When will we have finished?
Will they have finished? Yes, they will. No, they won’t. When will you have finished? 2 Use
When will they have finished? We use the following modals to talk about probability: They express approximately the following degrees of certainty:
will, must, might, might not, could, may, may not, can’t, won’t
Certain (100%): will, won’t
Most probably (75%): must, can’t, couldn’t
Probable (50%): could, may / may not, might / might not
1.2 Uses
We use the future perfect to talk about something that has not

22
Future perfect:
happened yet, but will be finished before a point in the future. Will you have read the Modals of obligation,
read book the weekend
I will have finished decorating my house by Christmas.
book by the weekend? modals of permission
Will you have read the book by the weekend?
We often use the future perfect in this construction: Past Now Future 1 Form
The form of modals is presented in Lesson 21.
By the time + present simple / present perfect, future perfect

Grammar Reference
By the time he arrives, the programme will have finished. 2 Use
Grammar 2

By the time they’ve gone, the shop will have shut. We use can, may, and could to talk about permission. Could
is most usually used in questions only to ask permission. We
usually answer it with Yes, you can / No, you can’t.
122 Can I borrow your phone?
May I ask a question?
Could I go to the party, please?
You can take some apples if you like.
You may go to the bathroom.
We use can’t and mustn’t to talk about prohibition.
123
You can’t use mobile phones here.
Students mustn’t run in the corridor.
continues …
 Grammar Reference

We use must and have to to talk about obligation. We use
must to talk about obligation which comes from the person
speaking. We use have to to talk about obligation which
comes from someone else.
You have to drive under the speed limit. (It’s the law.)
You must come and see me tomorrow. (Because I said so.)
To talk about the absence of obligation we use not have to.
1.3 Yes / no questions
You don’t have to take your car. You can rent one.
have (question form) + object + past participle …?
She doesn’t have to stay at this job if she doesn’t like it.
The question form of to have will vary depending on which tense you are using.
Did I have my hair cut? Yes, you did. No, you didn’t.
Did you have your hair cut? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t.
Did he / she / it have his / her / its hair cut? Yes, he / she / it did. No, he / she / it didn’t.
Did we have our hair cut? Yes, you did. No, you didn’t.

23 The passive Did you have your hair cut? Yes, we did. No, we didn’t.
Did they have their hair cut? Yes, they did. No, they didn’t.

1 Form 1.4 Other questions

subject + be + past participle
In theory, we can use the passive in any tense. We change
the form of the verb be to change the tense. In reality, it’s
almost never used in the perfect continuous tenses.
The programme is shown every night at eight o’clock.
The classroom is being painted right now, so we can’t use it.
This recipe has been prepared in the same way for
centuries.
question word + have (question form) + object + past participle …?
A new planet was discovered last week.
Where did I have my hair cut?
The room was still being cleaned when I arrived at the
Where did you have your hair cut?
hotel.
Where did he / she / it have their hair cut?
The window had been smashed while I was out.
Where did we have our hair cut?
A new law will be announced next week.
Where did you have your hair cut?
The school will be being repaired all summer.
Where did they have their hair cut?
The work will have been completed before you arrive.

2 Uses
2 Uses We use the causative like the passive, to say that the person We also use the causative to talk about unfortunate things
We use the passive if we don’t know who did the action of This pasta is made in a big factory.
or thing that does the action is unimportant, or unknown. The that we didn’t ask people to do.
the verb. (It’s not important to say who makes it.)
difference is that when we use the causative we usually say
We had our house burgled.
My car has been vandalised. We also use the passive to emphasise the object of the that the person did the action because we asked them to.
She had her handbag stolen.
(I don’t know who did it.) action rather than who does it. If we want to say who does
I had my hair cut.
the action we use by. The verb have can be replaced by get especially when we
We also use the passive if the person who does the action (The hairdresser cut my hair because I asked him to.)
are talking about experiences that happened to us.
of the verb is obvious or unimportant. These cars are made by robots. He had his house painted.
The Parthenon was built by the Ancient Greeks. (The workman painted the house because he asked him to.) I got my coat torn in the crowd.
A new law was passed last week.
(Obviously by the Parliament.)

24 The causative

1 Form

1.1 Positive statements 1.2 Negative statements

subject + have + object + past participle subject + have (negative form) + object + past participle
The examples are in the simple past but we can use The negative form of to have will vary depending on which
the causative in any tense. tense you are using.
I had my hair cut. I didn’t have my hair cut.
You had your hair cut. You didn’t have your hair cut.
He / She / It had his / her / its hair cut. He / She / It didn’t have his / her / its hair cut.
We had our hair cut. We didn’t have our hair cut.
You had your hair cut. You didn’t have your hair cut.
They had their hair cut. They didn’t have their hair cut.

Grammar Reference
Grammar 2

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