Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Electricity began when, in around 600 BC, the Greek philosopher THALES of

MILETUS observed static electricity (amber charged by rubbing). None of the Greeks

who observed THALES could have suspected that the force behind rubbing charged

amber would become the main means of making man master of the earth. The Greek

word for amber is electron, the current name electronics is derived from this Greek name.

WILLIAM GILBERT (1540-1603), the English physicist, applied the term electrics to

materials he developed close to amber. In his treatise entitled De Magnoto published in

1600, he used modern term like electric force and electric attraction, which made his earn

the tittle “father of electricity “.

Heinrich Hertz discovered in 1887 that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet

light would more easily create electric sparks. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper

describing experimental data from the photoelectric effect as the result of the transfer of

light energy in discrete quantum revolution. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in

Physics in 1921 for his discovery, which is also used in picture cells, as can be seen in

solar panels.

Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for centuries

until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert wrote De Magnate, in which he

carefully studied electricity and magnetism, separating the lodestone effect from the

static electricity generated by rubbing the amber. To refer to the property of rubber

attracting small objects, he coined the New Latin Word electricus ("amber" or "gas" from

electron, the Greek word for "fire") William Gilbert (November 1603)

7
 This collaboration produced the English words "heat" and "electricity," which firs

t appeared in print in the “1614 Pseudodoxia Epidemica by Thomas Browne.”

The aim of the electrical distribution system of a ship is to transfer electrical

power safely to every piece of equipment connected to the main switchboard is the most

obvious feature of the programme. The main board consists of motor starter groups

(often part of the main board), section boards, and distribution boards for bulk-fuel.

Transformers interconnect HV and LV delivery device parts. Circuit breakers and fuses

strategically placed inside the system automatically eliminate a faulty network circuit.

The main switchboard is located in the engine control room and from there the engine

room staff monitor and control electrical generation and distribution.

It is very important that each engineer has a deep knowledge of the electrical

power distribution on the ship. The only way to acquire the knowledge is to study control

diagrams of the container. Any oceangoing ship quickly has an A.C. Process of delivery,

contrasted with a direct current D.C. Setup. The electrical distribution system usually

follows shore procedure for a ship. It allows the use of standard industrial equipment

after being modified and licensed where and where appropriate, so that it can withstand

the conditions on board a ship (e.g., noise, freezing and tropical temperatures, humidity,

salty atmosphere, etc. found in various parts of the ship). Most ships come with a 3-ph,

which means that the star-connected generators ' neutral point is not grounded to the hull

of the ship. Ships with very large electric loads include 3.3KV, 6.6KV and even 11KV

(HV) high voltage generators. By using those high voltages, we can reduce the size of the

cables and devices. High-voltage systems are getting more popular with rising ship size

and complexity. An A.C Frequency. Power supply may be 50 Hz or 60 Hz. The most

frequency of power adopted for use on board ships is 60Hz. This heightened level means

8
generators and motors run at higher speeds with a consequent reduction in size for a

given power rating. Lighting and low power single-phase supplies usually operate.

Harmonic distortion – the past and the present time

Ian C Evan, author of "Harmonic Mitigation for AC Thruster & Small

Propulsion Drives," advises that in an offshore installation examined, one of the

classification societies noted 24 per cent voltage distortion). He also says that 12-19 per

cent voltage distortion is relatively common, although not continuous in these

installations, where up to 85 per cent of the electrical load consists of electrical drives. In

international observations, the distortion level measured by the Department of Marine

Electrical Power Engineering at Gdynia Maritime University on ships ' bus-bars is

described and checked. Nevertheless, the classification societies introduced a 5-10 per

cent harmonic distortion cap to understand the potential for seriousness Ian C Evan. ( 15

March 2013)

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

According to the Heirserman David L. The course promotes healthy maritime

electrical practices. Good marine electricity knowledge helps protect the health and

welfare of the crew by encouraging the safe operation of the many electrical systems on

board a ship. Contains themes. The marine engineer must understand the entire output,

delivery and consumer end of the electrical process. To service the vessel safely, all the

electrical apparatuses must be maintained and overhauled. (April 1, 1987), by David L.

Heirserman

Low voltage direct current (LVDC) distribution has gained the significant interest

of research due to the advancements in power conversion technologies. However, the use

9
of converters has given rise to several technical issues regarding their protections and

controls of such devices under faulty conditions. Post-fault behaviour of converter-fed

LVDC system involves both active converter control and passive circuit transient of

similar time scale, which makes the protection for LVDC distribution significantly

different and more challenging than low voltage AC. These protection and operational

issues have handicapped the practical applications of DC distribution. This paper

presents state-of-the-art protection schemes developed for DC Micro grids. With a close

look at practical limitations such as the dependency on modelling accuracy, requirement

on communications and so forth, a comprehensive evaluation is carried out on those

system approaches in terms of system configurations， fault detection, location, isolation

and restoration.

Electrical equipment

Battery and emergency systems are available on ships. A range of essential services

must be able to be provided in emergency conditions in all passenger and freighter

vessels. Specifications differ with ship size and length of journey. Self-contained

electrical power sources must be mounted in places in such a way that they are unlikely

to be compromised or affected by any incident that caused the loss of main power.

Therefore, the emergency generator with its switchboard is situated in a compartment

outside and away from the main and auxiliary machinery spaces, above the highest

continuous deck, and not forward from the collision bulkhead. The same rule applies to

batteries except that accumulator batteries do not have to be installed in the same space

as any emergency switchboard. Emergency generators are now required for passenger

vessels to start and connect automatically within 45 seconds. Often needed is a collection

of automatically attached emergency batteries which can hold those essential items for

thirty minutes. The batteries are designed to provide temporary or transitional fuel,

10
emergency lights and navigation lights, watertight door circuits including alarms and

indicators, and internal communication systems. H. David McGeorge (back in 1986,

1993)

Generators

Through cutting the uniform magnetic flux with a conductor, the electro motive force

(electrical energy) is caused according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

This can be done either by rotating a conducting coil in a stationary magnetic field, or by

rotating a stationary conductor in the magnetic field. Collecting induced alternating

current from the stationary armature coil is simpler than rotating armature coil. In

general, therefore, the coil is kept stationary, and the rotor is the magnetic field. A

permanent magnet or electromagnet creates the magnetic flux. Electro motive force will

be created by cutting this rotating magnetic flux with a stationary armature coil.

Revolving magnetic field has more benefits in AC generators than the revolving armature

coil configuration. (1842, by Thomas Phillips) Michael Faraday.

A machine that converts electrical power to mechanical power. The AC-type3-phase

generators are used on board ships nowadays. An AC generator is identical to a

synchronous motor. It uses direct current driven rotor field windings which induce an AC

output voltage on the windings of the stator armature.

Generators are always synchronous machines used in marine applications. Synchronous

machines are aroused through direct current. In all but very small generators the rotor is

the generator's exciter. The direct current can be supplied to the rotor via slip rings

(brushed excitation) from an external exciting unit, or via a small AC generator and

rectifier on the rotor shaft (brushless excitation). An automatic voltage controller (AVR)

11
controls thrilling current. The AVR holds the voltage of the generators in the fixed value,

whatever changes in load, temperature and frequency.

A.C. Generators

An alternating current generator for a motor vehicle to supply the electrical loads.

The generator has a core stator which carries a three-phase stator or winding output. The

generator rotor has two claw pole members, which are connected magnetically by a core.

A field spindle is arranged around the core. The pole fingers of the claw pole members

are interleaved and a plurality of permanent magnets are secured to side surfaces of the

pole fingers, so that each pair of adjacent pole fingers has a permanent magnet.

The generator is designed in such a way that the flux produced by the permanent magn

ets can flow through a closed magnetic path that bypasses the air gap between the rotor 

and the stator and that the energization of the field coil with unidirectional current allows 

permanent magnet flux to flow through the air gap between the rotor and the stator and t

hus provides a useful flux to produce voltage in the stator wind.

Generators are always synchronous machines used in marine applications. Synchronous

machines are aroused through direct current. In all but very small generators the rotor is

the generator's exciter. The direct current can be supplied to the rotor via slip rings

(brushed excitation) from an external exciting unit, or via a small AC generator and

rectifier on the rotor shaft (brushless excitation). An automatic voltage controller (AVR)

controlls exciting current. The AVR maintains voltage of the generators in the fixed

value, regardless of changes in load, temperature and frequency

D.C Generators

A direct current generator (DC) is a rotating machine which supplies unidirectional

voltage and current to an electrical output. The basic operating principles are identical to

12
those used for synchronous generators. In coils, voltage is induced by the rate of

magnetic field change through the coils as the machine rotates. Since the coil flux

increases and then decreases, this induced voltage inherently alternates in form, with a

zero average value.The field is produced by direct current in field coils or by permanent

magnets on the stator. The output, or armature, windings are placed in slots in the

cylindrical iron rotor. A simplified machine with only one rotor coil is shown in Figure 6.

The rotor is fitted with a mechanical rotating switch, or commutator, that connects the

rotor coil to the stationary output terminals through carbon brushes. This commutator

reverses the connections at the two instants in each rotation when the rate of change of

flux in the coil is zero—i.e., when the enclosed flux is maximum (positive) or minimum

(negative). The output voltage is then unidirectional but is pulsating for the simple case

of one rotor coil. In practical 2-pole machines, the rotor contains many coils

symmetrically arranged in slots around the periphery and all connected in series. Each

coil is connected to a segment on a multi-bar commutator. In this way, the output voltage

consists of the sum of the induced voltages in a number of individual coils displaced

around half the periphery. The magnitude of the output voltage is then approximately

constant, containing only a small ripple. The voltage magnitude is proportional to the

rotor speed and the magnetic flux. Control of output voltage is normally provided by

control of the direct current in the field.

Electric Motor

An electric motor is a computer transforming electrical energy into mechanical

energy. Many electric motors work in a wire winding by combining the magnetic field of

13
the motor with the electrical current to produce force in the form of a shaft's rotation.

Electric motors can be powered by sources of direct current (DC), such as batteries,

motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by sources of alternating current (AC), such as power

grids, inverters or electric generators. Mechanically similar to an electric motor, an

electric generator operates in the opposite direction, transforming mechanical energy into

electrical energy. Jeff publish (2006)

Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type,

internal construction, application and type of motion output. In addition to AC versus DC

types, motors may be brushed or brushless, may be of various phase (see single-

phase, two-phase, or three-phase), and may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled.

General-purpose motors with standard dimensions and characteristics provide convenient

mechanical power for industrial use. The largest electric motors are used for ship

propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching

100 megawatts. Electric motors are found in industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine

tools, household appliances, power tools and disk drives. Small motors may be found in

electric watches. In certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction

motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might

otherwise be lost as heat and friction. Electric motors produce linear or rotary force

(torque) intended to propel some external mechanism, such as a fan or an elevator. An

electric motor is generally designed for continuous rotation, or for linear movement over

a significant distance compared to its size. Magnetic solenoids produce significant

mechanical force, but over an operating distance comparable to their size. Transducers

such as loudspeakers and microphones convert between electrical current and mechanical

force to reproduce signals such as speech. When compared with common internal

combustion engines (ICEs), electric motors are lightweight, physically smaller, provide

14
more power output, are mechanically simpler and cheaper to build, while providing

instant and consistent torque at any speed, with more responsiveness, higher overall

efficiency and lower heat generation. However, electric motors are not as convenient or

common as ICEs in mobile applications (i.e. cars and buses) as they require a large and

expensive battery, while ICEs require a relatively small fuel tank.

DC motors

In 1832 British scientist William Sturgeon invented the first electric DC

commutator capable of turning machinery. Following Sturgeon's work, the American

inventor Thomas Davenport built a commutator-type direct-current electric motor which

he patented in 1837. The engines were running at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and

powered machine tools and a press. The engines were commercially unsuccessful and

Davenport bankrupted, due to the high cost of primary battery power. Sturgeon was

followed by several inventors in the development of DC motors, but all faced the same

battery cost problems. As no electricity distribution system was available at the time, no

practical commercial market emerged for these motors. William Sturgeon in ( 1832.)

In May 1834 Prussian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating electric

motor after many more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and

reciprocating apparatus. It had developed remarkable mechanical power output. His

engine set a world record, which Jacobi improved four years later in September 1838.His

second engine was powerful enough to drive a boat across a wide river with 14 people. It

was also in 1839/40 that other developers succeeded in producing engines with similar

and then higher performance.

15
 In 1855, Jedlik designed a system that was capable of useful work, using similar 

principles to those used in his electromagnetic selfrotors. That same year he designed a

n electric concept car.

A major turning point came in 1864, when the ring armature was first identified

by Antonio Pacinotti (though originally conceived in a DC generator, i.e. a dynamo).

This featured symmetrically grouped coils closed onto themselves and connected to a

commutator's bars which provided virtually non-fluctuating current from the brushes.

The first commercially successful DC motors followed developments by Zénobe

Gramme, who reinvented Pasinetti’s design in 1871 and by Werner Siemens took on

some solutions.

A benefit to DC machines came from the discovery of the electric machine's

reversibility, which Siemens announced in 1867 and which Pacinotti observed in 1869.

Gramme inadvertently showed this at the 1873 Vienna World Fair, when he connected

two of these DC devices up to two kilometers from each other, using one as a generator

and the other as engine.

Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske invented the drum rotor to

replace Pacinotti's ring armature in 1872, thereby increasing machine efficiency. The

following year, Siemens & Halske developed the laminated rotor, achieving reduced iron

losses and increased induced voltages. In 1880, Jonas Wenström provided slots for

housing the winding to the rotor, further enhancing the effectiveness. (1880,) Jonas

Wenström

In 1886 the first practical DC motor was invented by Frank Julian Sprague, a

non-sparking system that retained relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other

Sprague electrical inventions at this time greatly improved grid electrical distribution

(previous work done while employed by Thomas Edison), enabled electrical motor

16
power to be returned to the electrical grid, provided for electrical distribution to trolleys

via overhead wires and trolley pole, and provided electrical operation control systems.

This helped Sprague to use electric motors to develop the first electric trolley system in

Richmond, Virginia in 1887–88, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the

electric subway with independently operated central-controlled automobiles. The latter

were first installed by the South Side Elevated Railroad in Chicago in 1892, where it

popularly became known as the "L" Sprague's engine and related developments have led

to an explosion in consumer interest and use in electric motors. For several decades, the

development of acceptable efficiency electric motors was delayed by the failure to

recognize the extreme importance of an air gap between the rotor and the stator.

Efficient designs present a comparatively small gap in air. For the same reason, the St. L

ouis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate the principles of motors, is extremely ine

fficient and appears to be nothing like a modern engine. Frank Julian Sprague, in 1886

Electric engines have revolutionized industry. Industrial processes with line

shafts, belts, compressed air, or hydraulic pressure were no longer limited by power

transmission. Instead, each machine could be equipped with its own power source,

allowing for easy control at the point of use, and improving the efficiency of power

transmission. Electric motors used in agriculture have removed the power of the human

and animal muscles from such activities as grain handling or pumping water. Household

uses of electric motors reduced heavy work in the home and made it possible to have

higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety. Electric motors today consume

more than half of US-produced electricity.

AC motors

17
 In 1824, French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating

magnetic fields, called Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning on and off

switches, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as the first primitive induction motor I n the

1880s, many inventors tried to develop workable AC motors because the advantages of

AC in high-voltage long-distance transmission were offset..The first alternating-current

commutator less induction motor was invented by Galileo Ferraris in 1885. Ferraris was

able to improve his first design by producing more advanced setups in 1886. In 1888,

the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrari’s research detailing the

foundations of motor operation, while concluding at that time that "the apparatus based

on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor."

Possible industrial development was envisaged by Nikola Tesla, who in 1887

invented his induction engine independently, and in May 1888 obtained a patent. In the

same year, Tesla presented his paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and

Transformers to the AIEE that described three patented two-phase four-stator-pole motor

types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another

with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true

synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. Nevertheless,

one of Tesla's patents filed in 1887 also mentioned a shorted-winding-rotor induction

motor. George Westinghouse, who had already acquired Ferraris rights (US$ 1,000),

promptly purchased Tesla's patents (US$ 60,000 plus US$ 2.50 per sold hp, paid until

1897), used Tesla to develop its engines, and assigned C.F. Scott supported Tesla but in

1889 Tesla left for other pursuits. Constant speed AC induction motor was not found to

be suitable for street cars, but it was successfully adapted by Westinghouse engineers to

power a mining operation in Telluride, Colorado in 1890.

Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction engine in 1892 and in 1893 developed 

18
a line of polyphaser 60 hertz induction engines, but these early Westinghouse engines we

re twophase wound rotor motors. G.B. Lamme later developed a spinning rotor with a re

volving circle.

In 1889, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase induction motor

of both cage-rotor and wound rotor types with a starting rheostat, and the three-limb

transformer in 1890, steadfast in his promotion of the three-phase growth. Oerlikon,

Doliwo-Dobrowolski and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown produced larger models

following a deal between AEG and Maschinenfabrik, namely a 20-hp squirrel cage and a

100-hp wound rotor with a starting rheostat. These were the first asynchronous three-

phase motors fit for practical service. Since 1889 Wenström began parallel designs of

three-phase machinery. The first long distance tri-phase system was successfully

presented at the 1891 Frankfurt International Electro technical Exhibition. It was rated at

15 kV and extended to the Neckar River about 175 km from the Lauffen Waterfall. A

240 kW 86 V 40 Hz alternator and a step-up transformer were installed at the Lauffen

power station, while a step-down transformer fed a 100-hp three-phase induction motor

that powered an artificial waterfall, representing the transfer of the original power source.

For the vast majority of commercial applications, the three-phase induction is now used.

However, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase

pulsations, which prompted him In 1891 the General Electric Company began the

production of three-phase induction engines. In 1896, a cross-licensing agreement was

signed between General Electric and Westinghouse for bar-winding-rotor construction,

later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Improvements to the induction motor arising from

these advancements and developments were such that in 1897, a 100-horsepower

induction motor actually has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor.

Marine Electro-technology

19
 The students of Marine Engineering have a high positive outlook towards the

Electro Technology course as well as the teaching and learning process approaches. They

really like the topic because it requires critical and logical thinking and an in-depth

analysis that most can follow. But teachers need to keep the discussion interactive so they

stay focused on the subject. During hands-on activities that are considered part of

teaching the subject they are excited. Training by doing is seen as an important

component of the teaching process, which would provide better experience and

knowledge application.

In particular the maintenance, operation and installation of various machinery and

systems in the vessel, as well as the production and construction of marine vessels,

instructors may relate the topics to the real life situation in the work environment.

Integrating technology into subject presentation during discussion and demonstration

would provide a better atmosphere for the students to gain interest in the course.

Providing proper instruction and guidance will lead wellinformed class members to a pos

itive teaching and learning cycle that sets out certain rules and regulations to be followed 

by everyone for an orderly manner of everyday classroom activities (Agena et al., 2015).

Further exercises are recommended to further improve the ability to understand

what the professor is debating (An, 2014). Teachers in electro technology may provide

outcome-based teaching and learning activities such as interactive games and projects to

promote student cooperation and teamwork. Outcome-based education is a model of

education that deviates from the traditional teaching method that focuses on what the

school provides to students but instead directs students to demonstrate that they "know

and are capable of doing" whatever the outcomes required (Reyes, 2013).

They also claimed that they are learning a lot since there is ample time in the

course for educating the students and they feel comfortable knowing this subject because

20
the classroom is conducive to learning with state-of - the-art facilities. In the Electro Lab

and classroom, the person in charge of the maintenance and administration of the

equipment must always see to it that everything is in proper condition and working

properly before lab activities begin.

Attitude is one important building block for a person especially the students to

successfully achieve their aspirations or sometimes experience hopelessness and

dejection. Having the right attitude towards something would mean an outstanding end

result and vice versa (Flores et al., 2015). Changing or improving the students ' attitude to

school-related factors will help them to achieve the right way to learn the skills they need

after graduation (Agena, et al., 2015).

Holfve–Sabel's investigation (2006) focused on student attitudes and examines

the quality of school from the perspective of affective variables rather than the

knowledge or abilities of the students. The concept of attitude includes ways to feel,

think and behave within the environment, and to maintain an expression of one's identity.

The main purpose of this study is to establish the relationship between the

academic performance of Marine Engineering students in the field of electro technology

and their attitudes to the subject itself, the teaching methods of the teacher and the

learning environment. The analysis method of descriptive-correlation was employed in

the study. Results showed that over one third of the Third Year Marine Engineering

students population has average rating performance in Electro Technology 1 while good

performance in Electro Technology 2. Students have a highly positive outlook towards

the subject itself, more so than the teaching methods and learning environment of the

teachers. There has also been a positive correlation between the final grades in Electro

Technology and the attitude towards the subject and the method of teaching by the

21
teachers. To get a better appreciation of the discipline, it is suggested that the students '

interest in the subject be enhanced. In particular the maintenance, operation and

installation of various machinery and systems in the vessel, as well as the production and

construction of marine vessels, instructors may relate the topics to the real life situation

in the work environment. Laguador Jake M.

Design features and system configurations of operational control equipment for

electrical motors.

Ideally, engine controls can be described as a group of devices that pre-definedly

regulate the output of an electric motor. Engine sensors are also known as engine

controllers. These have several essential functions which include: starting automatically

or manually as well as stopping the operation of an electric motor, setting forward or

reversing the rotation direction, selecting and regulating the rotation speed, monitoring or

adjusting the torque, as well as protecting the motor from multiple degrees of electrical

overload and faults.

Electric motors, no matter what their size, have some sort of controller. Such

motor controllers may differ in terms of their characteristics and complexity, which is

largely determined by a particular motor function. A normal switch is the simplest

example of a motor control system, connecting a motor to its power source. The switch

can be a manual controller, or relay that is connected to an automatic sensor to start and

stop a motor.

Controllers may offer different features, depending on the applications of a motor. We

help the engine start in low-voltage conditions, allow multiple-speed or reverse control

operations, protect against faults in overcurrent and overload, and perform a wide range

of other functions. Many sophisticated motor control systems may help control the speed

22
and torque of themotor(s) efficiently, and may also be part of a closed loop control

system responsible for the precise location of the motor driven engine.

Different Types of Motor Controller

Motor control devices 

Are designed to be controlled in a manual, automatic, or remote manner. They

can be used for starting or stopping a motor attached to a machine as well as serve

several other purposes. These controls are categorized according to the type of motor

they are designed to operate.

Motor Starters

Small motors can be started simply by plugging the electrical switch into the

receiver and turning on the power button. Larger engines, however, include engine

starters, or contractors, which are specialized switching systems used to drive an electric

motor. The direct online starters attach motor terminals immediately to the power supply

upon being started. You can also use a reverse starter, which comprises two direct on-line

circuits, to rotate the motor in either direction. Quite large motors operating on medium

voltage power supplies use power-circuit breakers as the starting components.

Reduced Voltage Starters

Under reduced voltage conditions two or more starters are used to power a motor. Lower

voltage is presented at the engine terminals through a series of inductance or an

autotransformer, which in turn helps to reduce the starting torque and the inrush electric

23
current. The starter automatically transfers maximum voltage current to the engine

terminals once the engine exceeds a certain fraction of its top-load rpm.

Adjustable-Speed Drives

The adjustable speed drive, also known as the variable speed drive, is a single

combination of devices that allow operators to drive as well as change the operating

speed of a mechanical load. These drives include a speed generator, or power converter, a

number of auxiliary equipment, and an electric motor.

Intelligent Controllers

Intelligent motor control devices use advanced microprocessors for controlling

the power of electronic devices employed in an electric motor. These controllers monitor

the load exerted on a motor and match torque to the recorded load accordingly. This is

done by cutting down the voltage to AC terminals and lowering the current and Kvar at

the same time, which results in energy efficiency, and lesser noise, vibrations as well as

heat generated by a motor.

Servo Controllers

Servo controllers can be understood as a broad category of motor control devices, known

primarily for highlighting features such as: precise closed-loop location control.

Acceleration in rapid rate. Precise servo speed control motors made from different motor

types including AC servo motors, brushed DC motors, and brushless DC motors. Such

devices use position feedback to close the control loop and are widely used for direct

measurement of rotor position in conjunction with resolvers, encoders, and Hall Effect

sensors.

Design of a control system

In contemporary drive systems, asynchronous motors can mostly be powered by

frequency converters (inverters) or soft starters. In most cases speed control of the

24
auxiliary machines is not a necessary requirement. These drives need to be started and

stopped smoothly but their speed through the operating modes can be constant. In such

cases, intelligent devices named "Soft Starters" may be used. These are cheaper than

inverters and frequency converters and allow for temporary reduction of the torque and

current surge as well as smooth deceleration during initialization. Selected Altistart 01

Soft Start / Soft Stop Units ATS01N2 built by Schneider Electric Company. This unit

uses thermistor regulator to control the motor power supply to restrict the starting current

and for deceleration. It also features an internally turned on bypass relay during steady

state service. This system is fitted with 3 potentiometers for setting the start and

deceleration time and changing the threshold of starting voltage according to the load of

the motor. Two logic inputs provide Run / Stop commands and the Boost function (+

24V positive logic) can be used with a third logic input. One logic output indicates end of

start and one relay output indicates that at the end of the deceleration stage the voltage is

turned off. The generator is powered by a green LED, and a yellow LED shows the

engine is powered at nominal voltage. The appropriate model is selected according to

asynchronous engine technical data. For nominal voltage of 380V Altistart

ATS01N2**QN is available.

The soft starter's logical inputs and outputs were connected to the Simatic S7-200

plc. TP177micro Touch Panel was designed for Start / Stop and Boost commands which

are transmitted to the soft starter through the PLC. Two-wire control was carried out–the

soft start commands run and stop are controlled by a switch and single logic input LI2.

State "1" controls the run process, and the stop process is controlled by state "0." The

switch was designed for the Voltage Boost feature via the soft starter's third logic input–

triggering this input allows the device to supply a start over torque that can withstand any

mechanical friction. The feature becomes activated when the input is in state "1," and the

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starter provides the measured voltage to the motor for a limited period of time (200 ms)

prior to start. The PLC's digital inputs are used for receiving drive state information. A

bar was mounted on the Touch Panel and displays the speed of the motor shown by the

soft starter's logic output LO1 (the bypass relay was turned on and the motor reached

nominal

speedAn alert was also mounted on the Touch Panel, signaling a fault: the Fault relay co

ntact R1AR1C (built into the soft starter) closes with the Run command and opens when 

the motor voltage is around 0 with a decelerated stop or stop immediately on a fault.

Measuring equipment with high accuracy has been used. The Siemens-developed power

monitoring device Sentron PAC3200 provides an analysis of current consumption and

power flows in the electrical system. It was directly connected to the tensioning system.

Three current transformers CT 50/5 A are used to calculate the current (maximum

starting current is 50 A). This instrument accurately and reliably measures electrical

consumer power values and provides important calculated values for determining the

state of the network and the quality of electricity. It has a variety of useful tracking,

diagnostics and service features, a two-tariff active and reactive energy counter (imported

and exported electricity), a universal counter, and a counter for working hours to track

load running time

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