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a) Alcoholic beverages are consumed largely for their physiological and psychological

effects, but they are often consumed within specific social contexts such as parties or
any other celebratory event. However, the consequences are faced by not only adults
but adolescents. Many teenagers abuse alcohol for varying reasons but are not
cognizant of the long- and short-term effects it has on their lives.
 Often adolescents are forced to partake in events which mostly plays out for the
worst. One of these many events is drinking alcohol. In Jamaica, during Christmas
time, adolescents are excited to go to parties especially on ‘Grandmarket night’. This
night they drink and smoke, the most they have done in the year, carelessly. This huge
intake of alcohol cause some of them to end up in the hospital, some curse and act out
of order and lastly some are sexually assaulted.
 In addition, some adolescents just choose to intake a large amount of alcohol daily
which will only strengthen their addiction. When someone is addicted to alcohol they
are referred to as an alcoholic. Normally if they don’t consume alcohol daily, they
will start to experience withdrawal symptoms. This may cause them to go the extra
mile to get even a drink of alcohol which often results in committing crimes such as
stealing or killing.
b) Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live
pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the
primary immune response. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a
vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen.

c) The main difference between these conditions is that chronic bronchitis produces a

frequent cough with mucus. The main symptom of emphysema is shortness of breath.
Smoking is the main cause of COPD, though non-smokers can also get the disease.
Smoking and Chronic Bronchitis

Chronic bronchitis occurs when the bronchial tubes — airways that bring air to and from
your lungs — are constantly irritated and inflamed. Cigarette smoke contains thousands of
chemical components. When you breathe in cigarette smoke, the chemicals irritate and
activate certain white blood cells (macrophages) and cells that make up the lining of the
airways (epithelial cells). This causes the cells to release multiple types of cytokines, which
are small signalling proteins that cause the airway lining to thicken and airways to become
inflamed. The persistent airway inflammation caused by cigarette smoke can cause a cycle of
injury and repair that changes the structure of the airways and makes them narrower.
Cigarette smoke also induces a cascading effect that results in certain cells producing
more mucus than normal. The irritants decrease the number and length of cilia — hair-like
appendages that beat rapidly to move particles, fluid, and mucus through your airways. With
the cilia unable to do their jobs, mucus blankets the lining of the airways, providing a home
for bacteria, which can release toxins that promote mucus production and further damage
cilia.

Smoking and Emphysema

Emphysema occurs when alveoli — air sacs located at the end of the bronchial tubes in
grape-like clusters — become damaged, causing them to lose their elasticity, which results in
laboured breathing. Cigarette smoke–induced inflammation is thought to be an underlying
cause of emphysema, but the processes involved are unclear. Some research suggests that
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certain inflammatory cells release enzymes that break down the proteins responsible for
alveolar elasticity. Cigarette smoke may also somehow induce programmed cell death
(apoptosis) in alveolar cells. There is also some evidence that cigarette smoke causes an
autoimmune response in which the immune system attacks alveoli tissue. 

d) An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced

mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as
pathogenic bacteria and viruses.

e) When a B-lymphocyte encounters an antigen, which binds to its receptors in its plasma
membrane, it responds quickly. This process is known as clonal selection. This antigen can
be in the blood or it is the plasma membrane of a macrophage. The B- lymphocytes respond
by dividing repeatedly by mitosis forming many genetically identical cells and this process is
called clonal proliferation. These cells develop extra Golgi apparatus, ribosomes and
endoplasmic reticulum. They rapidly synthesise more molecules of their antibody and release
them by exocytosis. Because of the rapid production antibodies, the plasma cells do not live
long. The antibodies are now secreted in the blood and carried to all parts of the body. They
now bind with the antigens on the bacteria which destroys the bacteria. Some cells that are
produced by the clonal proliferation of the B-lymphocytes are stored as memory cells. These
cells live for a long time remain in the blood to respond quickly to the same bacteria if it
enters the body again.
f) Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
is a disease caused by a virus called HIV. Acquired means that people are not born with the
disease. Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus.
Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection. These may include a high
fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin rash. These
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illnesses plays a role in the death of many across the world which has affected the social and
economic aspects greatly of these countries. Social impacts of AIDS are as follows:
 Many times the poorer class of people are exposed to AIDS and cannot afford the
required medications.
 Infected persons may face discrimination from public and may not know how to
cope
 AIDS may cause the breaking up of families as the infected may be shunned from
other family members and lack of support from close friends.
Some economic impacts are as follows:
 The quality of work is poor which may cause a decrease in the labour supply
 A reduction in workers due to high rate of infected persons may increase the
medical care and supplies of these persons and cause a strain on the economy.
 A decrease in GDP
Dengue also has its social and economic impacts on the Caribbean.
Social impacts
 Infant mortality rate increasing
 Disruption in the attendance of students, teachers and employees
Economic impacts:
 Tourism declining
 The funding of treatment, management and prevention of the virus.