HUMIDIFICATION AND

WATER COOLING
 COURSE OUTLINE
• Compressible flow: Normal shock waves, flow in
pipes and nozzles.
• Cooling Tower Design: psychometric charts,
estimation of tower heights, humidifying tower.
• Drying: Drying mechanisms, estimation of drying
periods, description and function of industrial
drying.
• Conduction: The Fourier equation and
application to composites, cylinders and sphere.
Analytical and numerical solutions of steady and
unsteady state conduction equations.
HUMIDIFICATION AND DEHUMIDIFICATION

• In the processing of materials, it is often

necessary either to increase the amount of
vapour present in a gas stream, an operation
known as humidification; or to reduce the
vapour present, a process referred to as
dehumidification.
• In humidification, the vapour content may be
increased by passing the gas over a liquid which
then evaporates into the gas stream.
• The transfer into the main stream takes place by
diffusion, and at the interface simultaneous heat
and mass transfer take place.
• In the reverse operation, that is, dehumidification,
partial condensation must be effected and the
condensed vapour removed.
• The most widespread application of
humidification and dehumidification involves the
air-water system.
• Examples of humidification and dehumidification
include air conditioning and gas drying, such as
removing moisture from wet chlorine so that the
gas can be handled in steel equipment which
otherwise would be severely corroded.
• Similarly, gases used in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid must be dried or dehumidified, by
passing the gas through a dehydrating agent
such as sulphuric acid.
• Also, in order that hot condenser water may be
re-used in a plant, it is normally cooled by
contact with air stream. This explores the
interface simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
DEFINITIONS
• In humidification operations, the usual basis for
engineering calculations is a unit mass of vapour-
free gas (or dry gas).
• Because the properties of a gas-vapour mixture vary
with total pressure, the pressure must be fixed.
• Unless otherwise specified, a total pressure of 1 atm
is assumed.
• Also it is assumed that mixtures of gas and
vapour follow ideal gas laws.
• In the gas phase the vapour will be referred to as
component A and the fixed gas as component B.
HUMIDITY, ℋ
• Humidity, ℋ is the mass of vapour carried by a
unit mass of vapour-free gas.
• From ideal gas law, for a unit volume of gas:
𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝐴
• 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 =
𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝐵 𝑀𝐵
• Mass of non-condensable (dry) gas = ≅
𝑅𝑇
𝑃−𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝐵
𝑅𝑇
• For binary systems containing only the dry gas
and vapour, its total pressure, 𝑃 gives:
• 𝑃 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵
• Where 𝑃𝐴 and 𝑃𝐵 are partial pressures of
vapour and dry gas respectively. Thus,
𝑀𝐴 𝑃𝐴
•ℋ = (1)
𝑀𝐵 𝑃−𝑃𝐴
• For air−water system 𝑃𝐴 is frequently small
compared with 𝑃 and Equation (1) may be
approximated as:
𝑀𝐴 𝑃𝐴
•ℋ =
𝑀𝐵 𝑃
• Where 𝑀𝐴 and 𝑀𝐵 are the molecular weight of
components 𝐴 and 𝐵 respectively
HUMIDITY OF SATURATED GAS, ℋ𝑆

• ℋ𝑆 is the humidity of the gas when it is

saturated with vapour (i.e at equilibrium) at a
given temperature.
• The partial pressure of vapour in saturated gas
equals the vapour pressure of the liquid at the
gas temperature.
 𝑀𝐴 𝑃𝐴′
• ℋ𝑆 = (2)
𝑀𝐵 𝑃−𝑃𝐴′
′
• Where 𝑃𝐴 is the vapour pressure of the liquid (or
partial pressure of vapour in saturated gas).
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, ℋ𝑅

• ℋ𝑅 is defined as the ratio of the partial

pressure of the vapour to the vapour pressure
of the liquid at the gas temperature.
• It is usually expressed on a percentage basis, so
100 percent humidity means saturated gas and
0 percent humidity means vapour-free gas.
•By definition:

𝑃𝐴
•ℋ𝑅 = 100 𝑃′ (3)
𝐴
PERCENTAGE HUMIDITY, ℋ𝐴
• ℋ𝐴 is the ratio of the actual humidity, ℋ to the
saturation humidity, ℋ𝑆 at the gas temperature,
also on percentage basis.
𝑃𝐴
ℋ 𝑃−𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐴 𝑃−𝑃𝐴′
• ℋ𝐴 = 100 = 100 𝑃′𝐴
= 100 ′
ℋ𝑆 𝑃𝐴 𝑃−𝑃𝐴
𝑃−𝑃′𝐴
 𝑃−𝑃𝐴′
• ∴ ℋ𝐴 = ℋ𝑅 (4)
𝑃−𝑃𝐴
• At all humidities other than 0 or 100 percent, the
percentage humidity is less than the relative
humidity.
HUMID HEAT, 𝑐𝑠
• 𝑐𝑠 is the heat required to raise unit mass of dry
gas and its associated vapour through unit
temperature difference at constant pressure.
Thus:
• 𝑐𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝𝐵 + 𝑐𝑝𝐴 ℋ (5)
• Where 𝑐𝑝𝐵 and 𝑐𝑝𝐴 are the specific heats of gas
and vapour, respectively.
HUMID VOLUME, 𝜈𝐻

• 𝜈𝐻 is the total volume of a unit mass of

vapour-free gas plus whatever vapour it may
contain at the gas pressure and temperature.
𝑅𝑇 1 ℋ
• ∴ 𝜈𝐻 = + (6)
𝑃 𝑀𝐵 𝑀𝐴
 𝐽
• For S.I unit where 𝑅 = 8314 𝐾, and
𝐾𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101325 𝑃𝑎
1 ℋ
• ∴ 𝜈𝐻 = 8.205 𝑥 10−2 𝑇 +
𝑀𝐵 𝑀𝐴
22.4 1 ℋ
• = 𝑇 +
273 𝑀𝐵 𝑀𝐴

• Where 𝜈𝐻 is in cubic meters per kilogram.

• For vapour-free gas ℋ = 0, and 𝜈𝐻 is the specific
volume of the fixed gas. For saturated gas ℋ =
ℋ𝑠 , and 𝜈𝐻 becomes the saturated volume.
DEW POINT

• Dew point is the temperature at which the gas is

saturated with vapour.
• As a gas is cooled, the dew point is the
temperature at which condensation will first
occur.
 EXAMPLE
• In a process in which it is used as a solvent,
benzene is evaporated into dry nitrogen. At
𝐾𝑁
297 𝐾 and 101.3 2 , the resulting mixture has a
𝑚
percentage relative humidity of 60. it is required
to recover 80 percent of the benzene present by
cooling to 283 K and compressing to a suitable
pressure. What should the pressure be?
 𝐾𝑁
• The vapour pressure of benzene is 12.2 2 at
𝑚
𝐾𝑁
297 𝐾 and 60 2 at 283 𝐾.
𝑚
• NOTE: molecular mass of Benzene is
78 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 and that of Nitrogen is
28 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙.
SOLUTION
• Given:
• ℋ𝑅 (297 𝐾) = 60
• 𝑃(297𝐾) = 101.3 𝐾𝑁 𝑚2 = 1.103 𝑥 105 𝑁 𝑚2
′
• 𝑃𝐴 (297𝐾) = 12.2 𝐾𝑁 𝑚2 = 1.22 𝑥 104 𝑁 𝑚2
′
• 𝑃𝐴(283𝐾) = 6.0 𝐾𝑁 𝑚2 = 6.0 𝑥 103 𝑁 𝑚2
• 𝑀𝐴 (𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒) = 78 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
• 𝑀𝐵 (𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛) = 28 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
20
• ℋ283 𝐾 = ℋ297 𝐾 = ℋ𝑠(283)
100
• 𝑃(283𝐾) = ?
• The recovery of 80 % of the benzene at 283 𝐾 implies
that the humidity at 297 𝐾 is reduced to 20 % at 283 𝐾.
• Since reduction of humidity is carried out by cooling the
gas, and hence condensation, from 297 K to 283 K, then
the humidity at 283 K is the saturated humidity.

20 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑀𝐴
• ℋ283 𝐾 = ℋ297 𝐾 = ℋ𝑠 (283 𝐾) =
100 𝑃−𝑃𝐴′ 𝑀𝐵
283 𝐾
 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑀𝐴 ′
• 𝑃(283𝐾) = + 𝑃𝐴
ℋ283 𝐾 𝑀𝐵
20
• ℋ283 𝐾 = ℋ297 𝐾
100
𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝐴
• = 0.2 𝑥
𝑃−𝑃𝐴 𝑀𝐵 297 𝐾
𝑃𝐴
• From ℋ𝑅 = 100 ′
𝑃𝐴
ℋ𝑅 .𝑃𝐴′
• ∴ 𝑃𝐴(297𝐾) =
100 297
60 𝑥 1.22 𝑥 104 2
•= 100
= 7320 𝑁 𝑚
 7320 78
• ℋ283 𝐾 = 0.2 𝑥
101325−7320 28

• = 0.0434 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
6 𝑥 103 78
• ∴ 𝑃(283𝐾) = + 6 𝑥 103
0.0434 28

• = 3.91 𝑥 105 𝑁 𝑚2
 ASSIGNMENT
• In a vessel at101.3 𝐾𝑁/𝑚 2 and 300 𝐾, the
percentage humidity of the water vapour in
the air is 25. If the partial pressure of water
vapour when air is saturated with vapour at
300 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 3.6 𝐾𝑁/𝑚 2
• calculate:
• a) the partial pressure of the water vapour in
the vessel.
• b) the specific volume of the air and water
vapour.
• c) the humidity of the air and humid volume
• d) the relative humidity
 TOTAL ENTHALPY, 𝐻𝑦
• 𝐻𝑦 is the enthalpy of a unit mass of dry gas plus
whatever vapour it may contain.
• To calculate 𝐻𝑦 , two reference states must be
chosen, one for gas and one for vapour.
• Let 𝑇0 be the datum temperature chosen for both
components.
• Base the enthalpy of component A on liquid A at 𝑇0
• (Temperature 𝑇0 = 32℉ = 0℃ = 273 𝐾 for most
air-water problems).
• Let the temperature of the gas be T and the
humidity ℋ.
• The total enthalpy is the sum of three items:
1. The sensible heat of the vapour,
2. The latent heat of the liquid at 𝑇0 , and
3. The sensible heat of vapour-free gas.
• Then
• 𝐻𝑦 = 𝑐𝑝𝐵 𝑇 − 𝑇0 + ℋ𝜆0 + 𝑐𝑝𝐴 ℋ 𝑇 − 𝑇0 (7)
• Where 𝜆0 is the latent heat of the liquid at 𝑇0 .
• From equation (5)
• 𝐻𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑇 − 𝑇0 + ℋ𝜆0 (8)
WET-BULB TEMPERATURE
• When a stream of unsaturated gas is passed over
the surface of a liquid, the humidity of the gas is
increased due to evaporation of the liquid.
• The temperature of the liquid falls below that of
the gas and heat is transferred from the gas to
the liquid.
• At equilibrium the rate of heat transfer from the
gas just balances that required to vapourize the
liquid and the liquid is said to be at wet-bulb
temperature.
• The rate at which this temperature is reached
depends on the initial temperatures and the rate
of flow of gas past the liquid surface.
• With a small area of contact between the gas
and the liquid and a high gas flowrate, the
temperature and humidity of the gas stream
remain virtually unchanged.
• The rate of transfer of heat from the gas to the
liquid can be written as:
• 𝑄 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐴 (9)
• Where 𝑄 is the heat flow,
• ℎ the coefficient of heat transfer,
• 𝐴 the area for transfer and
• 𝑇 and 𝑇𝐴 are the temperatures of the gas and
liquid phases respectively.
• The liquid evaporating into the gas is transferred
by diffusion from the interface to the gas stream
as a result of a concentration difference
𝑐0 − 𝑐 .
• Where 𝑐𝑜 is the concentration of the vapour at
the surface (mass per unit volume) and
• 𝑐 is the concentration in the gas stream.
• The rate of evaporation is then given by:
𝑀𝐴
• 𝑊 = ℎ𝐷 𝐴 𝑐0 − 𝑐 = ℎ𝐷 𝐴 𝑃𝐴′ − 𝑃𝐴 (10)
𝑅𝑇
• Where ℎ𝐷 is the coefficient of mass transfer.
• The partial pressures of the vapour, 𝑃𝐴 and 𝑃𝐴′ ,
may be expressed in terms of the corresponding
humidities ℋ and ℋ𝑤 by equation (1) and (2).
• where ℋ𝑤 is the saturation humidity at the wet
bulb temperature, i.e ℋ𝑠 = ℋ𝑤 at wet-bulb
temperature.
• If 𝑃𝐴 and 𝑃𝐴′ are small compared with 𝑃 ,
′
𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴 and 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐴 may be replaced by a
mean partial pressure of the gas 𝑃𝐵 .
𝑀𝐵 𝑃𝐵
• ⇒ 𝑊 = ℎ𝐷 𝐴 ℋ𝑤 − ℋ (11)
𝑅𝑇
• But from ideal gas law:
𝑃𝐵 .𝑀𝐵
• 𝜌𝐵 =
𝑅𝑇
• 𝑊 = ℎ𝐷 𝐴 𝜌𝐵 ℋ𝑤 − ℋ (12)
• Where 𝜌𝐵 is the density of the gas at the partial
pressure 𝑃𝐵 .
• The heat required to maintain this rate of
evaporation is:
• 𝑄 = ℎ𝐷 𝐴 𝜌𝐵 ℋ𝑤 − ℋ 𝜆 (13)
• Where 𝜆 is the latent heat of vaporisation of the
liquid.
• Thus equating equation (9) and (13), let 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝑤
at wet bulb temperature.
ℎ
• ⟹ ℋ − ℋ𝑤 = − 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 (14)
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵 𝜆
• Both ℎ and ℎ𝐷 are dependent on the equivalent
gas film thickness, and thus any decrease in the
thickness, as a result of increasing the gas
velocity, for example, increase both ℎ and ℎ𝐷
 ℎ
• At normal temperature, is virtually
ℎ𝐷
independent of the gas velocity, provided this is
greater than about 5 𝑚 𝑠.
• The wet bulb temperature, 𝑇𝑤 depends only on
the temperature and humidity of the gas and its
value are determined for comparatively high gas
velocities.
• At the high gas velocities, the condition of the
gas does not change appreciably as a result of
being brought into contact with the liquid and
ℎ
the ratio has reached a constant value.
ℎ𝐷
ℎ
• For the air-water system, the ratio is
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
about 1.0 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 and varies from 1.5 to 2.0
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾 for organic liquids.
EXAMPLE:
• Moist air at 310 K has a wet-bulb temperature of
300 𝐾. If the latent heat of vapourisation of
water at 300 𝐾 is 2440 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔, estimate the
humidity of the air and the percentage relative
2
humidity. The total pressure is 105 𝐾𝑁 𝑚 and
the vapour pressure of water vapour at 300 𝐾 is
2 2
3.60 𝐾𝑁 𝑚 and 6.33 𝐾𝑁 𝑚 at 310 𝐾.
ASSIGNMENT

1) Given that air is at 480C and 60% Humidity,

find the
• (a) the wet bulb temperature of the air
• (b) the Humidity of the air
• (c) the Enthalpy of the air
• 2) Given that air is at 450C and absolute
Humidity of 0.02 kg water/ kg vapour find the
below:
• A) the % Humidity of air
• B) the wet bulb temperature of the air
• C) the enthalpy of the air
 ADIABATIC SATURATION TEMPERATURE
• For wet-bulb temperature, humidity and
temperature of the gas does not change
appreciably because of the high gas velocity.
• If the gas is passed over the liquid at such a rate
that the time of contact is sufficient for
equilibrium to be established, the gas will become
saturated and both phases will be brought to the
same temperature.
Fig: Adiabatic air water-
vapour saturator
• The figure above shows an illustration.
• In a thermally insulated system (adiabatic system),
the total sensible heat falls by an amount equal to
the latent heat of the liquid evaporated.
• As a result of continual passage of the gas, the
temperature of the liquid gradually approaches an
equilibrium value which is known as the adiabatic
saturation temperature.
• If a heat balance is made, it is seen that the heat
of vapourization of the liquid must come from
the sensible heat in the gas at the steady state.
• The temperature of the gas falls from 𝑇 to the
adiabatic saturation temperature 𝑇𝑠 , and his
humidity increases from ℋ to ℋ𝑠 (the saturation
value at 𝑇𝑠 ).
• Working on the basis of unit mass of dry gas:
• 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑐𝑠 = − ℋ − ℋ𝑠 𝜆 (15 a)
• Where 𝑐𝑠 is the humid heat of the gas and 𝜆 the
latent heat of vapourization at 𝑇𝑠 .
• 𝑐𝑠 is almost constant for small changes in ℋ.
• Substituting 𝑐𝑠 in eqn (5) into (15a):
ℋ−ℋ𝑠 𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑝𝐵 +𝑐𝑝𝐴 ℋ
• = − =−
𝑇−𝑇𝑠 𝜆 𝜆
• Equation (15) cannot be solved directly for the
adiabatic saturation temperature 𝑇𝑠 , since ℋ𝑠 ,
𝜆, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑠 are all functions of 𝑇𝑠 .
• Thus, 𝑇𝑠 is obtained by a trial-and-error
calculation or for air-water system by using
humidity (psychrometric) chart .
• Equation (15a) indicates an approximately linear
relationship between humidity and temperature
for all mixtures of gas and vapour having the
same adiabatic saturation temperature 𝑇𝑠 .
• A curve of humidity versus temperature for gases
with a given adiabatic saturation temperature is
known as an adiabatic cooling line.
• For a range of adiabatic saturation
temperatures, a family of curves,
approximating to straight lines of slopes equal
𝑐𝑠
to − , is obtained.
𝜆
• These lines are not exactly straight and parallel
because of variation in 𝜆 and 𝑐𝑠 .
• If a given gas mixture at 𝑇1 and ℋ1 is contacted
for sufficiently long time in an adiabatic
saturator, it will leave saturated at 𝑇𝑠1 and ℋ𝑠1 .
• The values of 𝑇𝑠1 and ℋ𝑠1 are determined by
following the adiabatic saturation line going
through points 𝑇1 , ℋ1 until it intercepts the 100
% saturation line.
• If contact is not sufficient, the leaving mixture
will be at a percentage saturation less than 100
but on the same line.
• Comparing eqn . (14) and (15a), it is seen that
the adiabatic saturation temperature is equal to
ℎ
the wet bulb temperature when 𝑐𝑠 =
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
• This is the case for most water vapour system
and accurately so when ℋ = 0.047.
 ℎ
• The ratio = 𝑏 is sometimes known as
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵 𝑐𝑠
the psychrometric ratio and 𝑏 is approximately
unity for the air water system.
ℎ
• 𝑐𝑠 = is known as Lewis relation and is true
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
for air water system.
• For system containing vapour other than that of
ℎ
water, 𝑐𝑠 is only approximately equal to and
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
the difference between the two quantities may
be as high as 50 percent.
 HUMIDITY DATA FOR AIR-WATER SYSTEM
• A convenient diagram showing the properties of
mixtures of a permanent gas and a condensable
vapour is the humidity or psychrometric chart.
• Often, for the air-water system, such a chart is
given at atmospheric pressure.
EXAMPLE
• An air stream at 87.8 ℃ having a humidity, ℋ =
0.030 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔 is contacted in an adiabatic
saturator with water. It is cooled and humidified
to 90 % saturation.
• (a) What are the final values of ℋ and 𝑇?
• (b) for 100 % saturation what will be the values
of ℋ and 𝑇?
Solution
• From pyschrometric chart, for 𝑇 = 87.8 ℃ and ℋ =
𝑘𝑔
0.030 :
𝑘𝑔
• tracing it up to where it intercept the adiabatic
saturation curve at 90 %, gives:
• 𝑇 = 42.5 ℃ and ℋ = 0.050 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔.
• Similarly, it intercept the adiabatic saturation curve
at 100 % when:
• 𝑇 = 40.5 ℃ and ℋ = 0.0505 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
COOLING TOWERS
• When warm liquid is brought into contact with
unsaturated gas, part of the liquid evaporates
and the liquid temperature drops.
• Cooling takes place by both the transference of
sensible heat and by evaporative cooling as a
result of which sensible heat in the water
provides the latent heat of vapourization.
• The most important application of this principle
is in the use of cooling towers to lower the
temperature of recirculated water used for
condensers and heat exchangers in chemical
plants, and air conditioning units.
• Cooling towers are large diameter columns with
special types of packing designed to give good
gas-liquid contact with low pressure drop.
• Warm water is distributed over the packings by
spray nozzles or a grid of notched troughs or
pipes.
• Air is passed through the packing by forced-
draught or induced-draft fans, or in some designs
its is drawn through the natural convection.
• Two of the major types of cooling towers are the
cross-flow tower and the counter flow tower.
• In the cross-flow tower, which is rectangular in
cross section, air passes horizontally through the
inclined beds of packing or fill, while the water
flows downward.
• Air is drawn through the tower by a propeller-
type fan with several blades.
• In the counter flow tower, air enters below the layer
of fill and passes upward countercurrent to the flow
of descending water.
• This is a more efficient arrangement for heat
transfer and permits a closer temperature approach.
• The counter-flow tower can be used with a forced-
draft fan at the base of the tower, but a large space
below the fill is needed for good air distribution.
• The most common type of packings for new
installation is cellular fill or film type packings,
which consists of corrugated sheets of plastic.

• Water flow over the surface of the packing,

giving good transfer area per unit volume.
• The reduction in water temperature in the
cooling tower comes mainly from evaporation,
although when the air temperature is low, there
is also some sensible-heat transfer to the air.
• However, even when the air is warmer than the
water, water can be cooled by evaporation if the
wet-bulb temperature is below that of the water.
• In practice, the discharge temperature of water
is 5 𝑡𝑜 15 ℉ (3 𝑡𝑜 8 ℃) above the wet-bulb
temperature, and this difference is known as the
approach.
• The change in water temperature from inlet to
exit is known as the range, and the range is
generally 10 𝑡𝑜 30 ℉ (6 to 17 ℃).
• The loss of water by evaporation during cooling
is small.
• Since about 1,000 Btu is required to vapourize
1 𝑙𝑏 of water and 50 𝑙𝑏 must be cooled 20 ℉ to
provide 1,000 𝐵𝑡𝑢.
• A range of 20 ℉ means an evaporation loss of 2
percent.
• In addition there are losses of spray droplets,
referred to as drift or windage, but in a well-
designed tower, these amount to only about 0.2
percent.
• The total make-up water supplied must equal
the evaporation and drift losses plus that of
purge or blow-down needed to limit the build up
of dissolved salts.
• Cooling towers are generally selected after
consideration of factors such as the average and
maximum heat duty, the required temperature
range, the availability and quality of make-up
water, and the local weather conditions.
 THEORY OF COUNTER FLOW COOLING TOWER
• When the wet-bulb temperature is measured, heat
transfer and mass transfer take place at steady state.
• The flow of heat to the interface just matches that
needed for evaporation of the water that diffuses as
vapour into the bulk gas.
• There is no significant gradient in the liquid, which
remain at a constant temperature.
• By contrast, in a cooling tower, the water
temperature changes as droplets pass through
the tower, and it is necessary to consider heat
flow in the liquid phase as well as heat and mass
transfer in the gas.
• In the cooling tower the temperature of the
liquid falls and the temperature and humidity of
the air rise.
• The limiting temperature to which water can be
cooled is the wet-bulb temperature
corresponding to the condition of the air at inlet.
• Typical gradients at the bottom and top of a
cooling tower are shown in the Figure 2 below.
• The figure shows the conditions in cooling tower:
a), b) at the bottom of the tower, c) at the top of
tower.
• At the bottom, the air temperature can be
greater than the water temperature (fig a), but
the water is being cooled because the interface
temperature 𝑇𝑖 is lower than the bulk water
temperature 𝑇𝑥 .
• The humidity at the interface is greater than that
in the bulk gas, which provides a driving force
for mass transfer of water vapour.
• If the inlet air temperature is less than the exit
water temperature, as in fig b, the gradients are
similar in shapes, but there is less sensible-heat
transfer through the gas film.
• In all cases the interface temperature must be
above the wet-bulb temperature, since if 𝑇𝑥 = 𝑇𝑤 ,
all the heat for vapourization would come from
the gas, and there would be no temperature
gradient in the water and no cooling of water.
• As the air passes up through the tower, the air
temperature might decrease for a short distance,
but it will eventually increase as the air contacts
warmer and warmer water.
• At the top the gradient might be as shown in Fig.
C.
• Heat transferred from the water to the interface is
used to warm the air as well as to provide heat of
vaporization, although the water cooling due to
vaporization is much greater than that from
sensible- heat transfer to the air.
EQUATIONS FOR COOLING TOWER ANALYSIS
• Consider the counter flow cooling tower shown
in Figure 3 below.
• Air at humidity ℋ𝑏 and temperature 𝑇𝑦𝑏 enters
the bottom of the tower and leaves at the top
with humidity ℋ𝑎 and temperature 𝑇𝑦𝑎 .
• Water enters the top at temperature 𝑇𝑥𝑎 and
leaves at the bottom at temperature 𝑇𝑥𝑏 .
• The mass velocity of the air is 𝐺′𝑦 , the mass of
vapour-free air per unit cross section of tower.
• The mass velocities of water at the inlet and
outlet are respectively, 𝐺𝑥𝑎 and 𝐺𝑥𝑏 .
• At a distance 𝑧 from the bottom of the contact
zone, the air and water temperatures are 𝑇𝑦 and
𝑇𝑥 , and the humidity is ℋ.
• At the gas-liquid interface, the temperature is 𝑇𝑖
and the humidity ℋ𝑖 .
• An enthalpy balance for a short section of tower
𝑑𝑧 is:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 𝑑 𝐺𝑥 𝐻𝑥 ------------ (17)
• NOTE: Enthalpy 𝐻𝑦 is the enthalpy of a unit mass
of gas plus whatever vapour it may contain.
• Since the change in liquid rate in the tower is
only 1 to 2 percent, 𝐺𝑥 is assumed to be
constant.
• ∴ 𝐺′𝑦 𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿 𝑑𝑇𝑥 ------------ (18)
• Note: 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑐𝐿 𝑑𝑇
• Where 𝑐𝐿 = Specific heat capacity.
• The change in gas enthalpy is the change in sensible
heat plus the change in humidity 𝑥 the heat of
vaporization.
• 𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇𝑦 + 𝜆0 𝑑ℋ ------------ (19)
• Where 𝜆0 =heat of vaporization at reference
temperature 32 ℉ or 0 ℃.
• The enthalpy of saturated air is
• 𝐻𝑦,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑇𝑦 − 32 + 𝜆0 ℋ𝑠 ----------- (20a)
• Or, when the reference point is in 0 ℃, then:
• 𝐻𝑦,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑇𝑦 + 𝜆0 ℋ𝑠 -------------- (20b)
• The overall energy balance for the tower is:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑏 = 𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿 𝑇𝑥𝑎 − 𝑇𝑥𝑏 ------- (21)
• At an intermediate point in the tower, the
enthalpy balance is:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑦 = 𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿 𝑇𝑥𝑎 − 𝑇𝑥 ---------- (22)
• Equation (22) is the operating line for the tower,
𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿
and it is shown as a straight line of slope on
𝐺′𝑦
a plot of air enthalpy versus water temperature
as shown in Fig 4.
• The operating line passes through the points
𝐵 𝑇𝑥𝑏 , 𝐻𝑦𝑏 and 𝐴 𝑇𝑥𝑎 , 𝐻𝑦𝑎 .
• Since 𝑇𝑥𝑏 , 𝐻𝑦𝑏 are often specified, the
procedure is to draw a line through 𝑇𝑥𝑏 , 𝐻𝑦𝑏
𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿
of slope and to produce it to a point whose
𝐺′𝑦
abscissa is equal to 𝑇𝑥𝑎 .
• This point A then corresponds to conditions at
the top of the tower and the ordinate gives the
enthalpy of the air leaving the column.
• The equilibrium line gives the enthalpy of air
saturated with water vapour (eqn 20), as a
function of temperature.
• For given water temperatures and inlet air
conditions, there is a minimum air rate
corresponding to the operating line that just
touches the equilibrium line as shown in Fig 4.
• Because of the curvature of the equilibrium line,
the minimum air rate is sometimes determined
by a line tangent to the curve.
• The air rate is generally chosen to be 1.2 to 2
times the minimum value.
• The required packed height for a cooling tower
can be determined by using the operating line-
equilibrium line diagram and overall coefficient
based on an enthalpy driving force.
• The rate of sensible-heat transfer from the water
to the interface is:
• 𝐺𝑥 𝑐𝐿 𝑑𝑇𝑥 = ℎ𝑥 𝑎 𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑧 ---------- (23)
• Where 𝑎 is the interfacial area per unit volume
of the column.
• ℎ𝑥 =heat transfer coefficient in the liquid phase.
• The rate of heat transfer from the interface to
the gas is:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇𝑦 = ℎ𝑦 𝑎 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑦 dz ------------- (24)
• ℎ𝑦 = heat transfer coefficient in the gas phase
• The rate of mass transfer of water vapour
through the gas film (from eqn 12) is:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝑑ℋ = ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝜌𝐵 ℋ𝑖 − ℋ dz --------- (25)
• ℎ𝐷 = mass transfer coefficient
• Equation (25) is multiplied by 𝜆0 to obtain rate of
energy required to vapourize the liquid.
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝜆0 𝑑ℋ = ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝜌𝐵 𝜆0 ℋ𝑖 − ℋ dz ----- (26)
• Combining eqn. (26) and (24) gives:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝜆0 𝑑ℋ + 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇𝑦 = ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵 𝜆0 ℋ𝑖 − ℋ +
• ∴ Equation (27) becomes:
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝜆0 𝑑ℋ + 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇𝑦 = ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵 𝜆0 ℋ𝑖 − ℋ +
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝑑𝐻𝑦 = ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ----------- (29a)
• OR
𝑑𝐻𝑦 ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵
• = 𝑑𝑧 ---------------- (29b)
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦 𝐺′𝑦

Thus the rate of change of gas enthalpy is

proportional to the difference between the
enthalpy at the interface and that in the bulk gas.
• To determine conditions at the interfaces, the
heat-transfer rate in the liquid film, ℎ𝑥 𝑎(𝑇𝑥 −
• ℎ𝑥 𝑎 𝑇𝑥 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑧 = ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦 𝑑𝑧 --- (30a)
• OR
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦 ℎ𝑥
• = − --------------- (30b)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑥 ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
• Equation (29) and (30) with the operating line
equilibrium (saturation) line are employed in the
determination of the required height of a cooling
tower for a given duty.
• This method consists of the graphical evaluation
of the relation between the enthalpy of the gas
at the interface with the liquid.
• The required height of the tower is then
obtained by integration of equation (29) to give:
𝑎 𝐺′𝑦 𝑎 𝑑𝐻𝑦
•𝑧 = 𝑏
𝑑𝑧 = (31)
ℎ𝐷 𝑎𝜌𝐵 𝑏 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦

• Assuming ℎ𝐷 to remain approximately constant.

• Equation (30b) gives the relation between liquid
temperature, air enthalpy, and conditions at the
interface, for any position in the tower, and is
represented by a family of straight lines of slope
ℎ𝑥
− .
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
• It is assumed that the air in contact with the
liquid surface is saturated with water vapour.
• The equilibrium (saturation) line thus represents
the conditions at the interface.
• The figure below shows the construction for
determining the height of water-cooling tower.
 ℎ𝑥
• The line of slope , in (30b), for the bottom
ℎ𝐷 𝜌𝐵
of the column, passes through the point
A 𝑇𝑥𝑏, 𝐻𝑦𝑏 and cuts the enthalpy-temperature
curve for saturated air at the point 𝐶,
representing conditions at the interface.
• The difference in ordinates of point 𝐴 and 𝐶 is the
difference in the enthalpy of the air at the
interface and that of the bulk air at the bottom of
the column.
• Similarly, line A’C’, parallel to AC, enables the
difference in the enthalpies of the air at the
interface and that of the bulk air to be
determined at some other point in the column.
• The procedure can be repeated for a number of
points and the value of 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦 obtained as a
function of 𝐻𝑦 for the whole tower.
• Since 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦 is now known as a function of
1
𝐻𝑦 , can be plotted against 𝐻𝑦 and the
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
integral evaluated between the required limits.
• The height of the tower is thus determined.
• Now, if the lewis relation ℎ𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠 𝜌𝐵 ℎ𝐷 is used in
eqn (24), the equation becomes
• 𝐺′𝑦 𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑇𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠 𝜌𝐵 ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ---------- (32)
• Combining eqn (32) and (29a) gives:
𝐻𝑦 −𝐻𝑖 𝑑𝐻𝑦
• = ------------- (33)
𝑇𝑦 −𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑇𝑦
 EXAMPLE
• Water is to be cooled in a packed cooling tower from
330 K to 291 K by means of air flowing counter currently.
The rate of flow of liquid is 1400 𝑐𝑚3 𝑚2 𝑠 and the
flow rate of the air, which enters at a temperature of
295K and a humidity of 60%, is 3.0 𝑚3 𝑚2 𝑠. Calculate
the required height of tower if the whole of the
resistance to heat and mass transfer may be considered
as being within the gas phase and the product of the
mass transfer coefficient and the transfer surface per
unit volume of column (ℎ𝐷 𝑎) may be taken as 2 𝑠 −1 .
• Additional data are shown below
• Enthalpy of saturated air at 1 atm___
• Enthalpy (kJ/kg dry air) 20 48 85 140 220 390
• Temperature ( K) 280 290 300 310 320 330
• latent heat of water at 273 K = 2495 kJ/kg
• specific heat capacity of dry air = 1.003 kJ/kg K
• specific heat capacity of water vapour = 2.006 kJ/kg K
• specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K
SOLUTION
Given:
• 𝑇𝑥𝑎 = 300 𝐾
• 𝑇𝑥𝑏 = 291 𝐾
𝑄𝑥 𝑐𝑚 3 𝑚 3
• = 1400 = 1400 𝑥 10−6 2
𝐴 𝑚 2.𝑠 𝑚 .𝑠
• 𝑇𝑦𝑏 = 295 𝐾
• ℋ𝑏 = 60 %
𝑄𝑦 𝑚3
• = 3.0 (𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝐴 𝑚 2.𝑠
• 𝑧 =?
• ℎ𝐷𝑎 = 2 𝑠 −1
 𝑄𝑥
• 𝐺𝑥 = 𝜌𝑥 .
𝐴
−6 𝑘𝑔
= 1000 𝑥 1400 𝑥 10
𝑚 2 .𝑠
𝑘𝑔
= 1.4
𝑚 2.𝑠
𝑄𝐵
• 𝐺′𝑦 = 𝜌𝐵 . (dry air)
𝐴
• At 295 𝑘 and ℋ𝑏 = 60 %,
• from psychrometric chart, ℋ = 0.01 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔
0.01
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
• In molar units, ℋ = 18
1
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
29
= 0.0161 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
• The volume flow rate of dry air implies:
𝑄 ′𝐵 𝑄𝑦
• = 1 − 0.0161 .
𝐴 𝐴
𝑚3
= 1 − 0.0161 𝑥 3.0
𝑚 2.𝑠
𝑚3
= 2.952
𝑚 2.𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 .𝑃
• 𝜌𝐵 =
𝑅.𝑇
29 𝑥 101325
=
8314 𝑥 295
𝑘𝑔
= 1.198
𝑚3
 𝑄′𝐵
• 𝐺′𝑦 = 𝜌𝐵 . 𝐴
= 2.952 𝑥 1.198
𝑘𝑔
≅ 3.537 𝑚 3.𝑠
• To obtain the operating line, we use,
𝐺𝑥 𝐶𝐿
• (𝐻𝑦𝑎 − 𝐻𝑦𝑏 ) = 𝐺𝑦′ (𝑇𝑥𝑎 − 𝑇𝑥𝑏 )
𝐺𝑥 𝐶𝐿 1.4 𝑥 4.18
• Slope =
𝐺𝑦′ 3.537

= 1.66
• From psychrometric chart, at the bottom, when 𝑇𝑦𝑏 =
295 𝑘 and ℋ𝑏 = 60 %, the enthalpy, 𝐻𝑦𝑏 = 47.5 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
• Hence the operating line becomes:
• (𝐻𝑦𝑎 − 47.5) = 1.66(330 − 291)
∴ 𝐻𝑦𝑎 = 112.24 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
• Hence the two points, at the top and bottom, on the
straight line, operating line are:
𝑇𝑥𝑎 , 𝐻𝑦𝑎 = (330, 112.2) and 𝑇𝑥𝑏 , 𝐻𝑦𝑏 = (291, 47.5)
• This is plotted on the graph sheet.
• From the table given in question, enthalpy of saturated
air is plotted against temperature, on the same axis with
operating line, to obtain equilibrium (saturation) curve.
• Now,
𝐺𝑦′ 𝐻𝑦𝑎 1
•𝑧 = 𝐻𝑦𝑏 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
𝑑𝐻𝑦
ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝜌 𝐵

𝐺𝑦′ 112.2 1
•= 47.5
𝑑𝐻𝑦
ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝜌 𝐵 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
• Using trapezoidal rule to evaluate the integral,
112.2 1 50 1 110 1
• 47.5
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 47.5 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
𝑑𝐻𝑦 + 50
𝑑𝐻𝑦 +
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
112.2 1
110
𝑑𝐻𝑦
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦

• Trapezoidal rule implies:

𝑏 1 𝑎−𝑏 1
• 𝑏 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑥1 + 𝑓 𝑥2 + 𝑓 𝑥3 … … +
𝑛 2
 From the plotted graph, we have:
𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑖 𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦 1
𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑦
47.5 52 4.5 0.222
50 60 10 0.1
70 110 40 0.025

90 190 100 0.01

110 355 245 0.00408
112.2 390 277.8 0.0036
 50 1 50−47.5 1 1
• 47.5 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 0.222 + 0.1 = 0.4025
1 2 2

110 1 110−50 1 1
• 50
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 0.1 + .025 + 0.01 + 0.00408
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦 3 2 2

= 1.7408
112.2 1 112.2−110 1 1
• 110
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 0.00408 + 0.0036
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦 1 2 2

= 0.008448
112.2 1
• 47.5
𝑑𝐻𝑦 = 0.4025 + 1.7408 + 0.008448
𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦

= 2.152
 𝐺𝑦′ 112.2 1
•∴ 𝑧 = 47.5
𝑑𝐻𝑦
ℎ𝐷 𝑎 𝜌𝐵 𝐻𝑖 −𝐻𝑦

3.537
= 𝑥 2.152
2 𝑥 1.198

= 3.177𝑚

≅ 3.2𝑚