STII Ship Dynamics in Waves

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology
Chair of Modelling and Simulation
Ship dynamics in waves

(Ship Theory II)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Nikolai Kornev
Rostock
2012
2
Contents
1 Small ship motion in regular sea waves 11

1.1 Coupling of different ship oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Classification of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Radiation force components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Hydrodynamic damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.2 Added mass component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Hydrostatic component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Wave exciting force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Motion equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7 Haskind’s relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Free oscillations with small amplitudes 31

2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Ship oscillations in small transverse waves (beam see) 37

3.1 Hydrostatic forces and moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Hydrodynamic Krylov - Froude force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Full Krylov - Froude force and moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Force and moment acting on the ship frame in accelerated flow 42
3.5 Full wave induced force and moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.6 Equations of ship heave and roll oscillations . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.7 Analysis of the formula (3.27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8 Sway ship oscillations in beam sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.9 Ship oscillations at finite beam to wave length ratio and draught
to length ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.10 Effect of ship speed on rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3
4 Ship oscillations in small head waves 57
4.1 Exciting forces and ship oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Estimations of slamming and deck flooding . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5 Seasickness caused by ship oscillations 65
6 Ship oscillations in irregular waves 69

6.1 Representation of irregular waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.1 Wave ordinates as stochastic quantities . . . . . . . . . 70
6.1.2 Wave spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Calculation of ship oscillations in irregular waves . . . . . . . 76
7 Experimental methods in ship seakeeping 79

7.1 Experiments with models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.1.1 Similarity criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.1.2 Geometric parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.1.3 Free oscillation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.1.4 Forced oscillation at calm water conditions . . . . . . . 85
7.1.5 Seakeeping tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.2 Seakeeping tests with large scale ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8 Ship oscillation damping (stabilisation) 89

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.2 Damping of roll oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.2.1 Passive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.2.3 Active stabilizing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.2.4 Bilge keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.2.5 Rudders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.3 Stabilizing systems for pitch oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9 Parametric oscillations 101
10 Potential methods for calculation of forces acting on the os-

cillating ships 105
10.1 Strip theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.2 Principles of Rankine source method for calculation of sea-
keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.2.1 Frequency domain simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.2.2 Time domain simulation (TDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4
List of Tables
2.1 Frequencies and periods of different oscillation types . . . . . . 33

2.2 Referred damping factors for different oscillation types . . . . 34
8.1 Comparison of different stabilizing systems (taken from [1]) . . 99

8.2 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5
6
List of Figures
1.1 Ship motion with 6 degree of freedom (from [2]) . . . . . . . . 12

1.2 Displacement of the center of effort due to change of the ship
draught (from [3]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Illustration to derivation of damping coefficient . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Added mass and damping coefficient of the semi circle frame
at heave oscillations. Here A is the frame area. . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at heave
oscillations. Here A is the frame area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Added mass and damping coefficient of the semi circle frame
at sway oscillations. Here A is the frame area. . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at sway
oscillations. Here A is the frame area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.8 Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at roll
(heel) oscillations. Here A is the frame area. . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.9 Mirroring for the case ω → 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10 Mirroring for the case ω → ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.11 Bild aus Buch von Newman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Illustration of hydrostatic force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Illustration of hydrostatic moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4 Ship as linear system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 Response function versus referred frequency . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6 Phase displacement versus referred frequency . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Ship oscillations in resonance case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Oscillation of a raft with a big metacentric height . . . . . . . 48
3.9 Illustration of the frame in beam waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.11 Reduction coefficient of the heave oscillations . . . . . . . . . 53
3.12 Sea classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.1 Illustration of the ship in head waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7
4.2 Position of ship at different time instants in a head wave . . . 61
4.3 Curves y = ±zmax and y = z(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Sample for a real ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1 Influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness de-

pending on the oscillation period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness de-
pending on the oscillation period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Number of passengers suffering from seasickness on a cruise
liners depending on vertical accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.4 Adaption to seasickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1 Irregular seawaves, 1- two dimensional, 2- three dimensional.

(Fig. from [4]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2 Profile of an irregular wave. (Fig. from [4]) . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 Representation of irregular wave through the superposition of
regular waves. (Fig. from [4]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 p.d.f. of the wave ordinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.1 Determination of the inertia moment Izzm . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7.2 α is the angle between rod and the vertical . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3 Determination of Ixxm and zg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.4 Heel test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.5 Method of forced rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.6 Seakeeping test at MARIN ([5]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.7 Scetch of the MARIN Seakeeping basin ([5]) . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.8 Wave generator of MARIN Seakeeping basin ([5]) . . . . . . . 87
7.9 Method of wave detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.10 Ship motion during large scale tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.1 Schematical representation of the Frahm tank of the first type. 90

8.2 U-tube passive roll stabilization system manufactured by Hoppe
Marine (http://www.hoppe-marine.com/). Orange tube the
are air channel. Picture is taken from [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.3 Response function verus referred frequency without (solid line)
and with (dashed line) stabilization system. . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.4 U-tube stabilization system of Frahm of the second type . . . 92
8.5 Free surface Type passive Roll stabilization systems of Flume . 93
8.6 Free surface Type passive Roll stabilization systems of Flume . 93
8.7 Offshore Support Vessel [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.8 Research Ship [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8
8.9 Offshore Patrol Vessel [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.10 Passenger Ship [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.11 Reduction of the roll amplitude using the Flume tank designed
by Hoppe Marine (taken from [1]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.12 Active stabilizing system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.13 Bilge keel [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.14 Main parameters of bilge keels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.15 Schematic representation of active fins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.16 Active rudder roll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.17 Schematic representation of the pitch stabilizing system . . . . 100
8.18 Reduction of pitch and heave oscillations using the stabilizing
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.1 Ship oscillations during parametric resonance . . . . . . . . . . 103

9.2 Conditions for parametric resonance appearance . . . . . . . . 103
10.1 Assumption of the strip theory [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9
10
Chapter 1
Small ship motion in regular

sea waves
1.1 Coupling of different ship oscillations

The ship has generally six degrees of freedom which are called as surge ζ,
sway η, heave ζ, heel (or roll) ϕ, yaw ϑ and pitch ψ (see Fig.1.1) for expla-
nation of each oscillation motion). In this chapter we consider first the case
of the ship with zero forward speed. Generally, different ship oscillations are
strongly coupled. There are three sorts of coupling:
• hydrostatic coupling
• hydrodynamic coupling
• gyroscopics coupling
The hydrostatic coupling is illustrated in Fig.1.2. If the ship draught is

changed, the center of effort of vertical hydrostatic (floating) force is mov-
ing usually towards the ship stern because the frames in the stern are more
full than those in the bow region. The displacement of the center of effort
towards the stern causes the negative pitch angle. Therefore, the heave os-
cillations cause the pitch oscillations and vice versa. With the other words,
the heave and pitch oscillations are coupled.
Hydrodynamic coupling can be illustrated when the ship is moving with ac-
celeration in transverse direction (sway motion). Since the ship is asymmetric
with respect to the midships, such a motion is conducted with appearance
11
of the yaw moment. Therefore, the sway and yaw oscillations are hydrody-
namically coupled.
According to gyroscopic effect, rotation on one axis of the turning around

the second axis wheel produced rotation of the third axis. This rule can be
applied to the ship. For instance, if the ship performs rolling motion and
the transverse force is acting on the ship, it starts to perform the pitch os-
cillations. The gyroscopic effects are present in the equation system ([6]).
They are represented in ”’i-th”’ force equation by products Vj6=i ωm6=j6=i and
by products ωj6=i ωm6=j6=i in the ”’i-th”’ moment equation.
In this chapter we consider the ship oscillations with small amplitude. For
such oscillations the coupling mentioned above can be neglected.
Figure 1.1: Ship motion with 6 degree of freedom (from [2])
1.2 Classification of forces

According to the tradition used in ship hydrodynamics since almost a hun-
dred years, the forces acting upon the ship are subdivided into hydrostatic
forces, radiation and diffraction forces. This subdivision can be derived for-
mally utilizing the potential theory. The potential theory is still remaining
12
Figure 1.2: Displacement of the center of effort due to change of the ship
draught (from [3])
the theoretical basis for the determination of wave induced forces, since the
most contribution to these forces is caused by processes properly described
by inviscid flow models.
Let us consider the plane progressive waves of amplitude A and direction ψw

are incident upon a ship, which moves in response to these waves. The ship
oscillation caused by waves can be written in the form
ζj = ζj0 sin ωt, j = 1, 2, ...6. (1.1)

The corresponding speeds of ship oscillations Uj , j = 1, 2, ...6 are:
dζj
Uj = = ζj0 ω cos ωt, j = 1, 2, ...6. (1.2)
dt
and accelerations:
dUj
aj = = −ω 2 ζj0 sin ωt, j = 1, 2, ...6. (1.3)
dt
Here ζj0 are small ship oscillations amplitudes and ω is the frequency. Within
the linear theory the ship oscillation frequency is equal to the incident wave
frequency. In what follows we use the linear theory and assume that the both
waves and ship motion are small. The total potential ϕ can be written, using
the superposition principle, in the form:
6
X
ϕ(x, y, z, t) = Uj ϕj (x, y, z) + AϕA (x, y, z) cos ωt =
j=1
6
!
X (1.4)
= ζj0 ωϕj (x, y, z) + AϕA (x, y, z) cos ωt
j=1
where
13
• ϕj (x, y, z) is the velocity potential of the ship oscillation in j-th motion
with the unit amplitude ζj0 = 1 in the absence of incident waves,
• ϕA (x, y, z) is the potential taking the incident waves and their interac-
R tion with the ship into account.
The first potentials ϕj (x, y, z) describes the radiation problem, whereas

the second one the wave diffraction problem. The potentials ϕj (x, y, z)
and ϕA are independent only in the framework of the linear theory assuming
the waves and ship motions are small. Within this theory ϕA is calculated
for the ship fixed in position.
The potentials must satisfy the Laplace equation ∆ϕj = 0, ∆ϕA = 0 and
appropriate boundary conditions. The boundary conditions to be imposed
on the ship surface are the no penetration conditions (see also formulae 3.18
in the Chapter 3 [7]):
• for radiation potentials


∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ2 ∂ϕ3
= cos(n, x); = cos(n, y); = cos(n, z);

∂n ∂n ∂n




∂ϕ4 

= (y cos(n, z) − z cos(n, y)); 

∂n



∂ϕ5 (1.5)
= (z cos(n, x) − x cos(n, z));
∂n




∂ϕ6 

= (x cos(n, y) − y cos(n, x)). 

∂n





• for wave diffraction potentials

∂ϕA
=0 (1.6)
∂n
where n is the normal vector to the ship surface, directed into the body,
(x, y, z) are the coordinates of a point on the ship surface. The r.h.s. of the
conditions (1.5) is the normal components of the ship local velocities caused
by particular oscillating motions.
The diffraction potential ϕA is decomposed in two parts
ϕA = ϕ∞ + ϕp (1.7)
14
which ϕ∞ is the potential of incident waves not perturbed by the ship pres-
ence and ϕp is the perturbation potential describing the interaction between
the incident waves and the ship. The potential of regular waves ϕ∞ is known
(see Chapter 6 in [7]). The boundary condition for ϕp on the ship surface is
∂ϕp ∂ϕ∞
=− (1.8)
∂n ∂n
Away from the ship the radiation potentials ϕj and the diffraction perturba-
tion potential ϕp decay, i.e. ϕp −−−→ 0, ϕj −−−→ 0.
r→∞ r→∞
On the free surface the linearized mixed boundary condition (see formula (6.17)
in [7]) reads
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ
2
+g = 0 on z = 0. (1.9)
∂t ∂z
Substituting (1.4) in (1.9) yields for ϕj (x, y, z) and ϕA (x, y, z):
ω2 ∂ϕj
− ϕj + = 0 on z = 0.
g ∂z
(1.10)
ω2 ∂ϕA
− ϕA + = 0 on z = 0.
L
g ∂z
It is obvious from (1.10) that ϕj (x, y, z) and ϕA (x, y, z) depend on ω.

Additionally in the wave theory the radiation condition is imposed stating
that the waves on the free surface caused by the potentials are radiated away
from the ship. The potentials introduced above can be found using panel
methods.
The force and the moment on the ship are determined by integrating the
pressure over the wetted ship surface. The pressure can be found from the
Bernoulli equation written in the general form:
ρu2 ∂ϕ
p+ + ρgz + ρ = C(t) (1.11)
2 ∂t
Here the potential is the potential of the perturbed motion. The constant C(t)
which is the same for the whole flow domain is calculated from the condition
that the pressure on the free surface far from the ship is constant and equal
to the atmospheric pressure:
pa = C(t) (1.12)
15
Substituting (1.12) in (1.11) gives:
ρu2 ∂ϕ
p − pa = − − ρgz − ρ (1.12a)
2 ∂t
Remembering that the ship speed is zero and perturbation velocities as well
as the velocities caused by incident waves are small we neglect the first term
in (1.12a):

∂ϕ
p − pa = −ρ + gz (1.13)
∂t
Together with (1.4) it gives
6
!
X
p − pa = ρ ζj0 ωϕj (x, y, z) + AϕA (x, y, z) ω sin ωt − ρgz (1.14)
j=1
The forces and the moment are then calculated by integration of p − pa over
the wetted ship area
Z Z
~ ~
F = (p − pa)~ndS, M = (p − pa)(~r × ~n)dS. (1.15)
S S
The normal vector direction in (1.15) is into the body. The vertical ordi-
nate z of any point on the wetted area can be represented as the difference
between the submergence under unperturbed free surface ζ and free surface
elevation ζ0 . Substituting (1.14) in (1.15) one obtains
Z Z
F~ = −ρg ~nζdS + ρg ~nζ0 dS
S S
6
X Z
+ρ ζj0 ω 2 sin ωt ~nϕj dS+ (1.16)
j=1 S
Z
+ ρ(Aω sin ωt) ~n(ϕ∞ + ϕp )dS
S
Four integrals in (1.16) represent four different contributions to the total

force:
16
• the hydrostatic component (the first term) acting on the ship oscillating
on the unperturbed free surface (in calm water),
• the hydrostatic component arising due to waves (the second term),
• the damping and the added mass component (the third term) and
• the hydrodynamic wave exciting force (the fourth term).
The moment is expressed through similar components.
The third term describes the force acting on the ship oscillating in calm water.
The last term arises due to incident waves acting on the ship. Within the
linear theory keeping only the terms proportional to the amplitude A and
L
neglecting small terms of higher orders proportional to ∼ An , n > 1 one can
L
show that the integration in the last term can be done over the wetted area
corresponding to the equilibrium state. Thus, the last term describes the
force induced by waves on the ship at rest.
1.3 Radiation force components

Let us consider the second term of the force
6
X Z
F~2 = ρ ζj0 ω 2 sin ωt ~nϕj dS (1.17)
j=1 S
Each component of this force is expressed as
6 Z 6
X X dUj
F2i = ρ ζj0 ω 2 sin ωt ni ϕj dS = − cji (1.18)
j=1 j=1
dt
S
As shown by Haskind [17], the hydrodynamic coefficient cji is represented as

the sum of two coefficients:
1
cji = µji − λji
ω
The term − ω1 λji has been introduced to take the fact into account that the
force due to influence of the free surface depends not only on ω 2 but also
on ω. The force is then
17
6 6 6
X 1 dUj X X π
F2i = − µji − λji =− µji aj − λji Uj ts = t −
j=1
ω dt j=1 j=1
2ω
(1.19)
As seen from (1.19) the first component of the force is proportional to the
acceleration aj whereas the second one is proportional to the velocity Uj .
The first component is called the added mass component, whereas the sec-
ond one- the damping component.
Using the Green’s theorem, Haskind derived the following symmetry condi-
tions for the case zero forward speed:
(
µji = µij
cji = cij ⇒
λji = λij
1.3.1 Hydrodynamic damping

There are two reasons of the hydrodynamic damping of the ship oscillations
on the free surface. First reason is the viscous damping which is proportional
ρU 2
to the square of the ship velocity ∼ CDj 2 j S. Within the linear theory this
term proportional to the amplitude (ζj0 )2 is neglected. The main contribution
to the damping is done by the damping caused by radiated waves. When
oscillating on the free surface the ship generates waves which have the me-
chanic potential and kinetic energy. This wave energy is extracted from the
kinetic energy of the ship. Ship transfers its energy to waves which carry it
away from the ship. With the time the whole kinetic energy is radiated away
and the ship oscillations decay.
Similarly to the added mass one can introduce the damping coefficients. The
full mechanic energy in the progressive wave with the amplitude A is (see
chapter 6.4 in [7])
1
E = ρgA2 (1.20)
2
per wave length.
The energy transported by waves through sides 1 and 2 (see Fig. 1.3) per
time unit is
1
δE = 2 ρgA2 U (1.21)
2
18
Figure 1.3: Illustration to derivation of damping coefficient
where U is the wave group velocity. The damping coefficient is defined as
δE = λij Uj2 (1.22)
where λij is the coefficient of damping in i-th direction when the ship oscil-
lates in j-th motion. Uj2 is the time averaged square of the ship oscillations
2
(ωζ 0 )
speed. Obviously, Uj2 = 2j and
2
ωζj0
δE = λij (1.23)
2
The group velocity (see formulae (6.39) and (6.40) in [7]):
r
c 1 g g
U= = = (1.24)
2 2 k 2ω
since kg = ω 2 (see formula (6.21) in [7]). Equating (1.21) and (1.23) one
obtains with account for (1.24)
2
ωζj0
ρgA2 U = λij
2
⇓ (1.25)
0 2 2

ωζj ρg 2

g A
ρgA2 = λij ⇒ λij =
2ω 2 ω3 ζj0
19
The damping coefficient λij depends on the square of the ratio of the wave
amplitude to the ship oscillation amplitude causing the wave.
The damping coefficient of slender body can be found by integration of damp-

ing coefficients of ship frames along the ship length
ZL/2 ZL/2 ZL/2

B22 = λ22 dx, B33 = λ33 dx, B44 = λ44 dx,
−L/2 −L/2 −L/2
(1.26)
ZL/2 ZL/2
B55 = x2 λ33 dx, B66 = x2 λ22 dx
−L/2 −L/2
The damping coefficients of different frames are shown in Fig. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7
and 1.8 taken from [3]. Solid lines show results obtained from the potential
theory. Generally, the results show the applicability of the potential theory
for calculation of damping coefficients. The accuracy of prediction is not
satisfactory for the box B/T=8 in heave and B/T=2 in sway because of the
flow separation at corners which has a sufficient impact on hydrodynamics
in these two cases. The agreement for λ44 is not satisfactory (see Fig. 1.8)
because of dominating role of the viscosity for this type of damping. For the
semi circle frame the damping coefficient in roll is zero λ44 = 0 within the
inviscid theory. One hundred per cent of the roll damping is due to viscosity.
Usually λ44 are determined using viscous flow models. It is remarkable,
that the damping coefficients depend on the frequency and amplitude (see
Fig. 1.8).
Figure 1.4: Added mass and damping coefficient of the semi circle frame at
heave oscillations. Here A is the frame area.
20
Figure 1.5: Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at heave
oscillations. Here A is the frame area.
Figure 1.6: Added mass and damping coefficient of the semi circle frame at
sway oscillations. Here A is the frame area.
Figure 1.7: Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at sway
oscillations. Here A is the frame area.
1.3.2 Added mass component

When the ship oscillates, the force acting on the ship contains the component
associated with the added mass like in every case of accelerated body motion.
21
Figure 1.8: Added mass and damping coefficient of the box frame at roll
(heel) oscillations. Here A is the frame area.
The difference with the case of the motion in unlimited space is the presence
of the free surface. The added mass µij have to be calculated with account
for the free surface effect. For their determination the panel methods can be
used. The problem is sufficiently simplified in two limiting cases ω → 0 and
ω → ∞. The boundary condition (1.10) can be written in the form:
∂ϕj
∂z
= 0 for ω → 0,
on z = 0. (1.27)
ϕj = 0 for ω → ∞.
The conventional mirroring method can be used for the case ω → 0 (Fig. 1.9).
The mirroring frame is moving in the same direction for surge, sway and yaw.
For the heave, roll and pitch the fictitious frame is moving in the opposite di-
rection. At the free surface, these tricks make the normal components of the
∂ϕ
total velocity induced by the actual and the fictitious frames zero, i.e. ∂zj = 0
on z = 0.
In the case ω → ∞ the tangential component of the total velocity should

Rx ∂ϕj ∂ϕ
be zero, since ϕj = 0 ⇒ ϕj = ∂x
dx = 0 ⇒ ∂xj = 0 on z = 0. The
−∞
modified mirroring method is implemented for the case ω → ∞ (Fig. 1.10).
The fictitious frame is moving in the opposite direction for surge, sway and
yaw. For the heave, roll and pitch the fictitious frame is moving in the
same direction as that of the original frame. These tricks make the normal
components of the total velocity induced by the actual and the fictitious
∂ϕ
frames zero, i.e. ∂zj = 0 at the free surface on z = 0.
Using mirroring method the added mass can be found using the panel method
without explicit consideration of the free surface since it is taken into account
22
Figure 1.9: Mirroring for the case ω → 0
Figure 1.10: Mirroring for the case ω → ∞
by fictitious frames.
The added mass of slender body can be found by integration of added mass
of ship frames along the ship length
ZL/2 ZL/2 ZL/2

A22 = µ22 dx, A33 = µ33 dx, A44 = µ44 dx,
−L/2 −L/2 −L/2
(1.28)
ZL/2 ZL/2
A55 = x2 µ33 dx, A66 = x2 µ22 dx
−L/2 −L/2
The added mass of different frames are shown in Fig. 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8
taken from [3]. Like in case of damping coefficients the results of the potential
theory are not acceptable for roll added mass because of dominating role of
the viscosity. As seen from Fig. 1.4 - Fig. 1.8 the added mass depend on the
frequency ω.
23
1.4 Hydrostatic component
Let us the ship is in the equilibrium state. The ship weight is counterbalanced
by the hydrostatic lift. Due to small heave motion the equilibrium is violated
and an additional hydrostatic force appears. The vertical component of this
additional hydrostatic force can be calculated analytically from (1.16) for the
case of small heave motion
   
 Z   Z 
∆Fζ = −ρg cos(nz)zdS − −ρg cos(nz)zdS = −ρgAW P ζ
   
S T +ζ S T
(1.29)
where ζ is the increment of the ship draught, AW P is the waterplane area
and T is the ship draught in the equilibrium state. The roll and pitch hy-
drostatic moments for small change of the roll and pitch angles are
Mϕ = −ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ, (1.30)
Mϑ = −ρg∇0 GML ψ, (1.31)

where
ϕ and ψ are the roll and pitch angle respectively,
GMγ is the transverse metacentric height,
GML is the longitudinal metacentric height and
∇0 is the ship displacement.
1.5 Wave exciting force

The wave exciting force F~per = ρωA sin ωt ~n(ϕ∞ + ϕp )dS contains two com-
R
S
ponents. The first component,
R determined by the integration of the incident
potential ϕ∞ , ρωA sin ωt ~nϕ∞ dS is referred to as the hydrodynamic part of
S
the Froude-Krylow force. This force called as the Smith effect is calculated by
the integration of wave induced pressure as if the ship is fully transparent for
incident waves. The full Froude-Krylow force contains additionally the hydro-
static force arising due to change of the submerged part of the ship caused by
24
R
waves (the second term in (1.16)). The second component ρωA sin ωt ~nϕP dS
S
takes the diffraction effect (the contribution of the scattering potential ϕp to
pressure distribution) into account. As shown by Peters and Stokes the
Froude Krylov force is a dominating part of the wave induced forces for os-
cillations of slender ships in directions j=1 (surge), 3 (heave) and 5 (pitch).
1.6 Motion equations

The linearized decoupled motion equations of the ship oscillations are written
in the form
added mass damping hydrostatic wave exciting

force forces forces forces
¨
mξ = −A11 ξ¨ −B11 ξ˙ +Fξ,per (t),
mη̈ = −A22 η̈ −B22 η̇ +Fη,per (t),
(1.32)
mζ̈ = −A33 ζ̈ −B33 ζ̇ −ρgAW P ζ +Fζ,per (t),
Ixx ϕ̈ = −A44 ϕ̈ −B44 ϕ̇ −ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ +Mϕ,per (t),
Iyy ψ̈ = −A55 ψ̈ −B55 ψ̇ −ρg∇0 GML ψ +Mψ,per (t),
Izz ϑ̈ = −A66 ϑ̈ −B66 ϑ̇ +Mϑ,per (t).
The weight is not present in the second equation of the system (1.32) be-
cause it is counterbalanced by the hydrostatic force at rest. The additional
hydrostatic force −ρgAW P ζ is the difference between the weight and the full
hydrostatic force. The system (1.32) is written in the principle axes coordi-
nate system [6].
1.7 Haskind’s relation

One of the most outstanding results in the ship oscillations theory is the
relation derived by Max Haskind who developed in 1948 the famous linear
hydrodynamic theory of ship oscillations. Haskind shown how to calculate
the wave induced hydrodynamic force utilizing the radiation potentials ϕj
and the potential of incident waves ϕ∞ . The determination of the diffraction
potential ϕp what is quite difficult can be avoided using this relation which
is valid for waves of arbitrary lengths.
The Green’s formula for two functions Φ and Ψ satisfying the Laplace equa-
tion is
25
Z Z
∂Φ ∂Ψ
Ψ −Φ dS = 0, (1.33)
∂n ∂n
Sw
where Sw is the flow boundary (wetted ship surface plus the area away from
the ship, see the sample in Chapter/Section 3.2). Particularly, the rela-
tion (1.33) can be applied to radiation potentials ϕj . Since the potential ϕp
satisfies the Laplace equation and the same boundary conditions as the ra-
diation potentials ϕj , the Green’s formula (1.33) can also be applied to ϕj
and ϕp
Z Z
∂ϕj ∂ϕp
ϕp − ϕj dS = 0 (1.34)
∂n ∂n
Sw
The last term in (1.16) is the wave induced force

Z
F~ζ,per = ρ(Aω sin ωt) ~n (ϕ∞ + ϕp ) dS = XA
~ sin ωt
S
~ = ρω
R
where X ~n (ϕ∞ + ϕp ) dS. Taking (1.5), (3.34) and (1.8) into account
S
we get
Z Z
∂ϕj
Xj = ρω (ϕ∞ + ϕp ) dS (1.35)
∂n
Sw
∂ϕj R R ∂ϕj

ϕj ∂ϕ + ϕj ∂ϕ
R R R R p p
ϕp ∂n
dS = ∂n
dS ⇒ Xj = ρω ϕ∞ ∂n ∂n
dS
Sw Sw Sw
∂ϕp
∂n
= − ∂ϕ
∂n
∞
χ = 90◦
⇓
(1.36)
Z Z
∂ϕj ∂ϕ∞
Xj = ρω ϕ∞ − ϕj dS (1.37)
∂n ∂n
Sw
The formula (1.37) is the Haskind’s relation. As seen the wave induced force
can be calculated through the radiation and free wave potentials avoiding
the determination of the diffraction potential ϕp .
26
The calculation of the integral (1.37) is a complicated problem because the
incident waves don’t decay away from the ship and the integral (1.37) should
be calculated over both the surface far from the ship and the ship wetted
surface. Note that the potential ϕ∞ does not decay away from the ship. The
method of the stationary phase [8] allows one to come to the following force
expression using the Haskind’s relation (1.37):
Z2π
k
Fi,per = Bii ζ˙i , where Bii = |Xi (χ)|2 dχ
8πρg(c/2)
0
Here c is the phase wave velocity (celerity) and χ is the course angle.
Let us consider the slender ship B(x, z) ∼ 0 in a beam wave (χ = 90◦ ).

The wetted area is approximately
S equal to the projection on the symmetry
plane y = 0, Swetted = [0, L] [0, T ].
Z Z Z Z
∂ϕj ∂ϕ∞ ∂ϕj
Xj = ρω ϕ∞ − ϕj dS ≈ ρω ϕ∞ dS
∂n ∂n ∂n
Sw Sw
Z Z
∂ϕ3 ∂B ∂B
= cos(n, z) = ⇒ X3 ≈ 2ρωω ϕ∞ dS
∂n ∂z ∂z
Sw
The coefficient 2 arises due to the integration over two boards y = +B(x, z)
and y = −B(x, z). Using the potential of an Airy wave (see formulae (6.18)
in ([7]) estimated at y = 0 one can find the potential ϕ∞ :
Ag kz
ϕ= e sin(ky − ωt) ⇒ ϕ∞ = −gekz /ω
ω
For the case of a vertical cylinder for which the vertical force does not depend
on the wave course angle χ the damping coefficient B33 takes a very simple
form [8]:
0 2
Z
2ρg kz ∂B

B33 = e dz (1.38)
(c/2)
∂z
−T
1.8 Exercises
1. Schwimmender Balken
27
(a) Ist die Schwimmlage des Balkens stabil?
(b) Bleibt die Schwimmlage stabil, wenn die Höhe h des Balkens 0, 15 m
beträgt?
(c) Ab welcher Balkenhöhe wird die Schwimmlage instabil?
1
2. Berechnen Sie die maximale elektrische Leistung einer Turbine, die
die ganze mechanische Energie einer Welle umwandelt. Die Welle hat
eine Höhe von 1 m, eine Länge von 100 m und eine Breite von 1 km in
Richtung des Wellenkammes.
3. Hinter dem bildet sich ein stationäres Wellensystem.
Wie groß ist die Geschwindigkeit der Querwellen, wenn die Schiffs-
geschwindigkeit 10 m/sek beträgt?
4. Welche Länge haben die Querwellen hinter einem Schiff, das sich mit
der Geschwindigkeit von 10 m/sek bewegt?
Wie groß ist die Wellenfrequenz?
5. Die Querwelle hinter einem Schiff hat die Amplitude 1 m. Schätzen Sie
den Widerstand des Schiffes!
Benutzen Sie Fig. 1.11!
6. ([8])Das Modell eines Schiffes wird in einer sehr breiten Schlepprinne
mit der Geschwindigkeit 1 m/s 100 geschleppt. Die Modellänge beträgt 5 m.
1
taken from [8]
28
Figure 1.11: Bild aus Buch von Newman
Nach 100 Metern wird das Modell gestoppt. Wie viel Querwellen
befinden sich in der Schlepprinne, wenn die Reflektion von Schlepprin-
nenseiten nicht auftritt?
Hinweis: Das Schiff wird als Superposition von zwei Punktstörungen
betrachtet: Bug und Heck. Der Bug erzeugt die Welle. Das Heck
erzeugt die Welle. Gesamtes Wellenbild wird als Summe betrachtet:
Benutzen Sie die Formel (6.21) und die Aufgaben 2 und 3.
7. Für eine fortschreitende Welle mit der Amplitude 6 m und der Länge 200 m
berechnen Sie die Phasengeschwindigkeit und die maximale Geschwindigkeit
der Wasserteilchen.
In welchen Punkten ist diese Geschwindigkeit maximal?
8. Task:
Develop the theory of vertical oscillations of a very sharp cone with
the draught T=10m and the diameter of 1m in regular and irregular
waves using the Haskind’s relation (1.38). The added mass A33 can be
neglected.
29
30
Chapter 2
Free oscillations with small

amplitudes
2.1 Theory
Let us consider a ship in the equilibrium position at calm water condition.
The ship has zero forward speed. If a perturbation acts on the ship, it
performs oscillating motions in three directions:
• heave,
• roll,
• pitch.
Yaw, surge and sway motions did not arise at calm water conditions. The
reason is the presence of restoring hydrostatic forces in heave, roll and pitch
directions.
The motion equations of the free oscillation read:

(m + A33 ) ζ̈ + B33 ζ̇ + ρgAW P ζ = 0,
(Ixx + A44 ) ϕ̈ + B44 ϕ̇ + ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ = 0, (2.1)
(Iyy + A55 ) ψ̈ + B55 ψ̇ + ρg∇0 GML ψ = 0.
In ship theory the equations (2.1) are written in the normalized form:
ζ̈ + 2νζ ζ̇ + ωζ2 ζ = 0,
ϕ̈ + 2νϕ ϕ̇ + ωϕ2 ϕ = 0, (2.2)
ψ̈ + 2νψ ψ̇ + ωψ2 ψ = 0,
31
where
B33 B44 B55

νζ = , νϕ = , νψ = (2.3)
2 (m + A33 ) 2 (Ixx + A44 ) 2 (Iyy + A55 )
are damping coefficients and
r r s
ρgAW P ρg∇0 GMγ ρg∇0 GML
ωζ = , ωϕ = , ωψ = (2.4)
m + A33 Ixx + A44 Iyy + A55
are the eugen frequencies of non damped oscillations.
The equations (2.2) are fully independent of each other. The solutions of the
equations (2.2) written in the general form:
ξ¨ + 2ν ξ˙ + ω 2 ξ = 0 (2.5)
is given as:
ξ = Cept (2.6)
Substitution of (2.6) into (2.5) yields the algebraic equation
p2 + 2νp + ω 2 = 0 (2.7)
which solution is
√
p1,2 = −ν ± ν 2 − ω2 (2.8)
If the system has no damping the solution is
p1,2 = iω → ξ = Ceiωt = C(cos ωt + i sin ωt) (2.9)

The system oscillates with the constant amplitude and frequency ω. That is
why the frequency ω is referred to as the eigenfrequency.
For real ships the damping coefficient is smaller than the eigenfrequency ν ω
and the equation (2.8) has two solutions:
√
p1 = −ν + i ω 2 − ν 2 = −ν + iω̄,
√ (2.10)
p2 = −ν − i ω 2 − ν 2 = −ν − iω̄,
32
In turn, the solution of the differential equation is
ξ = Ce−νt e±iω̄ = Ce−νt (cos ω̄t ± i sin ω̄t) (2.11)

It describes damped oscillations with decaying amplitude which decrease is
governed by the factor e−νt , e−νt −−−→ 0. The rate of the decay is charac-
t→∞
terized by the damping coefficient ν. The frequency of damped oscillations
is
√
ω̄ = ω2 − ν 2 < ω (2.12)
Due to damping the frequency of the oscillations is shorter whereas the period
is longer:
2π 2π
T = =√ (2.13)
ω̄ ω − ν2
2
Since ω ν
2π 2π 2π
T = =√ ≈ (2.14)
ω̄ ω2 − ν 2 ω
From (2.12) and (2.14) we obtain the frequencies for different types of oscil-
lations which are listed in the table below:
Table 2.1: Frequencies and periods of different oscillation types

Oscillation Eigenfrequency Frequency of Period of
q damped oscillations oscillations
q q
ρgAW P m+A33
Heave ωζ = m+A33
ω¯ζ = ωζ2 − νζ2 Tζ = 2π ρgA
q q WP
ρg∇0 GMγ p Ixx +A44
Rolling ωϕ = Ixx +A44
ω¯ϕ = ωϕ2 − νϕ2 Tϕ = 2π ρg∇
q q q 0 GMγ
ρg∇0 GML Iyy +A55
Pitch ωψ = Iyy +A55
ω¯ψ = ωψ2 − νψ2 Tψ = 2π ρg∇ 0 GML
The damping is characterized by the logarithmic decrement which is the

logarithm of the ratio of the oscillation amplitude at the time instant t to
that at the time instant t+T, i.e.
ξ(t) e−νt
= −ν(t+T ) = eνT (2.15)
ξ(t + T ) e
The logarithm of the ratio (2.15) is
33
ξ(t) e−νt 2πν
ln = ln −ν(t+T ) = lneνT = (2.16)
ξ(t + T ) e ω̄
The ratio ω̄ν is called as the referred damping factor ν̄. The decay of the oscil-
lation amplitude is equal to this factor multiplied by 2π. Referred damping
factors for different types of oscillation can be found from this definition.
The results obtained under assumption ω ν are listed in the table 2.2.
If the metacentric heights GM

qγ and GML are getting larger, the periods Tϕ =
q
Ixx +A44 Iyy +A55
2π ρg∇0 GMγ and Tψ = 2π ρg∇ 0 GML
as well as the damping factors ν̄ϕ =
√ B44 B55
and ν̄ψ = √ decrease. Therefore, the
2 (Ixx +A44 )ρg∇0 GMγ 2 (Iyy +A55 )ρg∇0 GML
smaller are the metacentric heights the larger are the oscillations periods
and the less oscillations are necessary to decay. The time of decay depends
only on damping and doesn’t depend on the metacentric height.
Table 2.2: Referred damping factors for different oscillation types

Oscillation Referred damping factor
Heave ν̄ζ = √ B33
2 (m+A33 )ρgAW P
B44
Rolling ν̄ϕ = √
2 (Ixx +A44 )ρg∇0 GMγ
√ B55
Pitch ν̄ψ =
2 (Iyy +A55 )ρg∇0 GML
2.2 Exercise
1. ϕ0 is the roll angle at t = 0. Find the number of periods N of free roll
oscillations necessary to reduce the amplitude oscillations by factor ea .
What is influence of the metacentric height on N?
2. The period of undamped oscillations is T. The referred damping fac-

tor ν̄ is 0,2.
Calculate the period of damped oscillations!
Calculate the reduction of the amplitude within the period of damped
and undamped oscillations!
3. Typical periods of roll and pitch oscillations for different ships are [9]:
Explain why Tϕ > Tψ .
34
Ship Tϕ , sec Tψ , sec
tanker 9 ... 15 7 ... 11
ice breaker 8 ... 12 3 ... 5
trawler 6 ... 8 3 ... 4
big cruise liner 20 ... 28 10 ... 12
container ships (20000 − 30000 t) 16 ... 19 7 ... 9
4. The periods of oscillations can be estimated from the following simple

empiric formulae [9]
√ √ p
Tζ ≈ 2.5 T , Tψ ≈ 2.4 T , Tϑ ≈ cB/ GMγ ,
where T and B are draught and beam. The empiric coefficient c is

equal approximately 0, 8...0, 85 for big cruise liners.
Calculate the change of the period of roll oscillations of a cruise liner if
a load with mass 1 ton is elevated in vertical direction from 10 m from
the keel line to the 1 meters from the keel line! The ship displacement
is 20 000 t and the beam is 30 m. Use the table from exercise 3 to
estimate quantities missed.
35
36
Chapter 3
Ship oscillations in small

transverse waves (beam see)
The formalism developed in this chapter is based on the following assump-

tions:
• waves are regular,
• waves amplitudes related to the wave lengths are small. Wave slope is
small.
• wave length is much larger than the ship width,
• The ship has zero forward speed.
From the first two assumptions it follows, that the collective action of waves
on ship can be considered through the superposition principle. Therefore,
the theory can be developed for the interaction of the ship with a single wave
with given length and amplitude. The effects of different waves are then
summed. For the case of small waves the oscillations are decoupled. The
hydrodynamic, hydrostatic and gyroscopic coupling effects are neglected.
The perturbation forces (see the last column in the equation system (1.32))
arise due to wave induced change of the hydrostatic forces and due to hy-
drodynamic effects caused by orbital motion in waves. The orbital motion
causes the hydrodynamic pressure change which results in the wave induced
hydrodynamic forces.
In each frame, the pressure gradient induced by waves is assumed to be

constant along the frame contour and equal to the pressure gradient at the
37
centre A on the free surface. When considering the roll and pitch oscillations
in transverse waves it is additionally assumed that the ship draught change ζ
and the ship slope relatively to the free surface are constant along the ship.
The wave ordinate is given by the formula derived for the progressive wave
(see Chapter 6 in [7])
ζ0 = A sin (ωt + kχ) (3.1)

where A is the amplitude, χ is the wave propagation direction and ω is the
frequency.
In this section the incident waves are perpendicular to the ship (see Fig.3.1).
The wave propagation direction is in η direction, i.e. χ = η. The waves induce
roll and heave oscillations. The curvature of the free surface is neglected, the
free surface is considered as the plane performing angular oscillations and
translational oscillations in vertical direction.
Figure 3.1:
3.1 Hydrostatic forces and moments

The hydrostatic forces during the heave oscillations are calculated neglecting
the wave surface slope. The hydrostatic force acting on the ship with draft
increment ζ in the wave with the ordinate ζ0 (see Fig.3.2) is
Fζhydr = −ρgAW P (ζ − ζ0 ) = −ρgAW P (ζ − A sin ωt) (3.2)
38
where η = 0 at the point A. Since the wave slope is neglected, the de-
pendence of ζ0 on ζ is not considered. The first part −ρgAW P ζ is the
restoring hydrostatic force which is already present in (1.32). The second
part ρgAW P A sin ωt is the wave induced hydrostatic force.
Figure 3.2: Illustration of hydrostatic force
The additional hydrostatic moment is determined from the analysis of the

Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Illustration of hydrostatic moment
The relative slope of the ship to the free surface is ϕ − α, where α is the wave
surface slope
39
ω2

dζ0
α= = Ak cos ωt = A cos ωt = αA cos ωt (3.3)
dη η−0 g
αA is the amplitude of the angular water plane oscillations. The hydrostatic
pressure increases linearly in direction perpendicular to the free surface plane.
Therefore, the restoring moment is the same as in the case if the free surface is
horizontal and the ship is inclined at the angle ϕ − α. The restoring moment
is known from the ship hydrostatics
Mϕhydr = −ρg∇0 GMγ (ϕ − α) = −ρg∇0 GMγ (ϕ − αA cos ωt) (3.4)
The first part −ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ is the restoring hydrostatic moment, whereas the
second part ρg∇0 GMγ αA cos ωt is the wave induced hydrostatic moment.
3.2 Hydrodynamic Krylov - Froude force

Hydrodynamic forces arise due to wave induced hydrodynamic pressures.
From the Bernoulli equation the pressure is (see (1.13)).
ρu2 ∂ϕ
p=− − ρgz − ρ + pa (3.5)
2 ∂t
The constant pressure pa does not need to be considered since being inte-
grated over the ship wetted surface results in zero force and moment. The
first term in (3.5) is neglected within the linear theory under consideration.
The second term results in force and moment considered above in the sec-
tion 3.1. The remaining term punst = −ρ ∂ϕ ∂t
is responsible for hydrodynamic
effects caused by waves. If the interaction between the ship and incident
waves is neglected (Krylov - Froude formalism) the potential can be written
as the potential of uniform unsteady parallel flow:
ϕ = uζ (t)ζ (3.6)
where uζ (t) is unsteady velocity of the flow in the wave
dζ0
uζ (t) = (3.7)
dt
∂u
Since the unsteady pressure punst = −ρ ∂ϕ∂t
= −ρζ ∂tζ is zero at ζ = 0 the
total pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure p = pa (see (3.5)). The
gradient of the hydrodynamic pressure in vertical direction reads:
40

∂punst ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂ϕ ∂uζ (t)
= −ρ = −ρ = −ρ = −ρζ̈0 = ρω 2 A sin ωt
∂ζ ∂ζ ∂t ∂t ∂ζ ∂t
(3.8)
The unsteady pressure at the point ζ is then:
Zζ Zζ
unst unst ∂punst ∂punst
p (ζ) = p (ζ = 0) + dz = dz
∂z ∂z
0 0
The force caused by punst on each frame is calculated by the integration of

the pressure over the frame wetted area
Zζ
 
I I unst
∂p
dFζdyn = punst cos(nζ)dC =  dz  cos(nζ)dC =
∂z
0
(3.9)
Zζ
 
I I
=  ρω 2 A sin ωtdz  cos(nζ)dC = ρω 2 A sin ωt ζ cos(nζ)dC
0
Here the normal vector

H is the inward normal vector.
Since the integral ζ cos(nζ)dC is equal to the frame area taken with the
opposite sign, i.e. −Af , the hydrodynamic force caused by waves takes the
form:
dFζdyn = −ρω 2 A sin ωtAf (3.10)
Being integrated along the ship length this force gives the force acting on the
whole ship length
ZL ZL
Fζdyn = dFζdyn dξ =− ρω 2 A sin ωtAf dξ =
0 0
(3.11)
ZL
= −ω 2 A sin ωt ρAf dξ = −mω 2 A sin ωt = mζ̈0
0
The hydrodynamic moment acting on the ship frame
41
I
dMϕdyn = punst (η cos(nζ) − ζ cos(nη))dC =
I (3.12)
2
= ρω A sin ωt ζ(η cos(nζ) − ζ cos(nη))dC
Within the linear theory considering small ship slopes the last integral in (3.12)
is zero, i.e.
ZL
dMϕdyn =0→ Mϕdyn = dMϕdyn = 0 (3.13)
0
3.3 Full Krylov - Froude force and moment

The full Froude Krylov force takes the form:
Fζl = ρgAW P A sin ωt − mω 2 A sin ωt = ρgAW P A sin ωt + mζ̈0 (3.14)
The first term is caused by hydrostatic effect, whereas the second one by
hydrodynamic effects. The second term is referred in the literature to as the
Smith effect.
The full Froude Krylov moment contains only the wave induced hydrostatic
component:
Mϕl = ρg∇0 GMγ αA cos ωt (3.15)
3.4 Force and moment acting on the ship frame

in accelerated flow
These forces are determined using the concept of the relative motion. Let
us ζj is a ship displacement in j-th direction. As it has been explained in pre-
vious chapters, the force acting on the body moving with the acceleration ζ̈j
in a liquid at rest is equal to the product of added mass with the acceleration
taken with opposite sign, i.e. −Ajj ζ̈j . If the liquid moves with the accelera-
tion ζ̈jL relative to motionless body, the force acting on the body is towards
the acceleration direction, i.e. Ajj ζ̈jL . If both body and liquid move with ac-
celerations the total force is −Ajj (ζ̈j − ζ̈jL ). Similarly, the damping force can
introduced being proportional to the relative velocity −Bjj (ζ̇j − ζ̇jL ). The
42
first components of both forces −Ajj ζ̈j and −Bjj ζ̇j are already represented
by the first and the second columns in the motion equations (1.32). The sec-
ond components Ajj ζ̈jL and Bjj ζ̇jL represent the hydrodynamic forces due
to interaction between the incident waves and floating body. Remembering
that ζ̇jL = ωA cos ωt and ζ̈jL = −ω 2 A sin ωt we obtain the lift force caused
by the interaction between the ship and incident wave:
Fζ2 = −A33 ω 2 A sin ωt + B33 ωA cos ωt (3.16)

In roll oscillations the ship moves with the angular velocity ϕ̇ and angular
acceleration ϕ̈. The free surface oscillates with the angular velocity α̇ and
acceleration α̈. Taking α from (3.3) we obtain the roll moment caused by
the interaction between the ship and incident wave:
ω4 ω3
Mϕ2 2
= −A44 ω αA cos ωt − B44 ωαA sin ωt = −A44 A cos ωt − B44 A sin ωt
g g
(3.17)
3.5 Full wave induced force and moment

In the section 1.5 we divided the wave induced forces into the Froude Krylov
part and the interaction force. Commonly, the Froude Krylov force is the
dominating part of the wave induced forces.
To calculate the full wave induced force we have to note that the Smith effect
is already represented in the force Ajj ζ̈jL + Bjj ζ̇jL . All hydrodynamic effects
are taken into account. Only the hydrostatic part of the Froude Krylov force
should be added to Ajj jL¨ + Bjj ζ̇j L to get the full wave induced force:
Fζ,per = ρgAW P − ω 2 A33 A sin ωt + B33 ωA cos ωt

(3.18)
The full moment is the sum of (3.15) and (3.17):
ω2 ω3
Mϕ,per = ρg∇0 GMγ − A44 ω 2 A cos ωt − B44 A sin ωt (3.19)
g g
3.6 Equations of ship heave and roll oscilla-

tions
Substitution of all forces derive above into the original differential equations
results in two following decoupled ordinary differential equations
43

(m + A33 ) ζ̈ − ζ̈0 + B33 ζ̇ − ζ̇0 + ρgAW P (ζ − ζ0 ) = −mζ̈0 (3.20)
(Ixx + A44 ) (ϕ̈ − α̈) + B44 (ϕ̇ − α̇) + ρg∇0 GMγ (ϕ − α) = −Ixx α̈. (3.21)
The solution of both equations can be represented as the sum ζ = ζinh + ζf ree
ϕ = ϕinh + ϕf ree , where ζf ree and ϕf ree are free heave and roll oscillations:
ϕf ree = Ce−νϕ t (cos ω̄ϕ t ± i sin ω̄ϕ t), ζf ree = Ce−νζ t (cos ω̄ζ t ± i sin ω̄ζ t) satis-
fying the homogeneous equations:
(m + A33 ) ζ̈ + B33 ζ̇ + ρgAW P ζ = 0

(Ixx + A44 ) ϕ̈ + B44 ϕ̇ + ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ = 0.
When the free oscillations decay ϕf ree , ζf ree −−−→ 0, the solutions of the
t→∞
equation (3.20) and (3.21) tend to the solutions of inhomogeneous equations:
(m + A33 ) ζ̈ + B33 ζ̇ + ρgAW P ζ = A33 ζ̈0 + B33 ζ̇0 + ρgAW P ζ0

(3.22)
(Ixx + A44 ) ϕ̈ + B44 ϕ̇ + ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ = A44 α̈ + B44 α̇ + ρg∇0 GMγ α.
The inhomogeneous equation (3.21) is written in terms of relative roll an-

gle ϕ(r) = ϕ − α in the normalized form:
ω2
ϕ̈(r) + 2νϕ ϕ̇(r) + ωϕ2 ϕ(r) = αA cos ωt, (3.23)
1 + kϕ
where kϕ = A44 /Ixx . The solution of (3.23) is seeking in the form
(r)
ϕ(r) = ϕA cos (ωt − δϕ ) (3.24)
Substituting (3.24) into (3.23) and separating terms proportional to cos ωt
and sin ωt gives two equations:
(r) ω2
ϕA (ωϕ2 − ω 2 ) cos δϕ + 2νϕ ω sin δϕ =

αA (3.25)
1 + kϕ
(r)
ϕA −2νϕ ω cos δϕ + (ωϕ2 − ω 2 ) sin δϕ = 0

(3.26)
It follows from (3.25) and (3.26)
44
2 h 2
(r)
ϕA ωϕ2 − ω 2 cos2 δϕ + 4νϕ2 ω 2 sin2 δϕ +
ω4
sin δϕ ωϕ2 2 2

+4νϕ ω −ω cos δϕ = 2 αA
(1 + kϕ )
2 h 2
(r)
ϕA ωϕ2 − ω 2 sin2 δϕ + 4νϕ2 ω 2 cos2 δϕ −
−4νϕ ω cos δϕ ωϕ2 − ω 2 sin δϕ = 0.

The sum of two last equations

(r)
2 h 2 i ω4
ϕA ωϕ2 − ω 2 + 4νϕ2 ω 2 = 2
2 αA
(1 + kϕ )
(r)
allows one to find the ratio ϕA /αA
(r)
ϕA ω̂ϕ2 / (1 + kϕ )
=q , (3.27)
αA 2
1 − ω̂ϕ2 + 4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
where ω̂ϕ = ωωϕ and ν̂ϕ = ωνϕϕ 1 . Eigenfrequency ωϕ and damping coefficient νϕ
are given by formulae (2.3) and (2.4). The phase of the response relative to
that of the input (phase displacement) is found from (3.26):

2ν̂ϕ ω̂ϕ
δϕ = arctan (3.28)
1 − ω̂ϕ2
Similar solutions are obtained for the heave oscillations:
(r)
ζA ω̂ζ2 /(1 + kζ )
=q (3.29)
A (1 − ω̂ζ2 )2 + 4ν̂ζ2 ω̂ζ2
!
2ν̂ζ ω̂ζ
δζ = arctg (3.30)
1 − ω̂ζ2
ω νζ
with kζ = A33 /m, ω̂ζ = ωζ
and ν̂ζ = ωζ
.
1
since ω ν, ν̂ϕ ≈ ν̄ϕ introduced in table 2.2
45
3.7 Analysis of the formula (3.27)
The formula (3.27) can be rewritten as follows:
(r)
ϕA ϕA − αA ω̂ϕ2 / (1 + kϕ )
= =q
αA αA 2
1 − ω̂ϕ2 + 4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
or
ϕA ω̂ϕ2 / (1 + kϕ )
=1+ q (3.31)
αA 2
1 − ω̂ϕ2 + 4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
The physical meaning of terms in (3.31) is obvious from the following expres-
sion
amplitude of ship roll oscillations

= 1 + enhancement (3.32)
amplitude of wave angle oscillations
2 /(1+k )
ω̂ϕ 2 /(1+k )
ω̂ϕ
ϕ ϕ
Since the function q
2 is positive q
2 > 0 the ship
(1−ω̂ϕ2 ) +4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2 (1−ω̂ϕ2 ) +4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
roll amplitude is larger than the the amplitude of the angular water plane
oscillations αA , i.e. ϕαAA > 1.
Figure 3.4: Ship as linear system

The ship can be considered as a system with the waves as input and the
resulting motion as the output (Fig.3.4). As seen from (3.31) this system is
linear for small amplitude oscillations. In terms of linear system theory the
formula (3.31) reads
output
= 1 + enhancement (3.33)
input
The linear system is time invariant. The output produced by a given in-
put is independent of the time at which the input is applied. The func-
tion 1 + enhancement which characterizes the system response in the fre-
quency domain is called the frequency response function.
46
2 /(1+k )
ω̂ϕ ϕ
The enhancement function q
2 goes to zero if referred frequency
(1−ω̂ϕ2 ) +4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
ω̂ 2 /(1+k )
becomes zero. At very large frequencies ω → ∞, q ϕ 2 ϕ → 1/ (1 + kϕ ).
(1−ω̂ϕ2 ) +4ν̂ϕ2 ω̂ϕ2
The enhancement is maximum in the resonance case ω̂ϕ = ωωϕ = √ 1 2 ⇒
1−2ν̂ϕ
ω = √ ωϕ . Strictly speaking the resonance frequency ω = √ ωϕ 2
is not
1−2ν̂ϕ 1−2ν̂ϕ
equal to the eigenfrequency ωϕ , i.e. ω > ωϕ . Since ν̂ϕ is small, this discrep-
(r)
ϕA
ancy can be neglected ω ≈ ωϕ . Typical dependence of the ratio αA
on the
referred frequency is presented in Fig. 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Response function versus referred frequency
Typical dependence of the phase displacement on the referred frequency is

presented in Fig. 3.6.
The phase displacement is equal to π/2 in the resonance case ω̂ϕ = 1 for
every damping. For ω̂ϕ = ωωϕ → 0 the phase displacement disappears.
For ω̂ϕ = ωωϕ → ∞ the phase displacement tends to π. The largest rela-
tive roll angle occurs in the resonance case either at wave crests or at wave
troughs (Fig. 3.7). Indeed, the magnitude of the relative roll angle in the res-
(r) (r) (r)
onance case ϕ(r) = ϕA cos ωt − π2 = ϕA sin ωt attains the maximum ϕA

at sin ωt = ±1. It corresponds to wave crest ζ0 = A sin ωt = A and wave

trough ζ0 = −A.
At very large metacentric
q height GMγ → ∞ the eigenfrequency is also get-
ting large ωϕ = ρg∇ 0 GMγ
Ixx +A44
→ ∞. The referred frequency for a limited wave
frequency ω ∼ ∞ tends to zero ω̂ϕ = ωωϕ → 0. The relative roll angle am-
plitude and phase displacement are zero. The floating body moves together
47
Figure 3.6: Phase displacement versus referred frequency
Figure 3.7: Ship oscillations in resonance case
Figure 3.8: Oscillation of a raft with a big metacentric height
with the free surface as shown in Fig. 3.8 like a raft.
Similar results are obtained from analysis of the heave oscillations formu-
lae (3.29) and (3.30).
48
3.8 Sway ship oscillations in beam sea
The equation describing the sway oscillations is (see the second equation in
the system (1.32)):
mη̈ = −A22 η̈ − B22 η̇ + Fη,per (t) (3.34)

The wave exciting force Fη,per (t) consists of two components of hydrostatic
and hydrodynamics nature. As seen from Fig. 3.9 the hydrostatic force is
Fηhyd = −ρg∇0 α = −ρ∇0 ω 2 A cos ωt = −mω 2 A cos ωt (3.35)
Figure 3.9: Illustration of the frame in beam waves
The potential of harmonic wave can be represented in form:
Ag kζ
ϕ= e cos(kη + ωt)
ω
The wave ordinate is
1 ∂ϕ(η, o, t)
ζ=− = A sin(kη + ωt)
g ∂t
The velocity of a fluid particle in η direction is calculated as
∂ϕ
η̇ = = −Aωekζ sin(kη + ωt)
∂η
Acceleration at point η = 0 and ζ = 0 reads
η̈ = −Aω 2 cos ωt (3.36)
49
The hydrodynamic component of the wave induced force is written in the
similar form as (3.16):
Fη2 = A22 η̈0 + B22 η̇0 (3.37)

Substitution of (3.37) and (3.35) into (3.34) gives:
mη̈ = −A22 η̈ − B22 η̇ + mη̈0 + A22 η̈0 + B22 η̇0 (3.38)

or
(m + A22 )(η̈ − η̈0 ) + B22 (η̇ − η̇0 ) = 0 (3.39)

The solution of the equation is written in the form:
(η − η0 ) = Ceλt (3.40)
which substitution into (3.39) allows one to find λ
B22
λ=− (3.41)
m + A22
The parameter λ is negative. Therefore, (η−η0 ) = Ceλt −−−→ 0 ⇒ η −−−→ η0 .
t→∞ t→∞
As soon the transitional process is finished, the ship oscillates together with
the wave
η = η0 = A sin ωt (3.42)
3.9 Ship oscillations at finite beam to wave

length ratio and draught to length ratio
The analysis presented above was carried out for the case of a very long wave,
i.e. both the beam to length ratio B/Lw and the draught to length ratio T /Lw
are small. The results for roll oscillation obtained for the case B/Lw ≈ 0,
T /Lw ≈ 0 are extended to the case B/Lw ∼ 0(1), T /Lw ∼ 0(1) using
reduction coefficients. According to this traditional in shipbuilding approach
the wave amplitude is multiplied with the reduction coefficient κ, i.e.
Ared = κA (3.43)
The ship oscillations at B/Lw ∼ 0(1), T /Lw ∼ 0(1) are smaller than these
at B/Lw ≈ 0, T /Lw ≈ 0 due to two reasons
50
• Hydrostatic force is smaller because the submerged volume is smaller
due to wave surface curvature,
• Hydrodynamic force is smaller because the velocities caused by the

orbital motion are not constant as assumed above. They decay with
the increasing submergence as ∼ exp(−kz).
The first reduction factor is mainly due to the finite beam to length ra-
tio B/Lw ∼ 0(1).
Let us consider first the reduction coefficient for the heave oscillations. The
factor κBζ considers the reduction of the hydrostatic force due to the finite
beam to length ratio. To estimate κBζ the fixed ship is considered at the time
instant ωt = π/2 when the wave crest is in the symmetry plane (Fig. 3.10).
Figure 3.10:
The free surface ordinate

π
ζ0 = A sin + kη = A cos kη
2
The hydrostatic force obtained in the previous analysis is
R0 = ρgAAwp (3.44)
whereas the actual one is calculated by the integral:
51
Z ZL/2 B(ξ)/2
Z
Rtrue = ρgA cos kηdξdη = 2ρgA cos kηdηdξ =
Awp −L/2 0
(3.45)
ZL/2
2ρgA kB(ξ)
= sin dξ
k 2
−L/2
Using the Taylor expansion for sin kB(ξ)
kB(ξ) kB (kB)3
sin = − + ...
2 2 48
the final formula for Rtrue takes the form:
ZL/2 ZL/2
(kB)3

2ρgA kB(ξ) 2ρgA
Rtrue = sin dξ ≈ kB/2 − dξ =
k 2 k 48
−L/2 −L/2
(3.46)
ZL/2
ρgAk 2 k2 I

3
= ρgAAwp − B dξ = ρgAAwp 1 − ,
24 2 Awp
−L/2
where
ZL/2 ZL/2
1
Awp = Bdξ, I= B 3 dξ,
12
−L/2 −L/2
The reduction of the hydrostatic force can be taken by the following coeffi-
cient into account:
2

ρgAAwp 1 − k2 AIwp k2 I
κBζ = =1− (3.47)
ρgAAwp 2 Awp
The second reduction factor is mainly due to the finite draught to length ra-
tio T /Lw ∼ 0(1). The factor κT ζ considers the reduction of the hydrodynamic
force due to the finite draught to length ratio. The reduction coefficient is
given here without derivation:
2 3
T χ T χ T
κT ζ = 1 − χ 2π + 2π − 2π (3.48)
Lw 2(2 − χ) Lw 6(3 − 2χ) Lw
52
where χ is the coefficient of the lateral area χ = ALA /(LT ).
The total reduction coefficient κζ is calculated as the product of κBζ and κT ζ
neglecting their mutual influence:
κζ = κBζ κT ζ (3.49)
Lw Lw
The formula (3.49) is valid at > 4,
B
> 8. For heave calculations one
T
can use the formula (3.29) with Aκζ instead of A.
Reduction coefficient of the roll oscillations can be calculated from the ex-
pression gained from regression of experimental data:
"p #1/2
2 BT χrγ /GMγ
κϕ = exp −4.2 (Rω̂ϕ ) , R = χωϕ (3.50)
2πg
Here rγ is the metacentric radius. Amplitude of roll oscillations is found

from (3.31) with αA κϕ instead of αA . A sample of the reduction coefficient
for a real ship is presented in Fig. 3.11.
Figure 3.11: Reduction coefficient of the heave oscillations
3.10 Effect of ship speed on rolling

In the previous chapters the ship speed was assumed to be zero. If the ship
moves in waves with speed v in x-direction the following modifications should
53
be made in theory
• the added mass Aij and damping coefficients Bij depend on the en-
counter frequency
v cos ϕwave
ωe = ω − ω 2
g
where ϕwave is encounter angle (Fig. 3.12)
Figure 3.12: Sea classification
• reduction coefficient κ (3.43) depends on ω

• In the hydrodynamic theory one uses time derivative in ship coordinate
system ∂ϕ∂t
which can be expressed through the time derivative in the
∂ϕ
inertial reference system ∂t0
as
∂ϕ ∂ϕ
= − ~v ∇ϕ
∂t0 ∂t
54
The formulae (3.27 - 3.30) can be used also in the case v 6= 0 with the
substitution ωe instead of ω.
55
56
Chapter 4
Ship oscillations in small head

waves
4.1 Exciting forces and ship oscillations

Let us consider the ship oscillations in small head waves coming from the
stern (ψwave = 0◦ ), where ψwave is the wave course angle. The wave ordinate,
wave orbital motion velocity and acceleration are:
ζ0 = A sin(ωt − kξ) (4.1)
ζ̇0 = ωA cos(ωt − kξ) (4.2)
ζ̈0 = −ω 2 A sin(ωt − kξ) (4.3)
Figure 4.1: Illustration of the ship in head waves
Within the linear theory of ship oscillation the ship is considered at rest. The
perturbation force acting on the section AB (Fig. 4.1) can be represented as
the sum of
• the hydrostatic Froude Krylov force ρgB(ξ)ζ0 (ξ),
57
• the hydrodynamic force µ33 ζ̈0 (ξ) + λ33 ζ̇0 (ξ)
dFζ,per
= µ33 ζ̈0 (ξ) + λ33 ζ̇0 (ξ) + ρgB(ξ)ζ0 (ξ) (4.4)
dξ
Here we used the principle of relative motion (see section 3.4) for a ship
dFζ,per
frame. Integrating dξ over the ship length we obtain the whole wave
induced force Fζ,per . If the ship is symmetric with respect to the midship
B(ξ) = B(−ξ), Af (ξ) = Af (−ξ), µ33 (ξ) = µ33 (−ξ), λ33 (ξ) = λ33 (−ξ), the
terms with sin(kξ) are neglected and the formula for Fζ,per is simplified to:
Z Z
2
Fζ,per = −ω A µ33 cos kξdξ · sin ωt + ωA λ33 cos kξdξ · cos ωt+
L L
Z Z
ρgB(ξ) − ω 2 µ33 cos kξdξ · sin ωt+

+A ρgB(ξ) cos kξdξ · sin ωt = A
L L
Z
+ ωA λ33 cos kξdξ · cos ωt = Fζ,per sin (ωt − δζ,per )
L
(4.5)
where
v 2  2
u
u Z Z
= At (ρgB(ξ) − ω 2 µ33 ) cos kξdξ  + ω 2  λ33 cos kξdξ  ,
u
Fζ,per
L L
R
ω λ33 cos kξdξ
 
L
δζ,per = −arc tan  R ;
(ρgB(ξ) − ω 2 µ33 ) cos kξdξ
L
(4.6)
dFζ,per
The wave exciting moment is calculated by multiplication of dξ
with the
arm ξ:
58
Z
dFE,ζ
Mψ,per = − ξ dξ
dξ
ZL
ρgB(ξ) − ω 2 µ33 ξ sin kξ · cos ωt−

=A (4.7)
L
Z
− ωA λ33 ξ sin kξ · sin ωt = Mψ,per sin (ωt − δψ,per )
L
where
v 2  2
u
u Z Z
= At (ρgB(ξ) − ω 2 µ33 ) ξ sin kξdξ  + ω 2  λ33 ξ sin kξdξ  ,
u
Mψ,per
L L
R 2
(ρgB(ξ) − ω µ33 ) ξ sin kξdξ

δψ,per = −π + arc tan L R ;

ω λ33 ξ sin kξdξ
L
(4.8)
Substitution (4.5) and (4.7) in the third and sixth equations of the sys-
tem (1.3.2) gives:
mζ̈ = −A33 ζ̈ − B33 ζ̇ − ρgAW P ζ + Fζ,per sin (ωt − δζ,per ) (4.9)
Iyy ψ̈ = −A55 ψ̈ − B55 ψ̇ − ρg∇0 GML ψ + Mψ,per sin (ωt − δψ,per ) (4.10)
(m + A33 ) ζ̈ + B33 ζ̇ + ρgAW P ζ = Fζ,per sin (ωt − δζ,per ) (4.11)
(Iyy + A55 ) ψ̈ + B55 ψ̇ + ρg∇0 GML ψ = Mψ,per sin (ωt − δψ,per ) (4.12)
Note that A33 , B33 are the coefficients for the whole ship, whereas µ33 and
λ33 for ship frames.
Dividing both equations by the coefficient of the first term one obtains:
59
ζ̈ + 2νζ ζ̇ + ωζ2 ζ = fζ sin (ωt − δζ,per )
(4.13)
ψ̈ + 2νψ ψ̇ + ωψ2 ψ = fψ sin (ωt − δψ,per )
where
Fζ,per Mψ,per B33 B55

fζ = , fψ = , νζ = , νψ = ,
m + A33 Iyy + A55 2(m + A33 ) 2(Iyy + A55 )
r s
ρgAW P ρg∇0 GML
ωζ = , ωψ = .
m + A33 Iyy + A55
Solution of (4.13) is seeking in the form
ζ = ζA sin ωt − δζ,per − δζper , ψ = ψA sin ωt − δψ,per − δψper .

(4.14)
Using trigonometric formulae sin(ωt−δζ,per −δζper ) = sin(ωt−δζ,per ) cos δζper −

cos(ωt − δζ,per ) sin δζper one gets for the first equation of (4.13)
ξA = ((ωζ2 − ω 2 ) cos δζper + 2νζ ω sin δζper ) sin(ωt − δζ,per )

− ξA ((ωζ2 − ω 2 ) sin δζper − 2νζ ω cos δζper ) cos(ωt − δζ,per ) = (4.15)
= fζ sin(ωt − δζ,per ).
This equation is splitted into two following equations:
ζA ((ωζ2 − ω 2 ) cos δζper + 2µζ ω sin δζper ) = f¯ζ
ξA ((ωζ2 − ω 2 ) sin δζper − 2νζ ω cos δζper ) = 0

Squaring two last equations and summing them one obtains:
ζA2 (ωζ2 − ω 2 )2 + 4νζ2 ω 2 = f¯ζ2

and
f¯ζ
ζA = q
(ωζ2 − ω 2 )2 + 4νζ2 ω 2
The phase displacement δζper is found from the second equation
60

2νζ ω
δζper = arctan
ωζ2 − ω 2
Similarly one gets the solution for pitch:
!
fψ 2νψ ω
ψA = q , δψper = arc tan (4.16)
(ωψ2 − ω 2 )2 + 4νψ2 ω 2 ωψ2 − ω 2
In the resonance case the phase displacement is equal to π/2, i.e.

δζper = π/2 in case ωζ = ω and δψper = π/2 in case ωψ = ω.
4.2 Estimations of slamming and deck flood-

ing
Results of ship oscillations obtained in the previous section can be used for
practically useful estimations. For instance, we can estimate the slamming
and deck flooding. Using the relations derived above
ζ0 = A sin(ωt − kξ), ζ = ζA sin(ωt − δζ,per − δζper ), ψ = ψA sin(ωt − δψ,per − δψper )

(4.17)
one can display the ship positions in head waves as shown in Fig. 4.2
Figure 4.2: Position of ship at different time instants in a head wave
Let us represent the formulae (4.17) in the form:
ζ0 = A sin ωt cos kξ − A cos ωt sin kξ

ζ = ζA sin ωt cos δζ,per + δζper − ζA cos ωt sin δζ,per + δζper

(4.18)
ψ = ψA sin ωt cos δψ,per + δψper − ψA cos ωt sin δψ,per + δψper .

61
The local change of the draft is:
z(x) = ζ0 − ξ − xψ = f1 (x) cos ωt + f2 (x) sin ωt (4.19)

where
f1 (x) = −A sin kξ + ζA sin(δζ,per + δζper ) + xψA sin(δψ,per + δψper )

(4.20)
f2 (x) = A cos kξ − ζA cos(δζ,per + δζper ) − xψA cos(δψ,per + δψper )
Figure 4.3: Curves y = ±zmax and y = z(x)
A sample of the curve y = z(x) is shown in Fig. 4.3. The maximum draft is
then
q
zmax (x) = f12 (x) + f22 (x) (4.21)
The curve y = +zmax (x) shows the contour of maximum wave elevations
along the ship board in the symmetry plane whereas the curve y = −zmax (x)
the minimum wave elevations. Both curves are symmetric with respect to
the equilibrium water plane.
• Deck flooding takes place if zmax (x) > H, where H is the board height.
• Slamming takes place if zmax (x) > T
There three zones limited by curves y = ±zmax (x) can be distinguished along
the ship board (see Fig. 4.3):
• Allways dry area (white),
• Allways wetted area (red),
• Intermediate area (orange).
A sample of flooding curves for a real ship is given in Fig. 4.4
62
Figure 4.4: Sample for a real ship
63
64
Chapter 5
Seasickness caused by ship

oscillations
Symptoms of the seasickness are giddiness (Schwindelgefühl), headache (Kopf-

schmerz), sickness (Übelkeit) and vomiting (Erbrechen). The seasickness
is the reason of work capacity reduction, memory decline (Rückgang der
Gedächtnisleistung), motion coordination (Bewegungskoordinierung), reduc-
tion of muscular strength, etc. Diagram of Sain Denice (Fig. 5.1) shows the
influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness depending on the
oscillation period.
Figure 5.1: Influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness depending

on the oscillation period
65
Figure 5.2: Influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness depending
on the oscillation period
For the irregular sea state the similar diagram was proposed by Krappinger
(Fig. 5.2) who estimated the percentage of people suffering from the seasick-
ness depending on the root mean square deviation and frequency.
According to standards developed in US Navy the oscillations have no sig-

nificant effect on the work capacity if the amplitude of the roll oscillations
is under eight degrees, the amplitude of pitch oscillation is below three de-
grees, the vertical accelerations does not exceed 0.4 g whereas the transver-
sal accelerations 0.2 g. The upper limit of the roll angle for the deck works
is 20 degrees which corresponds to the reduction of the work capacity of
about 50 percent.
At present the seasickness has insufficiently been studied in medical science.

As shown in the study by Vosser, the seasickness is developed at a certain
level of overloads and then can remain even the ship oscillations decay. It
is shown in diagram 5.3 presenting the number of passenger on a cruise
liner nδ /n suffering from the seasickness during eighty hours of the journey.
¨ was less than 0.1 and
At the journey beginning the vertical acceleration ζ/g
only 16 percent of passenger were sick. As soon as the vertical acceleration
attained 0.4g more than 80 percent of passengers were sick. In spite of the
ship oscillation decay after 30 hours of the way the number of sick passen-
gers is not reduced. On the contrary this number is slightly increased during
the next 24 hours. Only after 36 hours the seasickness retreated. The next
diagram 5.4 illustrates the fact that the adaption to seasickness is relatively
weak.
66
Figure 5.3: Number of passengers suffering from seasickness on a cruise liners
depending on vertical accelerations
Diathesis to seasickness depends on the individual properties of organisms.

There are many people who had never had problems with seasickness. How-
ever there are experienced seamen who suffers from this sickness the whole
professional life.
Figure 5.4: Adaption to seasickness
67
68
Chapter 6
Ship oscillations in irregular

waves
6.1 Representation of irregular waves

The irregular waves can be both two dimensional and three dimensional (Fig. 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Irregular seawaves, 1- two dimensional, 2- three dimensional.

(Fig. from [4])
A feature of the irregular waves distinguishing them from regular ones is

the non-recurrence of their form in time (Fig. 6.2). The following relations
between wave lengths L and wave heights h are recommended in practical
calculations for swell:
h = 0.17L3/4 Zimmermann,
h = 0.607L1/2 British Lloyd,
h = 0.45L0.6 det Norske Veritas.
69
Figure 6.2: Profile of an irregular wave. (Fig. from [4])
Within the linear theory the irregular waves can be represented as the super-
position of regular waves with different amplitudes, frequencies and course
angles, as shown in Fig. 6.3.
6.1.1 Wave ordinates as stochastic quantities

The wave ordinate is the stochastic function with a certain probability density
function (see Fig. 6.1). The p.d.f. distribution of the real irregular wave
ordinates is Gaussian. i.e,
1 2 2
p.d.f. = p e−(ζ−ζ0 ) /(2σ ) , (6.1)
2πDζ
where ζ0 is the mathematical expectation (in our case ζ0 = 0), σ is the
standard deviation:
σ 2 = (ζ − ζ0 )2 = Dζ (6.2)
Dζ is the dispersion. Probability P (ζ1 < ζ < ζ2 ) of the event, that the
ordinate lies in the range between ζ1 and ζ2 is then
√
ζ2 /
Zζ2 Zζ2 Z 2Dζ
1 2 /(2σ 2 ) 1 2
P (ζ1 < ζ < ζ2 ) = p.d.f.(ζ)dζ = p e−ζ dζ = √ e−t dt
2πDζ π √
ζ1 ζ1 ζ1 / 2Dζ
(6.3)
The last integral is known as the probability integral
Zx
2 2
ϕ(x) = √ e−t dt (6.4)
π
0
70
Figure 6.3: Representation of irregular wave through the superposition of
regular waves. (Fig. from [4])
satisfying the following properties
ϕ(−x) = −ϕ(x), ϕ(−∞) = −1, ϕ(∞) = 1 (6.5)

Using the probability integral, the probability P (ζ1 < ζ < ζ2 ) takes the form
" ! !#
1 ζ ζ
P (ζ1 < ζ < ζ2 ) = ϕ p2 −ϕ p1 (6.6)
2 2Dζ 2Dζ
The probability P (−∞ < ζ < ζ2 ) = P (ζ < ζ2 ) is the probability of the event
that ζ does not exceed ζ2 :
" !#
1 ζ
P (ζ < ζ2 ) = 1+ϕ p2 (6.7)
2 2Dζ
The probability P (ζ1 < ζ < ∞) = P (ζ1 < ζ) is the probability of the event
that ζ larger than ζ1 :
71
Figure 6.4: p.d.f. of the wave ordinate
" !#
1 ζ
P (ζ1 < ζ) = 1−ϕ p1 (6.8)
2 2Dζ
In the probability theory is shown that the p.d.f. of the amplitude of a

stochastic quantity having the Gaussian p.d.f. distribution satisfies the Raleigh
law:
ζa −ζa2 /(2Dζ )
p.d.f.(ζa ) = e (6.9)
Dζ
The probability that the amplitude is larger than ζ ∗ is
Z∞
ζa −ζa2 /(2Dζ ) ∗2
P (ζa > ζ ∗ ) = e dζa = e−ζ /(2Dζ ) (6.10)
Dζ
ζ∗
When evaluating the wave height an observer determines the middle height
of one third of the highest waves. This height is referred to as the significant
wave height and designated as h1/3 .
Dependence between the dispersion and the significant wave is
72
Dζ = 0.063h21/3 (6.11)
6.1.2 Wave spectra

Irregular waves are considered as the superposition of infinite number of
regular waves of different frequencies, amplitudes and course angles (Fig. 6.3).
According to this concept the wave elevation ζ(x, y, t) is represented in form
of Fourier - Stieltjes integral:
ZZ
ζ(x, y, t) = Real dA(ω, χ)exp[−ik(x cos χ + y sin χ) + iωt + δ(ω, χ)]
(6.12)
2
Here ω is the wave frequency, k is the wave number k = ω /g, χ is the
wave course angle and δ(ω, χ) is the phase angle. The quantity dA(ω, χ, t) is
the function of the amplitude corresponding to the wave propagating at the
course angle χ < χ < χ + ∆χ with the frequency ω < ω < ω + ∆ω. The
mean square elevation is obtained from time averaging the quadrat of the
elevation:
ZT
1
ζ 2 (x, y) = limT →∞ ζ 2 (x, y, t)dt =
T
0
ZZ ZZ
= dA(ω, χ)exp[−ik(x cos χ + y sin χ) + iωt + δ(ω, χ)] dA∗ (ω1 , χ1 )exp [−
ZZ
1
−ik1 (x cos χ1 + y sin χ1 ) − iω1 t − δ(ω, χ)] = dA(ω, χ)dA∗ (ω, χ)
2
(6.13)
Here the superscript ∗ stands for the complex conjugate amplitude function.
Rigorous derivation of the formula (6.13) can be found in [10]. Multiply-
ing ζ 2 (x, y) with ρg
ZZ
ρg
2
ρgζ (x, y) = dA(ω, χ)dA∗ (ω, χ) (6.14)
2
and comparing the result with the expression for the energy (6.34) derived
in [7]
ρgA2
E = TF l + Ep = L × 1m
2
73
One can conclude that ρgζ 2 (x, y) is the time averaged energy per surface
unit. Using the representation of the integral
ZZ Z2π Z∞
∗
dA(ω, χ)dA (ω, χ) = 2 Sζ (ω, χ)dωdχ (6.15)
0 0
we introduce the spectral density of the irregular waves Sζ (ω, χ) which is

the contribution of the wave with the frequency ω < ω < ω + ∆ω and the
course angle χ < χ < χ + ∆χ to the irregular wave energy. Commonly the
function Sζ (ω, χ) is called shortly the wave spectrum.
At present there is no much information on the energy distribution both on

the frequency and the course angle. The typical measurements with buoy
do not provide information about the dependency of wave elevations on the
course angle. In the ship theory is assumed that the irregular waves have a
preferential propagation direction and the wave have long wave crest. The
waves are approximately two dimensional. Such rough sea can fully be char-
acterized by the frequency spectrum Sζ (ω) defining as
Z2π
Sζ (ω) = Sζ (ω, χ)dχ (6.16)
0
The spectrum of the wave state Sζ (ω) shows the distribution of the wave en-
ergy on frequencies. The two dimensional spectrum Sζ (ω, χ) can be restored
from the one dimensional one Sζ (ω) using the following simple approxima-
tion:
4
Sζ (ω, χ) = Sζ (ω) cos4 χ
3π
To determine the spectrum, the wave ordinates are measured and represented
in Fourier series. The energy ∆E(ω < ω < ω + ∆ω) is calculated as the
squared wave ordinate for each interval of the frequencies ∆ω. The spectral
density of waves is calculated as
∆E(ω < ω < ω + ∆ω)

Sζ (ω) = lim (6.17)
∆ω→0 ∆ω
From the probability theory:
Z∞
Dζ = Sζ (ω)dω (6.18)
0
74
One of the most popular wave spectral densities is the spectrum of Pierson
and Moskowitz (PM):
αg 2
g 4
Sζ (ω) = 5 exp −β , (6.19)
ω Uω
where α = 0.0081, β = 0.74, U is the wind velocity at the height of 19.4

m over the free surface. The spectrum (6.19) has been obtained by approx-
imation of data measured in 1964 in the North Atlantic region. Fig. 6.5
illustrates the PM spectra depending on the wind velocity U.
Figure 6.5:
The mean wave height is
Z∞ Z∞
ζa −ζa2 /(2Dζ )
h̄ = 2 ζa p.d.f.(ζa )dζa = 2 ζa e dζa = (2πDζ )1/2 (6.20)
Dζ
0 0
The significant wave height is:
75
R∞
2 ζa p.d.f.(ζa )dζa
ζ1
h1/3 = R∞ (6.21)
p.d.f.(ζa )dζa
ζ1
where the amplitude ζ1 is chosen from the condition
Z∞
2
p.d.f.(ζa )dζa = 1/3 ⇒ e−ζ1 /(2Dζ ) = 1/3 ⇒ ζ1 =
p
2Dζ ln3 (6.22)
ζ1
It follows from (6.9) and (6.21):

p
h1/3 = 4 Dζ (6.23)
The middle frequency is defined as
 R∞ 1/2  R∞ 1/2
ω 2 Sζ (ω)dω ω 2 Sζ (ω)dω
0  0 
ω̄ = 
 R∞
 =  (6.24)
  Dζ (ω) 
Sζ (ω)dω
0
Substitution of (6.19) into (6.18), (6.23) and (6.24) results in

1/2
U2 α
h1/3 =2 , ω̄ = (πβ)1/4 (g/U ) (6.25)
g β
6.2 Calculation of ship oscillations in irregu-

lar waves
Using the assumption of small waves we can substitute the superposition of
regular waves into equations (3.20) and (3.21) describing the heave and roll
oscillations. Since the equations are linear the responses of the ship to each
regular wave can be calculated separately. In this case one can obtain the
history of oscillations in time.
However, from point of view of practical applications only the statistical pa-
rameters of oscillations are of importance. To determine them, the ship is
considered as the dynamic system. The seaway is the input which is trans-
formed by the ship into oscillations considered as the output. In the statisti-
cal theory shown, that if the input signal has the Gaussian p.d.f. distribution
76
the output signal has also the Gaussian p.d.f. distribution. With the other
words, the ship oscillation parameters (roll angle, etc) obey the normal Gaus-
sian law whereas the amplitudes of oscillation parameters satisfy the Raleigh
law. The only unknown value in these distributions laws is the dispersion D.
Let us consider the roll oscillations of a ship with the zero forward speed.
As shown in the previous lectures the ratio of the roll oscillations amplitude
(output signal) to the wave slope amplitude (input signal) is given by the
formula
(r)
ϕA ϕA − αA ω̂ 2 /(1 + kϕ ) ϕA
= =p ⇒ =
αA αA 2 2
(1 − ω̂ ) + 4ν̂ ω̂ 2 2 αA
ω̂ 2 /(1 + kϕ )
=p + 1 = Φ(ω)
(1 − ω̂ 2 )2 + 4ν̂ 2 ω̂ 2
where
ω̂ 2 /(1 + kϕ )
Φ(ω) = p +1 (6.26)
(1 − ω̂ 2 )2 + 4ν̂ 2 ω̂ 2
is the so called response function. Since the wave spectral density is propor-
tional to the wave ordinates squared and taking the superposition principle
into account, we obtain the following relation between the spectral density
of the seaway and the spectral density of oscillations
Sϕ (ω) = Φ2 (ω)Sζ (ω) (6.27)

or
" #2
ω̂ 2 /(1 + kϕ )
Sϕ (ω) = Sζ (ω) p +1 (6.28)
(1 − ω̂ 2 )2 + 4ν̂ 2 ω̂ 2
Dispersion of the roll oscillations and the standard deviation are found from
the definitions (6.2) and (6.18)
Z∞ Z∞
p
Dϕ = Sϕ (ω)dω = Φ2 (ω)Sζ (ω)dω, σϕ = Dϕ (6.29)
0 0
Similar formulae can be obtained for angular roll velocity and acceleration
Z∞
p
Dϕ̇ = ω 2 Sϕ (ω)dω, σϕ̇ = Dϕ̇ (6.30)
0
77
Z∞
p
Dϕ̈ = ω 4 Sϕ (ω)dω, σϕ̈ = Dϕ̈ (6.31)
0
The dispersions obtained from (6.29), (6.30) and (6.31) determine fully the
irregular ship oscillations in heavy seaway. Using them the following further
parameters can be calculated
• Most probable amplitude of oscillations corresponding to the maximum

of the p.d.f.(ζa ) distribution
ϕm = σϕ (6.32)
The probability that the roll amplitude exceeds ϕm is 60.6 %.
• Averaged amplitude of roll oscillations (mathematical expectation)

r
π
ϕ̄ = σϕ ≈ 1.25σϕ (6.33)
2
The probability that the roll amplitude exceeds ϕ̄ is 45.6 %.
• The probability that the roll amplitude exceeds the value ϕ∗ :

∗ /σ 2
p(ϕA > ϕ∗ ) = e−0.5(ϕ ϕ)
(6.34)
• Averaged frequency and averaged period of oscillations:

σϕ̇ 2π σϕ
ω̄ϕ = , T̄ϕ = = 2π (6.35)
σϕ ω̄ϕ σϕ̇
• Number of ship inclinations (semi periods) within the time interval t:

2t
Nt = (6.36)
T̄ϕ
• Number of ship inclinations within the time interval t provided the roll
angle amplitude is larger than ϕ∗ :
2t −0.5(ϕ∗ /σϕ )2
Nϕ∗ = Nt P (ϕA > ϕ∗ ) = e (6.37)
T̄ϕ
The formulae (6.32) - 6.37) are derived under assumption that the oscillations
obey the Gaussian and Raleigh distribution law.
78
Chapter 7
Experimental methods in ship

seakeeping
7.1 Experiments with models

7.1.1 Similarity criteria
The seakeeping experiments are performed under condition that the Froude
number of the model F nm and the large scale ship F ns are equal:
Vm Vs
Fnm = Fns ⇒ q =q
gDm 1/3 gDs 1/3
where D is the ship displacement.
Since the periodic motion are considered, the similarity of Strouhal numbers
should also be satisfied:
ωm Lm ωs Ls
Shm = Shs ⇒ = ,
Vm Vs
where ω is the frequency. Unfortunately the similarity with respect to
Reynolds (viscosity effects) Re = vL
ν
and Weber We = %vδ2 L (spray effects)
numbers are not fulfilled:
Rem 6= Res , W em 6= W es .
Here δ is the surface tension coefficient.
It is recommended to choose the model length from the condition Re ≥ 106 1 .
1
in some literature sources this limit is Re ≥ 3 · 105
79
To reduce the effect of surface tension on roll oscillations the model width
should larger than 0.5 m. If λ is the scale factor:
Ls = λLm
the following relations derived from the similarity conditions are valid
angles ϕs = λ0 ϕm
linear accelerations ξ¨s = λ0 ξ¨m
linear velocities ξ˙s = λ1/2 ξ˙m
periods τs = λ1/2 τm
angular velocities ϕ̇s = λ−1/2 ϕ̇m (7.1)
frequencies ωs = λ−1/2 ωm
angular acceleration ϕ̈s = λ−1 ϕ̈m
displacement, mass, forces Fs = λ3 Fm
inertia moments Is = λ5 Im
7.1.2 Geometric parameters

The following parameters of the model are to be adjusted before experiment:
• weight G
• positions of the center of gravity xg , zg
• metacentric heights GMγ , GML
• inertia moments Ixx , Iyy , Izz
They should satisfy the similarity conditions:
Gs = λ3 GM
(xgs , zgs ) = (xgm , zgm ) · λ
GMγ,ls = λGMγ,lm
Ixxs = λ5 Ixxm , Iyys = λ5 Iyym
Izzs = λ5 Izzm .
Since the draught and beam are approximately equal B ∼ T one assumes
that Iyy ≈ Izz .
For the determination of Izz the model is hanged out as shown in Fig. 7.1.
The model is oscillating in horizontal plane about the vertical axis as shown in
Fig. 7.1. The period of oscillation τ is measured. The differential equation of
80
Figure 7.1: Determination of the inertia moment Izzm
model oscillation is Izzm θ̈ = Mz , where Mz is the moment about the vertical

axes. The air forces acting on the model are neglected. Let θ is the angle of
model rotation and α is the angle between rod and the vertical (Fig. 7.2):
Figure 7.2: α is the angle between rod and the vertical

G
The force component which is normal to the rob is 2
α. Two forces produce
restoring moment:
Gm
Mz = − α · a · 2 = −Gm aα
2
If α and θ are small, then
a
aθ ≈ lα ⇒ α= θ
l
81
and
Gm a2
Mz = − θ
l
The oscillation equation is then
Gm a2 Gm a2
Izzm θ̈ + θ=0 ⇒ θ̈ + θ=0 ⇒ θ̈ + ωθ2 θ = 0
l lIzzm
The period of this oscillation is
r
2π lIzzm
τ= = 2π
ωθ Gm a2
Finally we have the formula for Izzm
Gm a2 τ 2
Izzm =
(2π)2 l
The additional loads are placed on the ship and they are shifted along the
x-axis as long as the condition
Izzs = λ5 Izzm
is fulfilled.
The inertia moment Ixxm and the center of gravity zg is determined using
the setup shown in Fig. 7.3.
To determine zg only one load is used, which causes the model heeling. If ϕ is
the heel angle, the distance a calculated from moment equilibrium equation:
Pl
a · Gm · ϕ = P l ⇒ a =
Gm ϕ
The gravity center ordinate is then:
zg = zn − a
The inertia moment Ixxm is determined when the model is forced to roll with
the period τ of free roll oscillations. The moment Ixxm is then calculated as
τ 2 a
Ixxm = Gm · a(( ) − )
2π g
The similarity conditions
82
Figure 7.3: Determination of Ixxm and zg
Ixxs = λ5 Ixxm
and
zgs = λzgm
are fulfilled by vertical and horizontal shifts of loads P .
The metacentric height GMγ is determined from heel tests (see Fig. 7.4).
Pl
GMγm =
Gm ϕ
7.1.3 Free oscillation tests

The forces arising in roll oscillations are found from free roll oscillations with-
out waves. The model is brought from the equilibrium state and experiences
free decaying oscillations
ϕ = ϕ0 e−νϕ cos ω1 t,
83
Figure 7.4: Heel test
where ω1 = ωϕ2 − νϕ2 . Since νϕ2 ωϕ2 the frequencies ω1 and ωϕ are ap-
p
proximately equal, i.e. ω1 ≈ ωϕ .
Once the period of free oscillations Tϕ is measured, the frequency ωϕ = T2πϕ
and the sum Ixx + A44 are calculated (see table 2.1):
%g∇0m GMγm
Ixx + A44 = (7.2)
ωϕ2
Since the inertia moment is known, the added mass A44 is found from (7.2).
%g∇0m GMγm
A44 = − Ixx
ωϕ2
The damping factor νϕ is determined from the definition formula (2.16).
ϕ(t) 2πνϕ
ln = ≈ νϕ Tϕ
ϕ(t + Tϕ ) ω̄
where the ϕ(t) and ϕ(t + Tϕ ) are measured.
The damping coefficient B44 is also calculated from its definition
B44 = 2νϕ (Ixx + A44 ).

The results are represented depending on the magnitude of ϕ0 . Since the
measurements are performed only at ωϕ , the dependence of hydrodynamic
parameters on the frequency ω 6= ωϕ can not be obtained in these measure-
ments.
84
7.1.4 Forced oscillation at calm water conditions
For ships with large damping the free oscillations decay very quickly. It
causes big error in data analysis. For this case and to study the effect of
frequency the method of forced oscillations is applied. The model is forced
to roll using horizontally oscillating load as shown in Fig. 7.5. The load
produces the perturbation moment
Mper = M0 sin ωt
Figure 7.5: Method of forced rolling
The roll oscillations without incident waves are described by the ordinary
differential equation of the second order:
M0
ϕ̈ + 2νϕ ϕ̇ + ωϕ2 ϕ = ωϕ2 sin ωt
%g∇0m GMγm
which has the solution
ϕ = ϕ0 sin(ωt − εϕ )
where
M0 1
ϕ0 = q (7.3)
%g∇0m GMγm (1 − ω̄ 2 )2 + 4ν̄ 2 ω̄ 2
ϕ
νϕ ω
ν̄ϕ = p 2 , ω̄ =
ωϕ − νϕ2 ωϕ
85
2ν̄ϕ
εϕ = a tan (7.4)
1 − ω̄ 2
The measured quantity is the roll angle ϕ.
The damping factor is calculated from (7.3) at different frequencies ω . The

method of forced roll oscillations is very accurate only at ω ≈ ωϕ , i. e. in
the resonance case.
For reliable determination of inertial and damping forces depending on fre-

quency ω it is necessary to apply more complicated setups than these de-
scribed above. A description of these setups can be found in [11].
7.1.5 Seakeeping tests

The main purpose of seakeeping measurements in regular waves is the ex-
(r) (r)
perimental determination of dependencies ϕαAA (ω), δϕ (ω), ζAA (ω) and δζ (ω)
(see formulae (3.27 - 3.30) and Fig. 3.5, 3.6).
ϕA (r) ζA (r)
Knowledge of response functions αA
(ω) and A
allows to calculate the
spectra of ship oscillations.
The seakeeping tests in regular and irregular waves (Fig. 7.6) are performed
in seakeeping and manoeuvring basin. The seakeeping basins can be open or
closed. In the closed basin the irregular waves are generated using segmented
wave generators consisting of hinged flaps. Each flap is controlled separately
by a driving motor.
The seakeeping basin of MARIN (Fig. 7.7) has dimensions 170 x 40 x 5m.
The wave generator (Fig. 7.8) produces waves with significant wave height
of 0,45 m and a peak period of 2 sec. The irregular waves have a prescribed
spectrum. The model is either self propelled (free running test) or carried
by the carriage with the speed up to 6m/sec. Model length range is from 2m
to 8m. Additionally to waves the wind is generated by an adjustable 10m
wide platform with electrical fees. Free running tests are performed such
that the model follows an arbitrary pre-defined track through the basin. The
seakeeping tests in open basin are performed under condition that the free
waves, generated naturally, have desirable heights and periods.
Main aim of the seakeeping tests in irregular waves is the determination of

the response function (6.26).
86
Figure 7.6: Seakeeping test at MARIN ([5])
Figure 7.7: Scetch of the MARIN Seakeeping basin ([5])
Figure 7.8: Wave generator of MARIN Seakeeping basin ([5])
One of the most important aims of seakeeping tests in irregular waves is also
the evaluation of slamming (Fig. 7.6) and flooding.
7.2 Seakeeping tests with large scale ships

The most reliable evaluation of ship seakeeping performances can be gained
on the base of tests with large scale ships.
87
The first task within framework of such measurements is the determination
of sea state. The wave heights are measured using bues, hydrostatic pressure
sensors, or by stereo photography from airplanes (see Fig. 7.9).
Figure 7.9: Method of wave detection
The aim of these measurements is the wave spectra Sζ (ω, χ).
The ship performs tack motions as long as the one hundred full oscillations
occur (Fig. 7.10).
Figure 7.10: Ship motion during large scale tests
The time history of all kinematic parameters is documented by different

sensors. Fig. 7.10 illustrates the dependence of the roll angle on the time ϕ(t).
The time signals of kinematic parameters are evaluated using Fourier ana-
lysis. After that the spectra of ship kinematic parameters are calculated.
Knowing the spectra, the response function can be determined from (6.27)
as the final aim of the large scale tests:
s
Sϕ (ω)
Φ(ω) =
Sζ (ω)
88
Chapter 8
Ship oscillation damping

(stabilisation)
8.1 Introduction
The ship damping systems are used since the middle of the last century.
The damping devices produce the moment acting against the perturbation
moment and counteract the oscillations.
The damping devices are subdivided into
• damping tanks,
• bilge keels and
• active fins.
The efficiency of damping is quantified by the ratio of the oscillation ampli-

tudes with and without stabilization systems
amplitude with stabilization

e=
amplitude without stabilization
for oscillations in regular waves. For oscillations in irregular waves the ratio
is based on standard deviations of the oscillations
standard deviation with stabilization

e=
standard deviation without stabilization
For instance, the coefficient e can be up to 0.2 for well designed stabilization
systems.
89
8.2 Damping of roll oscillations
8.2.1 Passive systems
The U-tube passive roll stabilization system were proposed by Frahm [12]
in the beginning of the twentieth century. The Frahm’s tanks are passive
means to stabilize the roll oscillations. They don’t need additional energy
consumptions to perform the mission. The stabilizing moment acting against
the perturbing one is created by the
• weight and
• inertia
of the water moving in U- form channel shown in Fig. 8.1. The tubes of the
U-channel are connected by the air channel in the upper side of the device
as shown in Fig. 2. Therefore the water can freely flow from one board to
the other without counteracting effects caused by the air compression.
Figure 8.1: Schematical representation of the Frahm tank of the first type.
The Frahm tanks belong to the resonance adjusted devices. The duct and
air channel are selected to fulfill the following conditions:
ωϕ /ωz ≈ 1 (8.1)
π
δϕ − δz =
2
Where
ωϕ is eigen frequency of the ship
ωz is eigen frequency of fluid oscillations in tank
and δϕ − δz is the phase displacement between ship and water oscillations.

The eigen frequency of the water in the channel of the U-tube should be close
90
Figure 8.2: U-tube passive roll stabilization system manufactured by Hoppe
Marine (http://www.hoppe-marine.com/). Orange tube the are air channel.
Picture is taken from [1].
to the eigen frequency of the ship. As result, the phenomenon of the doubled
resonance occurs at the wave frequency corresponding to the resonance case:
• resonance between ship oscillations and wave perturbations,

• resonance between ship oscillations and water oscillations in tanks.
The phase displacement between the perturbing moment oscillation and ship
oscillation for the first resonance is π/2. The ship oscillations are behind the
perturbation moment. The phase displacement between the ship oscillation
and the water oscillation in tank is also π/2. The water oscillation is behind
the ship oscillation. This means that the phase displacement between the
perturbation and the water oscillation is π. We have some sort of anti-phase
motion. The water oscillation acts against the perturbation oscillation re-
sulting in the ship amplitude reduction.
Outside of the resonance zone the stabilization system can increase the roll
oscillations as shown in Fig. 8.3. The reduction of the oscillation amplitude
attained with a well designed Frahm stabilization system can up to 50 per-
cent for the swell. In irregular waves the efficiency of the tanks is lower.
The Frahm tanks of the second type differs from the first type by the absence
of the duct. The water flows into the tubes directly from orifices in the ship
hull (Fig. 8.4).
The efficiency of the Frahm tank of the second type is similar to that of the
first type. The Frahm’s tank of the second type belong also the the resonance
91
Figure 8.3: Response function verus referred frequency without (solid line)
and with (dashed line) stabilization system.
Figure 8.4: U-tube stabilization system of Frahm of the second type
adjusted. They are designed to fulfill the condition (8.1).
If the ship draught is changed in operations the eigen frequency of the ship
is also changed. The eigen frequency of water oscillations in tank remains
constant. The condition (8.1) is violated. The stabilizing system becomes
non efficient. Therefore, the Frahm system is usually used on ships with
approximately constant displacement and draught.
The Flume tanks shown in Fig. 8.5 and 8.6 are free of this disadvantage. The
water oscillates in a tank which height is larger than the water level. The
water has the free surface in Flum tank. Change of the water level causes
the change of the eigen frequency of the water oscillations in tank. The tank
can be adjusted for each ship draught and loading.
92
Figure 8.5: Free surface Type passive Roll stabilization systems of Flume
ωz is changed in a wide
range due to change of
water level in tank.
Figure 8.6: Free surface Type passive Roll stabilization systems of Flume
Typical arrangement of Flume tanks is shown in Fig. 8.7, 8.8, 8.9 and 8.11
taken from [1].
Figure 8.7: Offshore Support Vessel [1]
8.2.2 Theory
The equation of roll oscillations without stabilizing system reads:
A44 ϕ̈ + B44 ϕ̇ + %g∇0 GML ϕ = Fϕϕ
93
Figure 8.8: Research Ship [1]
Figure 8.9: Offshore Patrol Vessel [1]
Figure 8.10: Passenger Ship [1]
94
Figure 8.11: Reduction of the roll amplitude using the Flume tank designed
by Hoppe Marine (taken from [1]).
A44 - effective mass moment of inertia
B44 - damping coefficient
Fϕϕ - wave induced forces
The equation of roll oscillations with stabilizing system reads:
(A44 + mT ϕ )ϕ̈ + (B44 + NT ϕ )ϕ̇ + (BT ϕ + %g∇0 GML )ϕ = Fϕϕ
mT ϕ - effective mass moment of inertia of water in stabilizer unit
NT ϕ - damping coefficient of stabilizer unit
BT ϕ - restoring moment coefficient of stabilizer unit
The values mT ϕ , NT ϕ and BT ϕ are related only to the difference between an

active stabilizer and a condition where the fluid is replaced by a solid mass
corresponding to the frozen liquid.
A44 ϕ̈ + B44 ϕ̇ + (%g∇0 GML )ϕ = Fϕϕ − FT ϕ

mT ϕ · ϕ̈ + NT ϕ ϕ̇ + BT ϕ ϕ = FT ϕ
95
The solution of this equation is
ϕ = ϕA cos ωt
FT ϕ = FT ϕA cos(ωt − εF T ϕ )
FT ϕA
q
= (BT ϕ − mT ϕ ω 2 )2 + (NT ϕ ω)2
ϕA
NT ϕ ω
εF T ϕ = − arctan
BT ϕ − mtϕ ω 2
ϕA destabilized
N44
ϕA = q
(%g∇0 GML − A44 ω 2 )2 + B44
2 2 2 2
ω + B44 ω
ϕA stabilized
N44
ϕA = q
(%g∇0 GML − A44 ω 2 + BT ϕ − mT ϕ ω 2 )2 + (NT ϕ + B44 )2 ω 2
8.2.3 Active stabilizing system

The active roll stabilizing systems have still not found the application in
shipbuilding although a large variety of such systems were designed within
last decades. A sample of the active roll stabilizing system presented in
Fig. 8.12 was designed by the firm Meyer-Form. The propeller with constant
rotation direction drives the water from one board to other depending on the
choker position.
Big energy consumptions required by active stabilizing systems make them
not competitive in comparison with passive means.
8.2.4 Bilge keel

The bilge keel stabilizing devices (Fig. 8.13) is a very simple and efficient
way to reduce the roll oscillations. The bilge keels are metallic plates which
are installed along streamlines. The stabilizing moment is created due to
the resistance force on keel. The resistance force is increased due to the flow
separation on edge of the plate. The most important geometric parameters
of bilge keel are the ratio of the keel area to LB and the distance between
the keel center and the ship gravity center referred to the ship beam (see
Fig. 8.14):
96
Figure 8.12: Active stabilizing system
Figure 8.13: Bilge keel [1]
Sk rk
p= ; r0 =
LB B
bk
= 0.01...0.02
lk
The ratio of the bilge keel span to its length varies between 0.01 and 0.02.
The enhancement of the damping factor νϕ due to the keel effect is shown
in Fig. 8.14. Bilge keels can reduce the roll amplitude up to forty percent in
swell and up to thirty percent in irregular waves.
97
Figure 8.14: Main parameters of bilge keels.
8.2.5 Rudders
The rudders are very efficient ways to reduce the roll oscillations of fast
passenger and combat ships. The efficiency parameter can attain values of
four and five. They can be either active or passive and are maintained at the
ship bilge. The stabilizing moment arises due to dynamic lift force on rudders
which is proportional to the ship speed squared. Therefore the rudders have
no effect when the ship speed decreases, for instance at zero speed during
anchorage. The actively controlled rudders installed in horizontal plane are
called active fins (Fig. 8.15). They can be retracted during mooring. The
vertical rudder are presented on Fig. 8.16.
All advantages and disadvantages of different stabilizing systems used for roll
damping are summarized in the table 8.1.
98
Figure 8.15: Schematic representation of active fins.
Figure 8.16: Active rudder roll.
Type Efficiency Speed Impact on Design Mechanical

Active 60% - 90% 12 knots Significant space Fin cavitation,
fins required Hydraulic control
Rudder 40% - 60% 12 knots Need more robust Additional steering
roll steering gear gear design
Bilge 10% - 20% All speed Increases resistance Could be damaged
keels
Passive 40% - 75% All speed Waterweight abt. None at Flume
tanks 1-2% displacement Remote Valves
at U-Shape
Table 8.1: Comparison of different stabilizing systems (taken from [1])
8.3 Stabilizing systems for pitch oscillations

A common way to reduce the pitch oscillations is utilization of wings (fins)
maintained at ship stern or ship bow (Fig. 8.17)
The pitch stabilizing system can be either active or passive. The effect of the
99
Type Costs Conclusion
Active Euro 0,5 - 2,0 Mio. Efficient but only at speed, very high costs
fins Mainly suitable for Passenger Vessels
Rudder Euro 0,2 - 0,4 Mio. Needs well designed Rudder application
roll Did not succeed in Shipbuilding so far
Bilge Shipyard Popular due to low extra costs
keels Little roll reduction, increase resistance
Passive T EUR 50 - 80 Flexible and most cost efficient solution
tanks Requires sophisticated design and system
Table 8.2: ...
Figure 8.17: Schematic representation of the pitch stabilizing system
stabilizing system is shown in Fig. 8.18.
Figure 8.18: Reduction of pitch and heave oscillations using the stabilizing
system.
!3
Ψ̇ Ψ̇
α = k1 + k3
ωΨ ωΨ
100
Chapter 9
Parametric oscillations
Parametric oscillations arise when one of parameters characterizing the os-

cillating system depends periodically on time. Parametric ship oscillations
arise due to periodic change of the metacentric height:
GMγ = GMγ0 + AGM cos ωt (9.1)

which is in previous chapters assumed to be constant, i.e.
GMγ = GMγ0 .
The motion equation of free roll oscillations with variable metacentric height
is:
Ixx ϕ̈ + A44 ϕ̈ − B44 ϕ̇ + ρg∇0 (GM 0γ + AGM cos ωt)ϕ = 0

or:
ϕ̈ + 2νϕ ϕ̇ + ωϕ2 ϕ = µϕ cos ωtϕ,

where
B44 ρg∇0 GM 0γ
νϕ = , ωϕ2 =
2(Ixx + A44 ) Ixx + A44 (9.2)
AGM ρg∇0
µϕ =
Ixx + A44
Analyzing (9.2) one can state that change of the metacentric height can cause
the perturbation moment resulting in parametric oscillations.
Physical reason for the appearance of the additional perturbation moment is
101
the effect of the ship submergence change during roll and vertical oscillations.
The change of the roll angle causes the moment:
ρ∇0 gGMγ ϕ (9.3)

The change of the ship draught ξ results in an additional moment
ρg∇0 AGM cos ωtϕ

which is proportional to ζ and ϕ.
The equation (9.2) has no analytic solution in elementary functions. How-

ever, properties of its solution are well known. It can be shown that if the
frequency of perturbation moment is twice as large as the free roll oscillation
frequency, i.e. ω = 2ωϕ , the parametric resonance takes place. Since the
perturbation moment depends on heave ζ, the parametric resonance takes
place when the frequency of vertical oscillations is approximately twice as
large as the frequency of roll oscillations. With the other words, during semi
period of roll oscillations the heave change performs the full period oscillation
as shown schematically on Fig. 9.1. The parametric resonance is typical for
ships with big distance between the center of gravity and water plane surface
(Fig. 9.2).
For parametric oscillation it is necessary that ship is brought from the equi-
librium state by a certain perturbation. The natural reason of such per-
turbation for roll oscillations is beam seaway. However, the parametric roll
oscillation can arise also in head waves. If the ship has a certain roll angle in
head waves, the hydrostatic lift force becomes larger at the wave crest and
smaller at wave valley. This results in a perturbation moment depending on
roll angle.
This kind of parametric oscillations depends on the wave lengths and ship
loading.
Periodic change of the metacentric height results in asymmetry of roll oscil-

lations. Due to phase displacement between heave oscillations and waves δζ
the averaged additional moment is different for positive and negative ϕ. In
the resonance case of vertical oscillations ω ≈ ωζ , the middle roll angle is [9]
s
ω 2 zg − T Aκζ
ϕ0 = κϕ A (9.4)
g GMγ 2νζ κT
102
where
zg - the position of the center of gravity with respect to keel,
T - ship draught,
U
κ= Awp ·T
- are reduction factors (see 3.9)
U - ship volume,
Awp - water plane surface.
The larger zg − T is, the bigger is the middle roll angle ϕ0 .

For beam sea ϕ0 is in the direction of waves.
Figure 9.1: Ship oscillations during parametric resonance
Figure 9.2: Conditions for parametric resonance appearance
103
104
Chapter 10
Potential methods for

calculation of forces acting on
the oscillating ships
10.1 Strip theory

The strip theory is the most successful tool for prediction of forces acting on
oscillating ships [1]. The strip theory is based on the following assumptions
which are common for the potential theory:
• the fluid is incompressible and inviscid,
• the effects of surface tension are negligible,
• the fluid is irrotational and
• the motion amplitudes and velocities are small enough to neglect the
nonlinear terms in the free-surface condition and kinematic boundary
condition on the ship frame.
The strongest assumption of the strip theory is the assumption of the two
dimensional character of the flow around each ship frame. The flow around
each ship frame is independent of the flow at other cross sections. The steady
waves are neglected. The waves caused by the ship frame are propagated
only in directions perpendicular to the ship axis (in transversal directions
with respect to ship). The ship does not produce waves in the x -direction.
Each frame is treated hydrodynamically as if it is a segment of an infinitely
long floating cylinder (Fig. 10.1)
105
Figure 10.1: Assumption of the strip theory [1].
Usually the ship is subdivided into 20 or 30 cross sections treated sequentially.

For the zero forward speed case, interactions between the cross sections are
ignored.
Such assumptions are valid for slender bodies with the length to the breadth
ratio larger than at least seven. However, the experience has shown that
strip theory can be applied successfully for floating bodies with a length to
breadth ratio larger than three [1], at least from a practical point of view.
The two-dimensional nature of the problem implies three degrees of freedom
of motion:
• vertical or heave,
• horizontal or sway and
• rotational about a horizontal axis or roll.
The forces δFi acting on each frame are then summed to get the full force:
ZL
Fi = δFi dx
0
Where i is the force direction (2 or 3, sway or heave). The yaw and pitch
moments are calculated by multiplication of corresponding forces with arm x:
ZL ZL
M5 = − xδF3 dx, M6 = xδF2 dx
0 0
106
The rolling moment is just the sum of frame moments
ZL
M4 = δM4 dx
0
The ship frame is forced into harmonic motion ζ̇j cos ωt, j = 2, 3 and 4.
The velocity potential Φj (x, y, t) = Re{ϕj (x, y)exp[−iωt]} should satisfy the
following conditions
• Laplace equations in the whole domain
∂ 2 Φj ∂ 2 Φj
+ =0 (10.1)
∂x2 ∂z 2
• Linearized mixed condition on the free surface at y=0
∂ 2 Φj ∂Φj
2
+g =0 (10.2)
∂t ∂z
• No penetration condition at the frame surface
~n∇Φj = Un (10.3)
where ~n is the unit vector normal to the ship surface and Un is the normal
component of the ship surface velocity. The no penetration condition is
satisfied at the mean (rest) position of the ship frame.
• Decay condition far from the ship
Φj −
z−→
−−∞
→=0 (10.4)
• The radiation condition that the disturbed surface of the fluid takes
the form of regular progressive outgoing gravity waves at large distance
from the ship
Wehausen and Laitone [2] derived the source pulsating under the free surface
which has the potential
H(y, z, ξ, η, t) = Re{G(z, ζ, t) · e−i·ω·t } (10.5)

where
107
Z∞ −i·k·(z−ζ̄)
1 e
G(z, ζ) = · Re ln(z − ζ) − ln(z − ζ̄) + 2 · p.v. dk
2·π ν−k
0

− i · Re ei·ν·(z−ζ̄)
z =y+i·z ζ =ξ+i−η ζ̄ = ξ − i · η ν = ω 2 /g
The potential (10.5) satisfies the conditions (10.1), (10.2), (10.4) and the ra-
diation condition. The only condition to be satisfied is the no penetration
condition (10.3).
The sources (10.5) are distributed over the ship frame surface C0 :
Z
−i·ω·t
Φj (y, z, t) = Re Q(s) · G(z, ζ) · e · ds
Co
where C0 is the submerged contour of the cylindrical cross section at its mean
(rest) position and Q(s) represents the complex source density as a function
of the position along C0 .
The intensity Q(s) is determined from the no penetration condition
Z
~
Re (~n · ∇) · Q(s) · G(z, ζ) · ds} = 0
0C
Z (10.6)
~
Im (~n · ∇) · Q(s) · G(z, ζ) · ds = ζ̇m · ω · n(m)
C0
where ζm denotes the amplitude of oscillation and n(m) the direction cosine
of the normal velocity at z on the cylinder. Both ζm and n(m) depend on the
mode of motion.
Equation (10.6) is applied at the midpoints of each of the N segments and it

is assumed that over an individual segment the complex source strength Q(s)
remains constant, although it varies from segment to segment. With these
stipulations, the set of coupled integral equations (Equation (10.6)) becomes
a set of 2N linear algebraic equations in the unknowns:

(m) (m) (m) (m)
Re Q (sj ) = Qj and lm Q (sj ) = QN +j
108
Thus, for i = 1, 2, ..., N :
N
X N
X
(m) (m) (m) (m)
+ Qj · Iij + QN +j · Jij =0
j=1 j=1
N
X N
X
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
− Qj · Jij + QN +j · Iij = ω · ζm · ni
j=1 j=1
The hydrodynamic pressure at (yi , zi ) along the cylinder is obtained from the
velocity potential by means of the linearized Bernoulli equation:
(m) ∂Φ(m)
p (yi , zi , ω, t) = −ρ · (yi , zi , ω, t)
∂t
as:
p(m) (yi , zi , ω, t) = p(m) (m)

a (yi zi ω) · cos(ω · t) + pν (yi , zi , ω) · sin(ω · t)
(m) (m)
where pa and pν are the hydrodynamics pressure in-phase with the dis-
placement and in-phase with the velocity, respectively and ρ denotes the
density of the fluid.
N
X
(m) (m) (m)
M (ω) = 2 · pa (yi , zi , ω) · ni · |si |
i=1
N
X
(m) (m) (m)
N (ω) = 2 · pν (yi , zi , ω) · ni · |si |
i=1
for the added mass and damping forces or moments, respectively.
10.2 Principles of Rankine source method for

calculation of seakeeping
10.2.1 Frequency domain simulations
Generally there are two basic methods of simulation of time dependent pro-
cesses. In the first method called the simulation in frequency domain the
unsteady process is considered as the sum of the mean part which is time
independent and the periodical part. The mean part can be calculated using
109
nonlinear strategy, i.e. the seeking parameters depends on ship kinematic
parameters in non linear manner. The periodic part is considered as small
and found from a linear theory. This formalism is based on Fourier analysis
of unsteady processes. The strip theory described above is the sample of the
frequency domain simulation. Each unsteady quantity q is represented in
form:
q = q 0 + q̂eiωt (10.7)
where
q0 is the mean value,

q̂ is amplitude and
ω is frequency.
The potential around the ship is represented as the sum of four terms [13]
ϕ = (−V x + ϕs ) + (ϕw + ϕI ) (10.8)

where
−V x potential of incident uniform flow along the x- axis,

V ship speed,
ϕs potential of the steady flow disturbance,
ϕw potential of incident wave,
ϕI remaining unsteady potential.
The terms in the first parenthesis describes the steady flow around the ship
with account for free surface effects. The second parenthesis represent the
periodic flow due to waves. Determination of the potential (−V x + ϕs )
is discussed in the wave resistance potential theory. This problem can be
solved utilizing either a full nonlinear or a linear formalism. Numerical linear
method for two dimensional case is described in Chapter 6.7 ([7]). The
boundary conditions for ϕI are linearized. The following boundary conditions
should be satisfied [13]:
• no penetration on the hull,
• kinematic boundary condition on the free surface,
• dynamic boundary condition on the free surface,
• decay of disturbances far away from the ship,
110
• radiation condition.
The Laplace equation and decay condition are automatically satisfied within
the Rankine source method. The unsteady potential is decomposed into
radiation ϕi and diffraction components ϕd :
6
X
ϕI = ϕi ui + ϕd (10.9)
i=1
where ui - ship velocities (both translational and angular).

For the sake of simplicity we consider fully linear formalism (∇ϕs and ∇ϕI
are small). The kinematic and dynamic boundary conditions are used to
derive mixed boundary condition on the free surface.
The dynamic boundary condition written in the inertial reference system is
(see page 110 in [7])
" 2 2 #
2
∂ϕ 1 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
+ + + + gz = 0 (10.10)
∂t0 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z
Its linear version is
∂ϕ
+ gz = 0 at z = ζ (10.11)
∂t0
The relation between the derivative on time in inertia ∂ϕ/∂t0 and ship fixed
coordinate system ∂ϕ/∂t is
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ~
= − V ∇ϕ (10.12)
∂t0 ∂t
where V~ is the speed of the reference system (speed of ship). Substitut-
ing (10.12) into (10.11) we obtain:
∂ϕ ~
− V ∇ϕ + gz = 0, at z = ζ (10.13)
∂t
The linearized version of the kinematic boundary conditions (see page 111
in [7]) reads:
∂ζ ∂ϕ
= at z = ζ (10.14)
∂t0 ∂z
Differentiating (10.11) on time
∂ 2ϕ ∂ζ
2
+g =0 (10.15)
∂t0 ∂t0
111
and substituting (10.14) into (10.15) one obtains
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ
2
+g =0 (10.16)
∂t0 ∂z
Using the relation
∂ ∂
= − V~ ∇
∂t0 ∂t
we get
∂ 2ϕ

∂ ∂ϕ ∂ ∂ϕ ~
= = − V ∇ϕ =
∂t20 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t0 ∂t

∂ ∂ϕ ~ ∂ϕ
= − V ∇ϕ − V~ ∇ − V~ ∇ϕ =
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ ~ ∂ϕ ~ 2 2
= 2 − V~ ∇ −V∇ +V ∇ ϕ=
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ
= 2 − 2V~ ∇
∂t ∂t
The mixed boundary condition (10.16) in the ship fixed system reads
∂ 2ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
2
− 2V~ ∇ +g =0 (10.17)
∂t ∂t ∂z
Substituting ϕ = ϕ0 +ϕ1 , where ϕ0 = −V x+ϕs and ϕ1 = ϕw +ϕI into (10.17)
one obtains
∂ 2 ϕ1 1 1 0
~ ∇ ∂ϕ + g ∂ϕ + g ∂ϕ = 0
− 2V (10.18)
∂t2 ∂t ∂z ∂z
Since ϕ1 = ϕ̂1 eiωt , the Eq. (10.18) takes the form:
1 0
∂ ϕ̂ ∂ϕ −iωt
−ω 2 ϕ̂1 − 2iω V~ ∇ϕ̂1 + g +g e =0
∂z ∂z
0
Within the fully linear formalism developed further in this section ∂ϕ
∂z
=0
at the free surface. Therefore the problem is reduced to the problem with
respect to amplitudes ϕ̂I since ϕw is given
ϕw = Re(−icÂe−ik(x cos µ−y sin µ) eiωt )

The equation for amplitudes reads
112
∂ ϕ̂I
− ω 2 ϕ̂I − 2iω V~ · ∇ϕ̂I + g = +ω 2 ϕ̂w +
∂z (10.19)
w
∂ ϕ̂
+ 2iω V~ ∇ϕ̂w − g ;
∂z
The no penetration condition on the ship hull is [13]
~n∇ϕ̂(1) + ~uˆ (m ~ˆ [~x × (m

~ − iω~n) + α ~ − iω~n) +
(10.20)
+~n × ∇ϕ0 = 0

~ = (~n∇) ∇ϕ0
where m

ϕw = Re −icÂe−kz e−ik(x cos µ−y sin µ) eiωt
~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 )T describes the translations and
~ = (u4 , u5 , u6 )T = (α1 , α2 , α3 )T
α the rotations of the ship.
To get the boundary conditions for diffraction potential, the potentials ϕi

are set to zero in equations (10.19) and (10.20). If the radiation potential,
say ϕ(3) , is to be found, the diffraction potentials ϕd , wave potential ϕw
and ϕi(i6=3) are set to zero in boundary conditions (10.19) and (10.20).
Numerical simulation of the problem is performed using a panel (boundary

element) method. For that, the panels are distributed on the hull and on the
q
free surface around the ship. The Rankine sources with the potential ϕ = 4πr ,
where q is unknown strength, are distributed within each panel. It is assumed
that q is constant for each panel. The unknown strengths q are found from
the boundary conditions (10.19) and (10.20) which are fulfilled at centres of
each panel. This results is a system of linear algebraic equations with respect
to the source strengths, which can be solved by the Gauss method. Once the
source strengths are known, all potentials and their derivatives (velocities)
can be calculated.
The unknown motion amplitudes ui are computed from momentum equa-
tions [13]:
Z
¨ ¨
~ × x~g = −~
m ~u + α ~
α×G+ p(1) −
S
(10.21)
−% [~u~ag + ~a (~x × ~ag )]) ~ndS
113

m x~g × ~u¨ + I α ~¨ = −x~g × α ~ ×G ~ +
Z (10.22)
p(1) − % [~u~ag + α ~ g )] × (x̄ × ā) dS

+ ~ (~x × α
x~g center of gravity

G = mg ship weight
I matrix of the moments of inertia of the ship
 
m 0 0 0 mzg 0
 0
 m 0 −mzg 0 mxg 
 0 0 m 0 −mxg 0 
M =
 
 0 −m z g 0 Ixx 0 −Ixz


mzg 0 −mxy 0 Iyy 0 
0 mxg 0 −Ixz 0 −Izz
R R
Ixx = (y 2 + z 2 )dm, Ixz = xzdm
 
Ixx 0 −Ixz
I= 0 Iyy 0 
−Ixz 0 −Izz
~a = (∇ϕ0 ∇)∇ϕ0
a~g = ~a − {0, 0, g}τ
The harmonic pressure p(1) is decomposed into parts due to incident wave,
due to diffraction, and due to radiation.
6
X
(1) w d
p =p +p + pi ui
i=1
i
The components p can be calculated from the linearized Bernoulli equation:
i
i ∂ϕ 0 i
p = −% + ∇ϕ ∇ϕ
∂t
Two momentum vector equations (10.21) and (10.22) form a linear system
of six equations for the six motions ui which can easily be solved.
114
10.2.2 Time domain simulation (TDS)
Time domain simulations are performed to take the nonlinear effect at large
amplitude oscillations into account. Seaway is computed as superposition of
elementary waves using the following rules [13]:
• The wave frequencies ωj are chosen such that the area under the sea
spectrum between ωj and ωj+1 is the same for all j. This results in
constant amplitudes for all elementary waves regardless of frequency.
• The frequency interval for simulation is divided into subintervals. These

subintervalls are larger where Sζ or the important RAOs are small and
vice versa. In each subinterval a frequency ωj is chosen randomly (based
on constant probability distribution). Encounter angles are chosen ran-
domly.
The frequencies, encounter angles, and phase angles chosen before the simu-
lation must be kept during the whole simulations.
Numerical simulation of the problem is performed using panel (boundary

element) method. For that, the panels are distributed on the hull and on the
q
free surface around the ship. The Rankine sources with the potential ϕ = 4πr ,
where q is unknown strength, are distributed within each panel. It is assumed
that q is constant for each panel. The unknown strengths q are found from
the nonlinear boundary conditions on the free surface and no penetration
condition which are fulfilled at centres of each panel both on ship surface
and wave surface. This results is a system of linear algebraic equations
with respect to the source strengths, which is solved by the Gauss method.
Once the source strengths are known, all potentials and their derivatives
(velocities) can be calculated.
The computation proceeds from the time step t to the step t + ∆t. At
each time step t, the hydrodynamic forces are first calculated, which then
are substituted into the nonlinear motion equations. Once the kinematic
parameters of the ship are computed from the motion equations, the next
time step t + ∆t is treated.
115
116
Bibliography
[1] Winkler S. Flume passive anti-roll tanks. application on merchant and

naval ships. presentation at the University of Rostock, 2012.
[2] Brix J. Manoeuvring technical manual. Seehafen Verlag, 1993.
[3] Kleinau D. Theorie des Schiffes, Manuskript. University of Rostock,

2001. (in German).
[4] Makov J. Ship oscillations. Kaliningrad, 2007.
[5] http://www.marin.nl/web/Facilities-Tools/Basins/Seakeeping-
Manoeuvring-Basin/Seakeeping-and-manoeuvring-basin-pdf.htm.
[6] Kornev N. Ship Theory I (ship manoeuvrability). 2011. Manuscript.
[7] Kornev N. Schiffstheorie I, page 162 S.
[8] Newman J. Marine hydrodynamics. MIT Press, 1984.
[9] Sisov V. Ship Theory. Odessa, 2004.
[10] Price W.G. and Bishop R.E. Probabilistic theory of ship dynamics.
Halsted, London, 1974.
[11] Vugts J.H. The hydrodynamic coefficients for swaying, heaving and
rolling cylinders in a free surface. Int. Shipbuilding Progress, 15:pp. 224–
276, 1968.
[12] Frahm H. Results of trials of the anti-rolling tanks at sea. Trans. of the
Institution of Naval Architects, Vol.53, 1911.
[13] Bertram V. Practical ship hydromechanics, page 270 p. Butterworth-

Heinemann, 2000.
117

STII Ship Dynamics in Waves

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STII Ship Dynamics in Waves

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology

Chair of Modelling and Simulation

Ship dynamics in waves

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Nikolai Kornev

1 Small ship motion in regular sea waves 11

2 Free oscillations with small amplitudes 31

3 Ship oscillations in small transverse waves (beam see) 37

5 Seasickness caused by ship oscillations 65

6 Ship oscillations in irregular waves 69

7 Experimental methods in ship seakeeping 79

8 Ship oscillation damping (stabilisation) 89

9 Parametric oscillations 101

10 Potential methods for calculation of forces acting on the os-

2.1 Frequencies and periods of different oscillation types . . . . . . 33

8.1 Comparison of different stabilizing systems (taken from [1]) . . 99

1.1 Ship motion with 6 degree of freedom (from [2]) . . . . . . . . 12

4.1 Illustration of the ship in head waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1 Influence of the vertical acceleration on the seasickness de-

6.1 Irregular seawaves, 1- two dimensional, 2- three dimensional.

7.1 Determination of the inertia moment Izzm . . . . . . . . . . . 81

8.1 Schematical representation of the Frahm tank of the first type. 90

9.1 Ship oscillations during parametric resonance . . . . . . . . . . 103

10.1 Assumption of the strip theory [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Small ship motion in regular

1.1 Coupling of different ship oscillations

The hydrostatic coupling is illustrated in Fig.1.2. If the ship draught is

According to gyroscopic effect, rotation on one axis of the turning around

Figure 1.1: Ship motion with 6 degree of freedom (from [2])

1.2 Classification of forces

Let us consider the plane progressive waves of amplitude A and direction ψw

ζj = ζj0 sin ωt, j = 1, 2, ...6. (1.1)

R tion with the ship into account.

The first potentials ϕj (x, y, z) describes the radiation problem, whereas

• for radiation potentials

• for wave diffraction potentials

The diffraction potential ϕA is decomposed in two parts

It is obvious from (1.10) that ϕj (x, y, z) and ϕA (x, y, z) depend on ω.

Four integrals in (1.16) represent four different contributions to the total

• the hydrostatic component arising due to waves (the second term),

• the hydrodynamic wave exciting force (the fourth term).

The moment is expressed through similar components.

1.3 Radiation force components

Each component of this force is expressed as

As shown by Haskind [17], the hydrodynamic coefficient cji is represented as

1.3.1 Hydrodynamic damping

where U is the wave group velocity. The damping coefficient is defined as

δE = λij Uj2 (1.22)

The damping coefficient of slender body can be found by integration of damp-

ZL/2 ZL/2 ZL/2

1.3.2 Added mass component

In the case ω → ∞ the tangential component of the total velocity should

Figure 1.10: Mirroring for the case ω → ∞

ZL/2 ZL/2 ZL/2

Mϕ = −ρg∇0 GMγ ϕ, (1.30)

Mϑ = −ρg∇0 GML ψ, (1.31)

ϕ and ψ are the roll and pitch angle respectively,

GMγ is the transverse metacentric height,

GML is the longitudinal metacentric height and

∇0 is the ship displacement.

1.5 Wave exciting force

1.6 Motion equations

added mass damping hydrostatic wave exciting

1.7 Haskind’s relation