AIMS

To investigate the 'surge wave' in a pipeline resulting from sudden closure of a valve
downstream.
To compare the effect of pressure damping devices, such as surge tanks or coiled pipelines.

BACKGROUND

Sudden closure of a control valve or stopping of a pump produces excess pressure in a pipeline.
Water hammer, or hydraulic transient as used more recently, refers to pressure fluctuations caused
by a sudden increase or decrease in flow velocity. This unsteady state phenomenon deals with the
change between kinetic energy and pressure energy, which may be positive or negative. If the
pressure induced exceeds the pressure rating of a pipe given by the manufacturer, the pipe may
rupture. Detrimental consequence may result unless a pressure protection device is installed. The
hydraulic engineer, water supply designer and pumping system operator have the responsibility to
ensure the surges due to water hammer are within acceptable limits and can be dampened as quickly
as possible.

Several common causes of hydraulic transient are:

The study of hydraulic transient began with the investigation of sound wave propagation in air,
! ! " #$$% & ' " #$ % (
) *#+, ! ! - - .
/$ /$ /$ +0 $ 1
for the surge wave velocity, the rise of pressure and velocity reduction. He also discussed the effect
of various closing rates (gradual or instantaneous) of a valve.

Joukowski's Law: water hammer head H at instantaneous valve closure in a rigid pipe
"

where
vo = flow velocity before valve closure
c = wave celerity or velocity of sound in liquid

If the pressure in a closed conduit drops below the vapour pressure of a liquid, then cavities (where
the water column is separated by an air space) are formed. This phenomenon is called water column
separation.. This is the worst condition for water hammer, and may result in the pipeline not being
able to withstand the external forces and hence collapse. This can be a problem for large diameter
thin walled pipes and plastic pipes with low pressure rating or carrying hot liquids. The rejoining of
separated water columns can produced high pressures putting the pipeline at risk. The frequent
expansion and contraction may cause failure of cement lining in metal pipes.

For acceleration and deceleration of an incompressible liquid in a pipe, a head loss term due to
unsteady motion of changing velocity "dv" in time "dt"
 "

is included in the Bernoulli equation

"

PRESSURE WAVES DUE TO INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY CHANGE

Wave propagation and reflection in a single rigid pipe

In Physics we learned that the frequency (f) of a sound wave in an pipe with one end closed is f = λ/c
2 34c, where L is the length of the pipe, λ is wavelength, and c is the velocity of sound wave in a
) 52 34c, it is called sudden or instantaneous closure; and gradual closure
34c.

Let's now consider the fluctuations of the excess pressures caused by an instantaneous closure of a
valve located at the downstream end of a pipe. If the frictional loss along the pipe is neglected, the
sudden change in fluid velocity from v = vo 2$
upstream, accompanying by a positive excess pressure head ∆ H. The surge wave eventually reflects
from the reservoir and advancing downstream. On reaching at the closed valve, it then propagates
upstream with a negative surge wave, and so on. The fluctuations in pressure head ∆ H throughout
the first cycle are depicted in the following sketches. In reality, the magnitude of the excess pressure
dampens due to friction.

The increase in water head is "

and celerity of water hammer waves in a compressible fluid in a rigid pipe is given by

where the bulk modulus of elasticity K is defined as "/

Celerity of transient in a non-rigid pipe "6 #+#, /- #

In addition to the bulk modulus of elasticity K of the fluid, the velocity of water hammer waves
depends also on the elastic properties of the conduit and external restraints.

7 ,1 " #0 - 8

"0

where

E = Young's modulus of elasticity of the conduit walls

ψ = a non-dimensional parameter depends on the elastic properties of the conduit

which is a function of (e, wall thickness; D, conduit diameter and Poisson ratio ν)

& ψ 2 $"+
 9 -walled elastic conduits

a) conduit anchored against longitudinal movement throughout its length

"*

b) conduit anchored against longitudinal movement at the upper end

"*

c) conduit with frequent expansion joints

"*

: 6 ":;6

< "0 = <

9 !-walled elastic conduits

/ 7 -circular conduits

09 !

* Some common values of E, ν, Κ:

Material E (GPa) Poisson's v K (GPa)

Brass +*- $ $ 0
Mild steel $$- $ +
Plastic
- Perspex 0$ $
- Polyethylene $* $ 0
- PVC rigid - +/
Water, fresh # ###" $6
Water, sea + $ /" /6

Partial valve closure

If the response of water hammer is linearly elastic, when a valve is partially closed which reduces the
velocity by "dv" from vo, "
"#

and it can be shown that

"$

where
 Ho = pressure head at valve with the valve fully open
Ao = normal valve orifice area when fully open
A = valve orifice area after partial closure

If partial closure is sudden or instantaneous, ∆ 1 "$ "# %if gradual,

∆1 " , ∆ H = (L/g) (dv/dt).

When the valve is closed stepwise in time T and the rate of valve closure dA/dt is uniform, then
A/Ao 2 − 49"

( "$ " ,

"

) " ,> > > > > 49>

! " #0$

* Example of partial valve closure

<Q ' 32 +/$ $ 34

2 $$ 4 9 $ /
4? / /
for a sudden closure.

5' ( "# ∆1 " ,∆ v can be calculated,

where each step ∆ 2 34 2 -+/$4 $$2 / %1o 2 $ ,o2 / 4

2 ∆ 2 /

∴ ∆ 2$ + 4

1" 2 / 2 1o + ∆ 1 2 $@ " $$4#* -$ +2 0+0

2 ∆ 2 /

new vo 2 /− $ +2 0 4, 1o 2 0+0 % "/

∴ ∆ 2$ 0 4

1" 2 / 2 1o + ∆ 1 2 00@ " $$4#* -$ 02 +/

2 ∆ , $∆ t

However, if the valve is closed suddenly, then ∆ H = (c/g) vo 2 *

Surge Protection
A fundamental requirement prior to selecting any protection device is that adequate water hammer
analysis has been undertaken. Protection devices include standpipes, one-way surge towers, air
vessels, flywheels, pressure relief valves, electric control, pump bypass etc. The objectives for
selecting a suitable control system are:

suppress the positive and negative surges to acceptable limits.

dampen out the surge waves as quickly as possible
select the simplest control system with regards to cost and risk

APPARATUS

A bare-shafted centrifugal water pump, controlled by a variable speed motor, delivers water to a
pipeline system. Water is pumped up from an underground reservoir, through the pipeline system
and eventually returns to the reservoir. The pipeline system consists of several pipe segments with
joints, two vertical constant head tanks, a coiled pressure pipeline, pressure gauges, ten quick closing
ball valves and one flow meter. The two large standing circular head tanks are installed to reduce the
possible surge pressure caused by sudden closure of a valve or pump operation. Water may bypass
the standing head tanks and enter a coiled pressure pipe, which also serves as a protection device.

The main components of the experimental apparatus for this experiment are:

- one bare-shafted ONGA Hi-( , - 9

pump is controlled by a variable speed motor via a speed dial setting on a "Pump Motor
6 > 9 - /!: /$

- " ! : ,
expressed in metres of water head.

- ": ,
with two different scales on the gauge, one showing positive pressure in metre of water head,
. " , 1 2 $$ /00
% +0$ 1 2 $ $

- 9 ": ,)?A:9 $$B ',

recorded by a laboratory PC

- ! " ! ; -; $

- one ABB Kent-9 , $C $ 4 9

of the flow rate can be read directly from the display, while its analog output is transmitted to
a laboratory computer

- two segments of WHITE plastic pipes marked as "Hardi- - $ :;6 6 >,

D $ , "? *
" , ! / " $ " - , -
! $+ . : $oC

- several BLACK coloured pipe segments connected with joints and a coiled pressure pipeline
$ " 1 3 1 ) -
6 0,/$-/0" /$ )?, ! /0

- E3'6= ! / 9 ! 1
$$")? - * " ! , 0,
 system

- many pipe connectors and bends, and

- one laboratory PC to process on- :, "

per second) and pump speed in revolutions per second (rpm). The interface is shown below.

PROCEDURE

This experiment is designed to investigate the unsteady flow phenomenon within a pipeline due to
water hammer caused by sudden closure of valve(s), and pressure reduction using devices such as
vertical standing tank or long coiled pipe.

The experiment is divided into FIVE parts:

: "
: ,

: ":
" ;

: ":
; , ,
respectively

: /
: : ,
coiled pipeline.

6 !'33 8
ZERO the motor speed setting dial on the "Pump Motor Controller" box, power ON wall lighting,
the flow meter, the motor (from the side of the "Pump Motor Controller" box and the switch box
directly above the motor), and switch ON the PC and printer

6 ! '33 8 ! - ; ,; ;

> -manual" indicator on the "Pump Motor Controller" to "manual" position.

>/> >: . 6 > -,

, #" -

Do not power OFF the motor nor reset the speed of the pump until the completion of the whole
experiment.

&F7 8G " &:. >:

Motor Controller" box and the digital flow rate output on the flow meter),

&<6 &? " :6 , :

&<'? : :,
speed on the "Pump Motor Controller" box.

/ &F7 8G ,63 < ; ,

&<6 &? , :

: :,

; :

0 &F7 87 ; ;* ;# !

When a steady state is reached (by observing the change in the flow rate from the digital display of
,63 < ;

&<6 &? , :

: :,

; :

+ &F7 87 63 < ;* ;# :<7 ; $

pipeline mounted outside the Hydraulics Laboratory.

G , ; ,

&<6 &? , :

: :,

' : , ;

* &F7 /8G ; ,
, ; ; ,
 " ! : :

&<6 &? , :

: :,

' : , ; ,; ; ; $

#G - ; ,; ;

& >/>, ,

switch off the pump.

$: ((

QUESTIONS

' 7B' ,. - , 8

where output water head H (m) is expressed in terms of discharge Q (litres/second).

G : ,
pump? at the delivery pipe immediately leaving the pump?

1 $
experiment?

G H :
: -* : I

also include

, - " ,
, : ,

' 7B' ,. - , 8

where output water head H (m) is expressed in terms of discharge Q (litres/second).

G : : : ,
head produced by the pump which may be observed at the delivery pipe immediately leaving the
pump, if a pressure gauge is installed.

< - : ();< -*
of the Procedure, and compare them with the experimental results recorded.
 ? - ,
suggest methods of improving the accuracy.

Return to Fluid Mechanics Page

Last Modified: