Surge Pressure

Surge pressure, or “water hammer,” is a short-term increase in pressure due to a

change in fluid velocity in a pipeline.

From: Handbook of Liquefied Natural Gas, 2014

Related terms:

Equivalent Mud Weight, Gel Strength, Pressure Loss, Swab Pressure, Drillpipe, Mud
Weight, Operating Pressure, Wellbore

View all Topics

Leaks
Trevor Kletz, in What Went Wrong? (Fifth Edition), 2009

34.4 A Leak caused by Surge Pressure

Surge pressure, particularly water hammer in steam mains, has caused many failures
and large leaks of steam and condensate (see Section 9.1.5). Another incident
occurred in a 450-mm (17.7-in.) steam pipe operating at a gauge pressure of 13.7
bar (200 psi). The details are complex but the essential features were as follows:

• The steam main went down through a tunnel under a road, rose up on the
other side, and was joined by another supply line (see Figure 34-2).Figure 34-2.
Condensate filled the dip in the steam main and overflowed into the horizontal
section on the right, condensing a steam bubble. The resultant water hammer
ruptured the main.
• Following flooding, someone entered the tunnel to inspect the insulation. As
the steam trap in the tunnel was blowing, it was isolated before entry was
allowed but was not reopened afterward.
• The steam supply valve located before the tunnel was reached, as well as the
valve on the other supply line, were both closed and both were passing. The
leak in the first valve filled the dip in the main with condensate and the leak in
the other valve maintained a steam bubble in the higher part of the main.
•
Ultimately, the cold condensate completely filled the dip and overflowed into
the horizontal part of the main, causing the steam bubble to condense. The
resultant surge pressure ruptured the main at a T-joint, the weakest part.

Afterward, the company trained more than 700 employees on the operation of
steam systems. Consultants surveyed the steam system, including 3,000 traps. More
than 100 were repaired or replaced, and a better system for their inspection and
maintenance was set up. However, many other steam mains have also failed due to
water hammer. The hazard is well known and has often been described, for example,
in the booklet Hazards of Steam, first published by Amoco in 1963 and revised by
BP in 2004 [9]. A similar incident had occurred in the same power station 25 years
earlier. Why did the company not learn from its own and others' experience?

The report [6] does not provide this information, but one can hope that the com-
pany improved its procedures for reinstating equipment after isolation for entry or
maintenance.

> Read full chapter

Cementing hydraulics
Boyun Guo, in Applied Well Cementing Engineering, 2021

6.5 Surge and swab pressure

In the downward motion of a casing string, the string forces the drilling fluid and
cement slurry up the annulus and out of the flowline. At the same time, the fluids
immediately adjacent to the casing is dragged downhole. The resultant piston effect
generates surge pressures that are added to the hydrostatic pressure. Excessive surge
pressures can increase the borehole pressure to such a high level as to induce lost
circulation. Conversely, in an upward motion of casing string, fluid flows down the
annulus to fill the resulting void. This causes a suction effect, generating a swab
pressure that can possibly bring formation fluid into the borehole.

Calculating surge and swab pressures can be a complex undertaking depending

upon the casing string configuration and hole geometry. Burkhardt (1961) devel-
oped a relationship between hole geometry and the effect of the fluid being dragged
by a pipe. Based on Burkhardt’s (1961) work, the effective annular velocity is equal
to

(6.65)

where
ve = the effective annular velocity, ft/s or m/s
vf = fluid velocity, ft/s or m/s
vp = pipe upward velocity, ft/s or m/s

and is referred to as the clinging constant, which is a function of annular geometry.

Burkhardt (1961) presented a chart for determination of the value of in both
laminar flow and turbulent flow. Guo and Liu (2011) found that the chart can be
replaced by the following correlations with minimal error. For laminar flow, the
correlation is

(6.66)

where

dp = outer diameter of pipe, in. or mm.

dh = hole diameter, in. or mm.

For turbulent flow, the correlation is

(6.67)

For closed-end pipes such as casing string with float shoe, the fluid velocity can be
calculated by

(6.68)

For open-end pipes, the fluid velocity can be calculated by

(6.69)

Illustrative Example 6.11

Calculate the surge pressure generated by a 10 ¾ in. casing string under the
following conditions, and predict whether the total borehole pressure will exceed
the formation fracture gradient. Assume that the casing is effectively “closed” with
a float shoe and laminar flow in the annulus.Casing depth:6400 ft (1951 m) TVDFracture
gradient:0.82 psi/ftHole diameter:14 ¾ in.Average fluid weight:15.5 ppgPlastic viscosity:37 cPYield
point:6 lb/100 ft2Pipe velocity:− 110 ft/min (the negative sign denotes downward velocity)

Solution

Annular flow pressure loss for laminar flow:

The equivalent mud weight (EMW):

The EMW of fracture gradient (EMWf):

Therefore the borehole will be safe during downward motion of the casing.

Illustrative Example 6.12

Using the Bingham plastic model, calculate the swab pressure generated by a 10
3/4 in. casing string under the following conditions, and predict whether the total

borehole pressure will be lower than the formation pore gradient. Assume that the
casing is fully opened and laminar flow in the annulus.Casing depth:6400 ft (1951 m)Pore
pressure gradient:0.78 psi/ftHole diameter:14 3/4 in.Average fluid weight:15.5 ppgPlastic viscosi-
ty:37 cPYield point:6 lb/100 ft2Pipe velocity:110 ft/min

Solution

Annular flow pressure loss for laminar flow:

The EMW of pore gradient (EMWP):

Therefore the borehole will be safe during the movement of casing string.

> Read full chapter

Liquids—Hydraulics
In Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook (Eighth Edition), 2014

How to determine the maximum surge pressure in liquid-filled

pipeline when a valve is suddenly closed
The maximum surge pressure that occurs in a liquid pipeline when a valve is
suddenly closed may be quickly determined by using the simple rule of thumb: Line
pressure equals 0.8 times the weight per cubic foot of liquid times its velocity in
feet per second. This compares favorably to the results when using the following
equation.

where:

P = Surge pressure, psi

w = Weight of liquid, lb./ft3
V = Velocity change, fps
K = Bulk modulus of the liquid, psi
D = Outside diameter of the pipe, inches
t = Pipe wall thickness, inches
E = Young's modulus of the pipe material, psi

Example
 An 8.625-in. × 0.250-in. w.t. products pipeline transports kerosene at 4.5 fps. The
weight of the kerosene is 51.12 lb./ft3, and the API gravity is 41.1 (rel. density =-
 0.8198). K = 171,000 psi.

Using the simplified equation, P = 0.8 wV = 0.8 × 51.12 × 4.5 = 184 psi

Using the full equation, P = 178 psi; the difference is approximately 3%.

> Read full chapter

Piping standards, codes, and recom-

mended practices
Maurice Stewart, in Surface Production Operations, 2016

2.3.9.3 Water hammer (B31.3 §301.5)

Water hammer, a surge pressure, is a piping system design consideration where
the designer can find assistance in the AWWA Steel Pipe Manual (AWWA M11) in
predicting the pressure rise in a liquid system caused by rapid valve closure. The
pressure rise (“P”) for instantaneous valve closure is directly proportional to the fluid
velocity (“V”) cutoff and to the magnitude of the surge wave velocity (“a”) and is
independent of the length of the pipe. This is shown in the following equation:

where

 a = wave velocity (fps)

P = pressure rise above normal (psi)
V = velocity of flow (fps)
W = weight of fluid (lb/cu ft)
k = bulk modulus of elasticity of pipe material (psi)
E = Young's modulus of elasticity of pipe material (psi)
d = inside diameter of pipe of pipe (in.)
e = thickness of pipe wall (in.)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 fps/s)

For steel pipe,

As an example, assume a rapid closing check valve closes at 36 in. (OD = 0.375) in wall
thickness pipe with water velocity of 4 fps (k = 294,000 psi), E = 29,000,000 psi, and
W = 62.4 lb/cu ft. Determine the instantaneous pressure rise above the operating
pressure. Substituting into the equation
The pressure rise acting at the closed valve in the piping system can exert a force
equal to pressure times the cross-sectional area of the pipe or about 175,665 pound,
which can cause an unrestrained pipe to move from its normal position.

> Read full chapter

Vibration Induced by Pressure Waves in

Piping
In Flow-induced Vibrations (Second Edition), 2014

5.3.3.4 Design practice and criteria

The basic design of a liquid piping system requires consideration and study of
pressure surge. Typical examples are summarized in Table 5.13.

Table 5.13. Typical examples of pressure surge

Event
On–off valve: Quick closure
On–off valve: Quick opening
Pump station: Power failure
Descriptions
•Quick closure of valve causes pressure
rise that is at least higher than Joukows-
ki’s pressure given by Eq. (5.12) if effective
stroke time of the valve is less than the
pipeline period of 2 · L/c•The pressure
rise is proportional to the initial fluid ve-
locity•Ship loading lines with quick-re-
lease coupler valve is the typical example
for the study
•Quick opening of valve causes severe
pressure rise if there is a vapor cavity
downstream of the valve. Sudden open-
ing of the valve pressurizes the vapor
cavity and collapses it leading to severe
pressure rise•Such situations are likely to
occur at the stage of priming and re-start
of plant facilities
•Power failure of motor or turbine dri-
ver causes sudden reduction of discharge
pressure, and causes column separation
if the pressure reduces below the vapor

Pump station: Start-up
Check valve: Reverse flow
Lift-type safety valve: Blow-down
pressure•Subsequent rejoining pressure
rise due to backpressure occurs when the
vapor column instantly closes or collapses
•Sudden increase of discharge flow and
pressure due to pump start-up some-
times causes collapse of downstream
vapor cavities•Inappropriate air release
from air valves at downstream high point
also causes severe pressure rise
•In pump station, power failure induces
sudden closure of discharge check valve
due to reverse flow. This causes a large
shock force on the check valve, pipe sup-
port, and pump nozzle•If pumps are in
parallel operation and one pump trips,
downstream high pressure causes large
reverse flow until the check valve clos-
es•The shock force is proportional to the
reverse flow velocity•Dynamic character-
istics determine the reverse velocity, and
should be considered for the selection of
the check valve
•In liquid systems, long lead line from
branch point to safety valve sometimes
causes large pressure oscillation [131]
and structural vibration when the safety
valve blows•If the valve with long lead line
installed at discharge of the pump having
droopy head-flow characteristics and the
set point of the valve is near the discharge
pressure, such a possibility becomes high

Various design codes and standards specify the limitation on surge pressure in
a piping system. Since pressure surge is categorized as an occasional load, the
allowable surge pressure is normally greater than the design pressure of the system.
For example, ASME/ANSI B31.3 for the chemical and petrochemical plant piping
systems specifies a maximum allowable surge pressure of 1.33 times the design
pressure of the system. For long-distance pipelines, ASME/ANSI B31.4 specifies 1.1
times the design pressure. It should be noted that each code and standard has a
unique definition of the allowable stress, which leads to different definitions of
the allowable surge pressure.

Table 5.14 shows typical data necessary for surge analysis of a piping system. Initial
pressure and flow balance are first determined based on the boundary conditions
before transient analysis can be implemented.

Table 5.14. Necessary data for pressure surge analysis

Item Contents
Piping data Configuration of pipe network; pipe lengths;
outside diameter and wall thickness; elevation;
Young’s modulus of pipe material; pipe friction
factor; design pressure
Control valve data Cv-valve opening curve, stroke speed, closing
time
Check valve data Maximum Cv, dynamic characteristics (decelera-
tion versus reverse velocity)
Pump data Head-flow characteristic curve; torque-flow char-
acteristic curve; rated and operation conditions
(flow, head, speed, torque); rotational inertia
(GD2); starting torque curve of driver; design
pressure of case
Tank data Inside diameter, liquid surface level, gas pressure
at liquid surface, gas volume and polytropic ex-
ponent in case of closed-type tank
Fluid properties Bulk modulus, density, viscosity, vapor pressure,
void fraction of dissolving gas
Process data Initial pressure and flow balance

> Read full chapter

Transportation Pipelines
Alireza Bahadori PhD, CEng, MIChemE, CPEng, MIEAust, RPEQ, in Oil and Gas
Pipelines and Piping Systems, 2017

1.2.3 Hydraulic Design

Flow rate and/or pressure drop calculations may be made for the pipelines in
various services using the formulas and methods set out and/or referred to in this
subsection. Although the equations and methods for calculating the pressure drops
quoted or referred to in this subsection have proved to be generally consistent
with the actual experienced results during operation, nevertheless, more accurate
methods of calculation should be considered for particular cases and where the fluid
characteristics are fully known.
For a given pipe size, fluid characteristics, and flow rate, a hydraulic analysis should
be carried out to establish the possible range of operational parameters that should
provide the pressure and temperature profiles along the pipeline for steady state and
transient conditions by taking full account of the possible changes in flow rates and
operational modes over the life span of the pipeline.

The analysis should provide data to address the following:

• Surge pressure during sudden shut-down of the liquid lines.

• Turn-down limitation and inhibition or insulation requirements to avoid wax

or hydrates or other impurities to deposit.
• Effect of flow rates on the efficiency of the corrosion inhibitors.

• Liquid catching and slug control requirement especially at the downstream

end of two-phase lines or at the low pressure points.
• Effect of higher velocity ranges on impingement, cavitation and erosion on
pipe wall, fittings and valves.
• Cleaning requirements for water and other corrosive substances which may
deposit in the line. (Refer to API 1160)

> Read full chapter

Piping system components

Maurice Stewart, in Surface Production Operations, 2016

4.2.8.3.4 Operating considerations

Since ball valves open and close so quickly, ball valves may induce water hammer or
surge pressures. The hollow ball may trap fluid in the closed position and may cause
problems if the valve body is not vented. Abrasive solids suspended in the fluid flow
may damage the seats and ball surface because the ball moves across the seats with
a wiping motion.

Ball valves handling combustible or dangerous materials should be provided with

an emergency seat seal. These emergency seat seals come into operation should the
soft seals burn out in a fire (fire-safe). They consist normally of a secondary metal
seat in close proximity to the ball so that the ball can float against the metal seat
(or vice versa) after the soft seats have deteriorated. Packing materials should be
capable of lasting through a fire. Ball valves are classified as either floating ball or
trunnion-mounted types.
> Read full chapter

Deepwater Intermediate Wellbores and

Pressure Detection
Peter Aird, in Deepwater Drilling, 2019

Reasons and Rationale of Pressure Transition Problems

Insufficient Mud Weights (Underbalance)

While drilling pressure transition zones, inadequate EMW results from a combina-
tion of planning and operational problems as illustrated in Fig. 15.10. Sometimes
pore pressures can increase abruptly in short transition zones with little forewarning,
resulting in EMW outcomes being far more difficult to maintain primary control
of the well.

Fig. 15.10. Key problems and issues that result with a too high or too low equivalent
mud weight (EMW).

Planning Problems

• Inaccurate predrill pore pressure and EMW predictive estimates (Fig. 15.10)

• Unexpected factures/faults

Operational Problems
• Lack of appreciation of all EMW cause and effects

• Filling the hole with light mud

• Barite sag

• Excessive swab surge pressures

• Swabbed gas

• Geologic factors—short overpressure transition zones○Faults○Gas columns-

○Charged sands or similar intervals○Nonshale intervals

Excessive Mud Weights (Overbalance)

Problems due to excessive EMW and operational overbalances can result in far
more consequential impact and effects than similar issues due to insufficient
or lack of mud weight as illustrated in Fig. 15.10. As with underbalance, excessive
overbalance is frequently the result of poor planning or not identifying and reacting
to operational problems quickly enough. Problems can however result due to abrupt
pore pressure change within the formation or reservoir characteristics.

Planning Problems

• Inaccurate predrill pore pressure, lithology, formations prediction estimates

(Fig. 15.10)

Operational Problems

• Lost mud flow back (“ballooning”)

• Misinterpretation of EMW, pore pressure indicators

• Poor wellbore quality, ineffective, inefficient hole cleaning

• Geologic factors—pore pressure regressions

• Faults

• Depleted reservoirs

• Gas columns (gas caps)

• Salt, tar, bitumen

> Read full chapter

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Recov-

ery
Alireza Bahadori Ph.D., in Natural Gas Processing, 2014

12.11.1 Requirements
The transfer system shall incorporate a means for rapidly and positively stopping
the flow in an emergency. Transfer systems shall be designed to prevent dangerous
surge pressures when the flow in either direction is stopped.

Transfer pumps may be centrifugal, reciprocating, gear, or another type designed for
handling LPG. The design pressure and construction material of the pumps shall be
capable of safely withstanding the maximum pressure that could be developed by
the product, the transfer equipment, or both.

All process design requirements shall be considered when centrifugal or positive

displacement pumps are used.

Compressors used for liquid transfer normally shall take suction from the vapor
space of the container being filled and discharge into the vapor space of the storage
vessel from which the withdrawal is being made.

Provisions relating to process design requirements of LPG transfer loading and

unloading facilities are given in API Standard 2510, under Paragraph 7.

All safety considerations deemed necessary to be specified in process design of LPG

transfer facilities shall be in conformity with NFPA, Vol. 2, Chapter 4.

> Read full chapter

System Design and Analysis

Malcolm J. Brandt BSc, FICE, FCIWEM, MIWater, ... Don D. Ratnayaka BSc, DIC,
MSc, FIChemE, FCIWEM, in Twort's Water Supply (Seventh Edition), 2017

15.11 Transient Pressures: Water Hammer and Surge

In this context transient pressures are those generated in a pipeline or system by
a sudden change in flow such as generated by the operation of a valve or, more
commonly, the starting and stopping of pumps. The time scale of such events is
likely to be measured in seconds, distinguishing them from the much more gradual
flow changes that occur in a system as a result, for instance, of diurnal demand
patterns.

There are two forms of transient pressures: the generation and transmission of
pressure waves in a closed pipe system due to the compression and elasticity of the
fluid, and mass oscillation where the whole water column moves between two open
surfaces as illustrated by the U-tube experiment in school physics. The first type of
event is potentially the more damaging but the designer needs to be aware of both
possibilities. It must be stressed that the analysis of surge pressures and the design
of remedial works is a specialist area of work and if it is considered that there could
be a problem with surge then expert advice should be sought.

If a valve in a pipeline is suddenly closed the water immediately upstream is

brought to an abrupt stop and is compressed by the momentum of the upstream
water column. This results in a sudden large increase in pressure which propagates
upstream as a positive pressure wave at the speed of sound in water (the noise made
on reflection of this wave, particularly in older domestic plumbing systems, is known
as water hammer). Similarly, downstream of the valve or downstream of a pump
which has suddenly stopped, a rapid drop in pressure occurs as the momentum of
the water column downstream moves it away; this is transmitted down the line as a
negative wave, that is one in which the pressure drops.

Secondary pressure waves are generated as the initial wave passes any fitting or
change to the pipeline, such as an enlargement or tee, but when a pressure wave
reaches the closed end of a pipeline (such as a shut control valve at entry into a
reservoir) it is reflected as a wave of the same type, that is, a positive wave is reflected
as a positive wave, a negative wave as a negative one. Conversely, a pressure wave
reaching an open end to a pipeline discharging to a reservoir or tank is reflected as a
wave of the opposite type. Even in a relatively simple system, therefore, the pattern of
secondary and reflected waves can become complicated. Wave amplitude is damped
by friction and pipe wall elastic losses so it is often the passage of the initial pressure
wave which gives rise to the most critical pressures. However, this is not always the
case as secondary and reflected waves can interact positively and may cause air or
check valves to shut suddenly, so generating further high pressures. Similarly, if the
pressure falls low enough, vacuum cavities may form, which may also cause high
shock pressures when they subsequently collapse on a rising pressure. The analysis
of transient conditions can thus be very complicated and the results depend not only
on the elements of the system, but also on the profile of the pipelines. Although
methods have been developed in the past for hand or graphical computations,
computer programs are now used almost universally to analyse transient conditions.

The main concern with transient pressures is that they should not be high enough
to cause bursting of the pipes or fittings. To put the potential for damage into
perspective, it is worth noting that the rise in pressure head, known as the Joukowsky
head after the scientist who first developed the theory, on a sudden change of velocity
ΔV in a pipeline, is given by a.ΔV/g, where a is the velocity of wave propagation and
g is the acceleration due to gravity. In a ductile iron pipeline the wave speed may be
as much as 1200 m/s although it is normally between about 900 and 600 m/s as a
result of small quantities of air present in the water. With this high value for the wave
speed, the slamming of a valve in a pipeline operating at a velocity of 1.5 m/s could
lead to a pressure rise of 180 m. Even with a wave speed of 600 m/s the pressure rise
would be 90 m. Such surge pressures undoubtedly occur, but are often not recorded
to the full extent by the ordinary Bourdon pressure gauge which is too ‘sluggish’ in
operation to record the peak transient pressure.

Codes of practice for most pipe materials allow some transient overstressing above
the allowable operating pressure (defined as the internal pressure, exclusive of
surge, that a component can safely withstand in permanent service). However, other
elements of the system including valves and jointing systems and the resistance
of thrust blocks should be considered, particularly if an existing system is being
uprated.

In potable water systems it is normal practice to avoid any negative pressures and
consequent risk of contamination being drawn in through open air valves or through
joints designed primarily to prevent leakage from high internal pressure. In addition,
large diameter, thin-walled, pipes may collapse if negative pressures fall enough
to induce buckling (Section 17.8) and certain plastic materials, particularly PVC-U,
may suffer from fatigue failure if there are repeated excessive transient pressure
fluctuations above a certain magnitude over the life of the system.

In the majority of systems the most likely causes of transient pressures are rapid
valve closure and pump stoppage. Rapid valve closure can be controlled; it is always
advisable to ensure that valves cannot be slammed shut and have a closure time
long enough to limit the pressure rise to acceptable values. The minimum time of
closure should, at least, be greater than the time it takes for the pressure wave to be
reflected back to the valve from the far end of the line, 2L/a, where L is the length
of the pipeline and a is the wave speed as defined above. A longer closure time, or
closure that allows the last 10–20% of the valve open area to be much slower than
over the first 80%, may be required (Fig. 18.1). However, the most critical case for
surge in a system is usually a power failure causing simultaneous stopping of all the
pumps. Most modern low-inertia pumps stop producing forward flow of water in a
few seconds when turned off, so they effectively stop almost instantaneously. Thus
the problem of low pressures being transmitted through the system has become
more severe. One solution is to add a fly wheel to increase the pump inertia but this
goes against the trend for lighter and smaller pumps with reduced motor starting
currents and may give rise to problems with bearings and drive shafts.

Once the potential problems are identified, it is necessary to consider their allevia-
tion. It is rarely economic to increase the strength of a pipeline solely to cope with
surge pressures so it is usually necessary to provide some other form of protection
for the system. There are a number of protective measures that can be adopted as
listed below (Thorley, 2004). An indication of suitable locations for installation of
some of the devices mentioned is shown in Figure 15.10.

Figure 15.10. Pipeline profile with locations for installation of surge protection
devices.

1. Slower valve closure by various mechanical means.

2. Increased pump inertia. Fly-wheels fitted to the pumps reduce the rate of
deceleration of the pump and the corresponding rate of change of flow. In
the right circumstances these can be the most effective and robust form of
protection but there may be issues with modern pumps as noted above. If
proposed, their use must be discussed with the pump manufacturers.
3. Air vessels (also referred to as ‘surge vessels’) which comprise pressure vessels
connected directly to the pipeline, part of their volume being occupied by
compressed air. They are commonly used to feed water into the pipeline when
the pumps stop but they also provide a cushion to absorb high pressures on
the returning wave and on pump start up. Air is gradually absorbed into the
water and compressor facilities are required to provide occasional topping up
of air in the vessel. For this reason they are generally installed only at pumping
stations. The absorbed air can find its way into the pipeline and come out of
solution as pressure falls (Section 15.10).
4. Accumulators are similar to air vessels except that the air is separated from the
water in the vessel by a flexible rubber membrane thus greatly reducing the
loss of air by absorption. This eliminates the need for compressor facilities and
allows the use of a gas such as nitrogen in place of air, topped up periodically
from a portable cylinder.
5. Surge shafts (open-topped shafts connected directly to the line) can be con-
structed, if the topography permits, but they must extend above the hydraulic
grade line. They should only be used on potable water systems where the
ventilation facilities are designed to eliminate the risk of infiltration or airborne
contamination, such as those fitted to potable water storage tanks. Such
 ventilation facilities must be designed to cope with the air flow appropriate to6.
the maximum rate of change of volume in the shaft during a transient event.
Feed tanks operate by feeding water into the line to relieve low pressures. They7.
can be located at high points below the hydraulic grade line as they are isolated
by non-return valves which only allow flow into the pipeline. Again the issue
of potential contamination must be addressed. There may also be an issue of
water quality if the feed tank is not called upon to operate regularly and there
is no turnover of the stored water.
Air valves of the large orifice type may be used to prevent low pressures in 8.
the line by opening to admit air when the pressure falls below atmospheric.
Their use for this purpose is not generally permitted on potable water schemes
because of the risk of contamination as mentioned above. There are potential
drawbacks including the generation of high shock pressure on slamming,
unless special non-slam valves are used.
Pressure relief valves can be set to open at a given pressure or operate in 9.
response to an initiating event thus limiting the maximum pressures at their
location.
Bypass pipework can be fitted around the pumps to allow water to be drawn 10.
from the sump provided the pressure on the delivery side falls low enough.
However, this may be insufficient to prevent other low pressure problems
occurring down the line on a simple system, but they may be effective at
booster stations where the pressure on the suction side of the pumps rises
significantly on pump stoppage.
Non-return check valves can be used along a pipeline to reduce the effect of the
returning positive pressure or water column, but they may give rise to adverse
effects themselves so must be analysed carefully and used with care.

Pump delivery non-return valves need to be suitable for the system and its transient
response, especially if a surge vessel is also provided because the flow in the con-
necting pipe to the air vessel may reverse very quickly. Ideally, the non-return valve
should shut at the moment of flow reversal but if it reacts more slowly the reversed
flow may slam the valve shut with the generation of a high shock pressure (Section
18.18). The dynamic response of the non-return valves should thus be matched to
the transient characteristics of the pipeline system.

Surge protection system design must also take account of long-term performance;
operations staff may be aware of the need to maintain surge equipment when the
station is new but after 20 years, and after several changes of staff, the importance of
components such as air valves may be forgotten. The approach should be for robust
solutions in most cases and particularly for systems in remote locations.

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