KINGDOM PROTISTA

Epicomplexions
Epicomplexions are parasites. They are named for possessing a structure known as an apical
complex. The apical complex is thought to help epicomplexians to help penetrate the cells of
their hosts. They secrete enzymes to penetrate their hosts. It is important to note that the apical
complex is not in all of the life stages. For example in the merozoite or the sporozoite life stage.
All of them are parasitic in many different animals.

In terms of locomotion, some of them do not move around. Others have pseudopodia like
malarial trophozoites. Other use flagellum, particularly in the gamete stage of their life cycle.
Epicomplexions have complicated life cycles that include asexual and life cycles. They have a
number of hosts. They intermediate hosts too, like the mosquito.

They have two classes: Coccidea and Gregarinea

Plasmodium is a parasitic organism that cause malaria in humans as well as other organisms.
Malaria is one of the most important diseases. They cause one in three billion deaths annually.
Most these deaths are in Africa. Malaria is transmitted by mosquitos. The genus anopheles is
the common mosquito transferred to humans.

Symptoms are malaria is a really high fever. Another symptom is muscle and joint pains
particularly in the back, arms and legs. Vomitting and diarrhea is another symptom.

All these symptoms resume on and off.

Malaria severely compromises the immune system.

Malaria is most common in tropical areas.

There are three ways in which malaria can be prevented:

1. Elimination of mosquitoes
2. Prevention of mosquito bites
3. Anti-malarial drugs

Mosquitos require an aquatic habitat in their life cycles. To prevent mosquitos from breeding,
get rid of standing water.
Anti-malarial drugs have unpleasant side effects. It can make one photosensitive. Another one
is very intense nightmares.

Malarial Life Cycle

The life cycle is complicated and has many stages.

A gamete is a haploid cell. It contains only 14 chromosomes.

A gametocyte is an immature gamete that would eventually develop into male or female gamete.

A merozoite is a very small trophozoite. Trophozoites are found in red blood cells.

Schizogony is a multiple asexual fission.

Sporogony is also multiple asexual fission that produces trophozoites.

Ookinete fertilizes motile zygotes.

Oocysts is where sporogony occurs.

Plasmodium vivax life cycles

It is divided into two life cycles:

Asexual life cycles in human hosts and sexual life cycle in the mosquito.

First when a mosquito takes the blood of a human host, they inject a small amount of saliva.
This contains small amounts of plasmodium sporozoites. This migrates through the life stream.
The apical complex allows them to penetrate liver cells. Then they undergo schizogony in the
liver cells. A single sporozoites can prododuce a number of schizons. These schizons are known
as merozoites. When these merozoites mature, they burst the liver cells and go through the
bloodstream inside the red blood cells. This marks the beginning of the erythrositic cycle of the
plasmodium. At this point the host is asymtimatic.

Once the erythrositic cycle starts. A lot of symptoms appear. They mature into a trophozoite
also known as the ring stage. This trophozoite undergoes schizogony again in the red blood cell.
This produces more merozoites. When inside the red blood cells, the trophozoites feed on
hemoglobin and other cellular products. They leave waste products inside the red blood cells.
The red blood cells rupture and the waste products go into the blood stream and cause symptoms
of malaria. This cycle takes about two to three days.
After a number of erythrositic cycles, some of the trophozoites develop into gametocytes instead
of merozoites. Some will also develop into macrogametocytes (female gametes) or
microgrametocytes (male gametes).

The mosquito that bites an infected human, they receive the gametocytes of the trophozoite from
the human blood. At this stage, the macrogametocytes will develop into the femal macrogamete.
The microgametocyte will develop into a microgamete. Microgamete will fertilize the female
gamete in the midgut of mosquito. They will develop into an ookinete. Ookinete is motile and
can penetrate the lining of the mosquito and produce an oocysts. In the oocyst, sporogamy will
occure. The result of sporogomy will be sexual sporozoites being developed in each oocysts.
Once mature it will migrate into the salivary glands of the humans. Then the cycle will go on
again where it bites a human host.

Phylum Ciliophora
Ciliophora ranges in sizes a lot from one micron to three millimeters. They are the most
structurally complex protist. They can be solitary or colonial. They can be either sessile or
motile. The majority are free-living but some are symbiotic.

Ciliophora has ciliary rows known as kineties. Cilia are not always present in all the life stages
of ciliaphora. Some life stages may have cilia absent.

Another important distinguishing of the phylum is that they are multinucleated (more than one
nucleus, which is one macronucleus and one micronucleus). Macronucleus is larger than the
micronucleus. It is responsible for metabolism and maintaining cell structure. Micronucleus is
responsible for sexual reproduction and the transfer of genes from different organisms.

Oral groove is composed of the cytosome where the cell wall is opening for food to enter. Food
enters the cytosome by the movement of cilia which cause water currents and bring in food
particles. Once in the cytosome, the food particles enter the cytopharnyx. The cytopharnyx fills
up the food vacuole. Small vacuole containing the injested enzymes.
Porifera
Multicellular animals have specialized cells. Different types of cells are organized into tissues
and then to organs and then to organisms. It was thought that multicellular animals arose from a
unicellular protozoan like ancestor. There are three theories of how multicellular animals arose
from unicellular eukaryotes:

1. Syncytial Cilate: A ciliated protozoan with multiple nuclei develop compartments

around each nucleus. Eventually it became multicellular by subdividing the body. Each
subdivision came to contain different nucleus. These cells then had special functions.
2. Colonial Flagellate: Eventually it characterized metazoans. Eventualy the colonial
spheres came to specialize into different cell types from polyps.
3. Metazoans are polyphyletic: Different metazoans are descendants of different eukaryotic
protozoans. Evidence based on DNA sequencing suggests that a metazoans are
monophyletic (meaning they came from the same ancestor). This rejects the theory that
they are polyphyletic.

Metazoan animals are choanoflagellates. There are a number of evidence that suggests that
choanoflagellates arose from an organism similar to choanoflagellates. The evidence came from
DNA sequencing. The other thing that follows choanoflagellates, metazoans and some fungi
belongs to the clayanvisticonta. Clayanvisticonta are closer to plants and algae than to the
ciliates. This makes the syncytial ciliate theory highly unlikely. The likely origins of metazoan
animals that are from colonial flagellates, similar to choanoflagellates. It was thought that
choanoflagellate like protists gave rise to first and substral metazoan. This metazoan then came
into differentiate into older groups of metazoans that we see today. Some groups evertually
became extinct. One of earliest branchest of this metazoans are from the phylum porifera or
sponges. These sponges are similar to the first metazoans.

Porifera are suspension feeders (they filter out particles suspended in the water). They filter
particles from the pores on their bodies. This gave rise to the name porifera meaning pore
bearing. Porifera are relatively diverse phylum. Between 5000 to 15000 species. All of these
species inhabit an aquatic environment. The vast majority of them live in marine systems.
About 150 species of sponges inhabit fresh water environments as well.

In marine systems, they live in shallow coral areas and the greatest depths of the ocean. And
from the tropics to the polar regions. Sponges are sessile (always attach to substrate). Substrates
could be a rock, coral, another sponge, an aquatic plant or perhaps silk or sand in some cases.
Some sponges are a few millimeters and other sponges could be a few meters across.

Their morphology relies on environmental conditions. The shape of the same species of the
sponge can be different as the water current, the shape of the substrate, and so on. A sponge
growing on a relatively low current water will grow tall whereas sponges with fast current will
grow short and in direction of current. Sponges do not display true symmetry like other
metazoans. Although they can be radial symmetric. Although not true radial symmetry because
their shape relies on environmental conditions.

Sponges are some of the oldest multicellular animals. Their fossils date back to the Cambrian
period (about 500 million years ago).

Characteristic of Sponges

They are multicellular. Some cells are specialized for different functions. Some for feeding,
reproduction, digestion and so on. However sponges do not have true tissues or organs.
Sponges have incipient tissues (not true tissues but are like tissues). They have a macroderm that
are the closest thing to a tissue in a cell body. They are a pair of cells that coat the outside of the
sponge.

They have no nervous system or sense organs, but they are able to respond to environmental
conditions to some extent. How they are able to do this is not quite clear. Some think it is by
chemical signaling between cells or by electrical signaling through cells called myocytes.

Cells in the sponge have some independence (they can move around in the cell). Sponge cells
can differentiate to change into a different have of cells. They are sessile and are dependant of
water current. Exchange of gases and food occurs on the cellular levels. Wastes leave the cell
and gases enter and leave the cell at the cellular level. Each cell gets rid of carbon independently
(no specialized systems for these functions).

Sponges are classified into three classes in the phylum porifera:

 Calcarea
 Demospongiae (Largest group) over 90% of sponge species, also includes kitchen
sponges manufactured synthetically
 Hexactinellida (glass sponges)

They are classified into these groups by strucual elements known as spicules. Spicules form the
skeletal parts of the sponge. It is the shape and composition of these spicules that help scientists
classify these sponges.

Sponges are distinct from other metazoans in their structure. Like other animals, they were not
recognized as animals in the 19th century. Most of the body of thesponge is composed of a non-
living layer known as a mesohyl. The mesohyl is a gelatinous matrix and is non-living
composed of spicules. They have structural elements made of calcium carbonates. Most are
derivatives of collagen. For example, spongan is a type of collagen common in sponges. The
non-living mesohyl layer is sandwiched by a number of different cell types.

One type of cells are pinacocytes. Pinacocytes form the pinacoderm (the outer coating of the
sponge). They are epithelial flat cells. They are a skin-like epidermal like coating on the outside
of the sponge. Some of them are contractile, responsible for the movements sponges are capable
of.

Another type of pinacoytes are mycocytes which are also contractile. They are responsible for
closing and opening some of the pores in sponge body, as well as movement of the sponges.
Some sponges have electrical signals between cells.

Second class of cells are archaeocytes. The archaecytes are amoeboid cells and are amebolike.
They are motile cells capable of moving through the mesohyl. They are responsible for digestion
of ingested particles. Particles like pinacocytes and choanocytes trap food to the archaeocytes to
digest the food. Archaeocytes are capable of morphing into any type of cell in the sponge
(differentiate like stem-cells). Archeocytes are also responsible for secreting structures in the
mesohyls like spicules and spongan.

Choanocytes are a third type of cell important in sponges. They are flagellated cell responsible
for trapping most of the food in the sponge. One type of choanocyte is embedded in the mesohyl
(a non-living gel like matrix in the body of a cell). Another possesses a single flagellum that
sticks in the internal space in the sponge that generates water currents. The flagellum is
surrounded by microvilli. These microvilli form a biological filter that traps particles that the
sponge will eventually ingest. The choanocytes do no directly digest food particles, but they
pass food vacuoles onto archeocytes where digestion occurs. Choanocytes are similar to
choanoflagellates.

The beating of the flagellum generates water current. These water currents pass in the filter of
the microvilli. The large particles are trapped in the microvilli and transported downwards in the
cell where they are phagocitized.

The mesohyl are a non-living layer that has spicules embedded in the mesohyl, as well as
different type of cells. Collencytes form the manufacturing structural elements of the mesohyl
(spicules and proteins of the mesohyl). There is a chamber inside of the sponge that generate
water currents.

Mesohyl have two layers: pinacoderm on the outside and choanocytes on the inside. Within the
mesohyl are spicules as well as some archaeocytes. Water enters the tube that composes the
body of the sponge through pores called ostium. These ostia are specialized specialized
pinacocytes called sporocytes. These sporocytes contract and close the ostia. For example, there
are too much filth in the water currents, the ostia will close. Once the water enters through the
ostia, it goes to the central cavity of the sponge known as the spongocoel. It moves up through
the spongocoel where it will become a cesspool to choanocytes (to trap food particles). Water
leaves through the opening at the top known as the osculum. This is the simplest type of
organization in sponges.
3 main types of organization

• Asconoid (simplest) – has an inner surface of spongocoel covered by choanocytes. The

means that the surface area is relatively small. The choancytes can only cess a certain
volume of water. The osculum in sponges are then only a few centimetres in size.

• Syconoid – surface area available for intake is greatly increased because the body of the
sponge has various holes for fingerlike injections. These fingerlike projections are lined
with choanocytes. Water enters these fingerlike structures through ostia.

• Leuconoid (most complex) – different from asconoid and syconoid sponges. They do
not have large spongocoel. To compensate, they have a canal penetrating the mesohyl of
the sponge. These canals leave the flagellated chambers. A single cell could have
numerous chambers (thousands). These chambers are lined with choanocytes. The
particles that pass through the body of the sponge get trapped in these flagellated
chambers and which makes food accessible to choanocytes to uptake food.

Reproduction of the Sponge

Sponges can be reproduced sexually and asexually.

Asexual Reproduction

 Occurs in three main mechanisms:

o Fragmentation in which a part of the sponge may break off and grow into
another adult sponge. The fragment contain archaeocytes (the archaeocytes
are capable of differentiate and therefore can regenerate and form into an adult
sponge). Even tiny particles of sponges can grow into an adult.
o External Budding: A sponge will start producing a bud on the surface. It
will produce a part of the sponge on the surface. This bud will grow and
break off the sponge and grow into an adult sponge.
o Internal Budding: It involves the production of gemmules. Gemmules are
little packets of archaeocytes surrounded by a coating of spicules and
spongan. These arechaeocytes inside the gemmules and survive adverse
environmental conditions. The production of gemmules are more common to
fresh water sponges because many of them can live in fresh water
environments where there are long winter seasons. These gemmules are in the
mesohyls of the living sponges. When the parent dies, the gemmules survive
the winter. They then sprout and break in the spring. They then start
differentiating in the sponge. Gemmules can be in fresh water or marine but
mostly in fresh water.
Sexual Reproduction

Most of sponges are monoecious.

In most sponges, choanocytes differentiate into sperm cells and oocytes. In other, oocytes are
produced from archaeocytes.

When sperm mature, they leave the parent sponge and enter the water current. They travel from
the water current until they enter another sponge. The sperm cells are phagocitized by
choanocytes. Instead of the sperm being digested, the choanocoyte changes into a carrier cell.
The choanocytes then leaves the inner surface of the sponge and travels through the mesohyl
until it encounters an oocyte. The oocyte will ingest both the carrier cell and the sperm cell, then
fertilization will occur.

Most sponges have the zygote inside the parent until it matures. When the larval stage is mature,
it will leave the parent. The larva is motile and will travel by a flagella. The zygote will travel
in the water column. It will spend time in the water column until it matures and find the
appropriate substrate. Once it finds an appropriate substrate, the larva will settle on the substrate
and will develop into a sponge. This would repeat the cycle of sexual reproduction again.
Cnidaria
These include sea anemones, coral and so on.

There are more than 9000 species of Cnidaria. Many of them live in coral reefs. All Cnidaria
are aquatic and are in shallow water. Some live in the ocean and some are fresh water species.
All fresh water organisms are under the class schyphozoa. Cnidarians are an ancient group.
They were from the Cambrian era. During the Cambrian explosion, diversification of animals
began in a short period of time.

Cnidarians display what is known as dimorphism. This means the same species can be found in
two forms. It can be as a polyp attached to a substrate and a medusa which is free living. A
medusa is motile and can move through a water column. Cnidaria have structures known as
Cnidocytes. These are tiny harpoon-like structures that are used to capture and paracitize prey.
The name Cnidarian means metal like. Cnidarians have tissues and similar organs. They have
two tissue layers. They are diploblastic. Most other organisms are triploblastic. They are the
only diploblastic group of metazoan animals. Cnidarians are the simplest animals to form
organs. They form a variety of simple sense organs. Periferans are probably the most similar
animals to the ancestor metazoan. Cnidarians diversed a little later and are somewhat different
from periferans and other other animals. The difference is that they are diploblastic. This means
that their cell and tissue have two germ layers. They other metazoans are triploblastic meaning
that they have three cell layers in the germ layer.

All metazoan animals begin their life as a blastula. A blastula is a sphere of cells. The outer
coating of the blastula is known as the blastoderm. The inner layer of the blastula is known as a
blastocoels. Sponges do not develop past the blastula stage. The blastula develops in the zygote
and the blastula develops into the larva. The larva does not have any cell layers other than the
blastula. All the cells develop from the blastoderm.

The blastula develops into another stage known as a gastrula. A gastrula develops through an
invagination of the outer blastoderm. The blastula undergoes gastrulation to develop a gastrula.
The blastula folds inwards until it eventually creates the fold. The fold eventually develops into
the mouth or the anus of the organism. The cells that line it will line the gut of the mature
organism.

The diploblastic has two germ (cell) layers. There is the ectoderm which forms the outer coating
of the gastrula and the endoderm that is the folded end. The inside of the diploblastic organism
is filled with the blastocoels. Cnidaria do not develop past the diplobastic gastrula. All other
animals go on to develop a triplobastic gastrula during their embryonic development period.

Some of the ectodermal cells start forming the mesoderm. Eventually, these mesodermal cells
either become completely filled with blastocoels or they will have a characteristic pattern that
they will form. Such as folding the inside of the gastrula. All of these different germ layers give
rise to different organs.

In Cnidrians, the embryonic development occurs in the diploblastic gastrula. One tissue
develops from the ectoderm and the other develop from the endoderm of the gastrula. There is
no mesoderm in diploblastic organisms (only in triploblastic organisms). Instead of the
mesoderm, the epidermis and the gastrodermis are separated by the mesoglea which is a non-
living gelatinous structure. Similar to the mesohyl of the sponges. The gastrodermous is in the
inside of the organism and the outside is the epidermis.

Cnidarians are dimorphs meaning that they have two forms. The form of a sessile polyp that
attaches to a substrate and a medusa stage which are free living. To note, is that the mesoglea is
thicker in the medusa stage. Both polyps and medusa are somewhat similar in their structure.
They both have a single mouth opening at the top and tentacles around the mouth to capture
prey.

Cnidarians are the simplest animals to display true symmetry. They display radial symmetry.
They can be sliced and anyways and the slice can be the same in any way. Bilateral symmetry
can only be sliced in one way to be symmetrical. Some cnidarians are biradial. Unlike bilateral
animals which have anterior and posterior regions, Cnidarians have an oral and aboral end. Oral
end is where the mouth is and the aboral is the most distant area from the mouth.

Structure of Cnidarians

The most prominent structure is the gastrovascular cavity. The empty space inside the body is
the gastrovascular cavity. It is a blind sac that has a single opening that is an anus and a mouth.
The gastrovascular cavity is surrounded by tentacles which can capture prey and bring it into
their mouth. The inner surface of the gastrovascular cavity is covered in a gastrodermas layer.
The gastrodermus layer have gastrodermus cells which secrete the digestive enzymes that digest
the food cnidarians ingest.

The gastrovascular cavity also serves as a hydrostatic skeleton, organisms that do not have arigid
skeleton like in mammals or exoskeleton in insects. A hydrostatic skeleton allows the organisms
to retain their structure and allow something for their muscle cells to maintain shape. The
cnidarians are kind of like a balloon. When the balloon is filled with water, it can maintain it’s
structure. The muscle cells in the wall have something to act against.

Cnidarians are unique in having a structure known as Cnidocytes. They are the only organisms
that have Cnidocytes. Cnidocytes are like tiny harpoon cells that cause the prey to be captured.
They are used for capture prey and also locomotion in other organisms. Cnidocytes contain a
venom. The Cnidocytes are triggered by vibrations in the water or certain chemicals released by
the organisms. Inside the Cnidocytes are nematocysts. Once the Cnidarians senses a prey, the
Cndocyte fires it’s nematocysts and penetrates the prey. Then it injects venom into the prey.
Cnidocytes are single celled. The nematocysts are tightly coiled in the Cnidocytes. A structure
known as a cnidocil that triggers the fire of the nematocysts. The opening of the Cnidocyte is
covered by a little clip known as operculum. Cnidocytes can only be fired once. This means they
have to know that they are capturing an actual prey.

An example hydra is a class of Cnidarians uses up to a quarter of it’s nematocysts to capture a

prey.

Cnidarians have nerves cells but unlike other animals, they do not have a centralized structure.
Instead, there are a huge network of neurons throughout the body. There are two separate but
connected nerve networks in Cnidarians. There is the gastrodermal nervous network on the
inside of the organism and the epidermal nervous network on the outside of the organisms.
These two are connected and are responsible for sensing the environment and for coordinating
the movement. Cnidarians also possess a number of sense organs.such as statocysts. It senses
balance of the organism. Statocysts are an empty space of cells composed of a number of cells.
These cells have projections on the inside of the statocysts. Inside the statocystts are the hard
structures known as the statholith. The hole on the inside of the statocysts tells the organism
whether it is balanced. Statocysts are usually possessed by the medusa stage because that is the
stage usually swimming.

Cnidarians also possess ocelli; organs similar to eyes. Most Cnidarians have very simple eyes.

The class Cubozoa have a cameratized eyes. They have a lens. The cubozoans cannot tell the
stage but they know the direction to go.
Different Classes of Cnidarians
There are five classes:

 Anthozoa – is a different from other Cnidarians only having a polyp stage. There is
no medusa stage. All other have polyp and medusa stage
o Largest class
o Includes sea anemones which are solitary (do not produce colonies)
o No medusa stage
o Both sexual and asexual reproduction in polyp stage
o All are marine
o Some have biradial symmetry
o Make mutualistic and symbiotic relationships with other organisms
 Staurozoa
 Schyphozoa – they include organisms known as true jellyfish. Produce medusa and
polyp stage. They are a small class.
o Small class in terms of number of species
o Extremely abundant in marine environment (all marine)
o True jellyfish
o Asexual polyp stage and sexual medusa stage
o Medusa stage is more prominent than polyp stage
o Some of the largest and more spectacular medusas
o Some jellyfishes such as Nomura’s jellyfish and lion jellyfishes can be 2m in
diameter
 Cubozoa
o Cube (or box) jellyfish
o Medusa form is dominant; polyp form unknown for many cubozoan species
o Sophisticated eye structures
o Number of tentacles
o Chironex fleckeri ‘sea wasp’: produces potent neurotoxin in nematocysts.
Extremely strong venom that attacks the nervous system as well as the
circulatory system. They can also degrade tissues. There are anti-venoms.
o Carukia barnesi: Irukandji syndrome; very tiny (about the size of a
fingernail). The initial sting is like a tiny prick on the skin. In about 20
minutes, symptoms occur. Initially headaches followed by severe muscle
cramps and intense pain throughout the body. No anti-venom. Lasts two days
up to two weeks. Even morphine does very little to alleviate the pain.
 Hydrozoa – they are typically colonial that form polyp. Many of them have a
medusa stage as well as the polyp stage. Some only have polyp stage like the hydra.
o They have many different body types
o Most colonial, each specialized for certain purpose
o Most are marine, few fresh water; all freshwater are Cnidarians are under this
class
 o Asexual polyp stage and sexual medusa stage

Genus Hydra
There are many different species of Hydra. All of them live in fresh water. Hydras are in the
class hydrozoan. They are not typical hydrozoans. They differ from many hydras. Most
hydrazoans live in marines whereas Hydras live in fresh water. Hydra are also solitary. They do
not form colonies. Finally, they do not form a medusa stage which is unusual for hydrozoans.
Most hydrozoans have a sessile polyp that attach to the substrate. Hydras only have the polyp
stage in which sexual and asexual reproduction takes place.

General Structure and Shape of Hydra

Hydras are composed of a number of structures. Most of them have a body stalk. The body
stalk are composed of two cell layers (ectroderm and gastroderm). Ectoderm layer is on the
outside layer and gastroderm on the inside separated by the non-living gelatinous mesoglea layer.
Hydras have a pedal disk to attach to substrates. Another prominent structure in the hydra is a
conical structure on the oral surface of the hydra known as a hypostome. The gastrovascular
cavity fills the entire body stalk and also extends into the tentacles. The inside of the tentacles
are continuous with the gastrovascular cavity.

Types of cells in the epidermis

The most common cell here is the epitheliomuscular cell on the outside of the epidermis. As
their name implies, they serve as the epithelium (outer coating) and muscle cells of the entire
structure. Hydras do not have true muscle cells. Each of these epitheliomuscular cells have an
extension. At the top the cells are flattened on the outer surface of the epidermis. Inside the
epidermis, each muscle has a projection that contains myofibrils. Myofibrils are cellular
structures that allow the cells to function as muscles. The myofibrils run parallel to the main
body of axis to the hydra (oral to the aboral section). Inside the epidermis are number of other
cells such as the sensory cells and the nerve cells that compose the nerve network of the hydra.
The sensory cells in the epidermis are the most common on the mouth, tentacles and the pedal
disk of the hydra. Each sensory cell occur on a single flagellum. These flagella can respond to
biological stimuli such as vibrations and smell stimuli. They can sense salt chemicals in the
water. The sensory cells are connected to the nerve network to the epidermal nerve net. This
allows them to communicate the stimuli to the rest of the hydra body. Another type of the cell
found in the body of the body are known as the interstitial cells. The interstitial cells are
differentiable cells. The interstitial cells could not differential into an epitheliomuscular cells.
The epitheliomuscular cells are formed by other epitheliomuscular cells. The hydra also have
cnidocytes. Also present in the body of the hydra are gland cells. The gland cells are found
around the pedal disk and around the mouth. Gland cells secrete mucous around the mouth and
lubricates the mouth region of the hydra. Gland cells at the bottom of the hydra at the pedal disk
secrete adhesive substances. The adhesive substances allow the hydra to attach to the substrate.

The main type of cells found in the gastrodermis is the nutritive muscle cells. They also possess
an extension containing myofibrils. These myofibrils run perpendicular to the body axis. They
form eccentric rings around the gastrodermis. The numerous muscle fibres allow the hydra to
lengthen. These nutritive muscle cells are weak compared to the epitheliomuscle cells. Each of
the nutritive muscle cells has cilia. These cilia are inwards to the gastrovascular cavities. The
beating of the cilia ensures circulation of the liquids inside the gastrovascular cavity. Cilia also
ensure that the oxygen in the water is also circulated inside the gastrovascular cavity to all the
cells. The gastrodermis have gland cells mainly in the aboral region and around the column of
the hydra. Gland cells secrete mucous and enzymes. These enzymes serve as digestion. The
digestive enzymes are released into the gastrovascular cavity. This is called the extracellular
digestion because this digestion takes place outside the cells in the gastrovascular cavity. Gland
cells also allow intracellular digestion. Once prey organisms have been broken down by
enzymes in extracellular digestion, gland cells in nutritive muscle cells can phagocitize food
particles of the broken down prey. This phagocytosis results in food particles in gland cells
where intracellular digestion takes place. The gastrodermis like epidermis has interstitial cells
that can differentiate to other cells in the gastrodermis. There are also sensory cells in the
gastrodermis.

Nematocysts

Hydras contain three types of nematocysts known as the penetrant, volvent and glutinants.
Penetrant nematocysts are for prey capture (little harpoons that contain poison). The volvent
nematocysts entangle and recoil to cause the organism to appear in the tentacles of the hydra.
The glutinants are for adhesion and locomotion. They do not contain venom. They are
concentrated around the pedal region of the hydra. Hydras, although sessile, can move to some
extent. They accomplish locomotion in three main ways.

Locomotion

They accomplish locomotion in three main ways. Gliding uses the glutinants nematocysts and
mucous is released from the pedal disk. The hydra could also use tentacles for locomotion.
They can connect their tentacles to the substrate. In tumbling, the hydra will flip over and attach
to the substrate to the tentacles and move the pedal disk over. Hydra’s can float using gland cells
around the hydra that can secrete a gas column to attach to the pedal disk.

Feeding in Hydra

They feed on small organisms such as Daphnia. Once the tentacles are in contact with the prey
organisms, the nematocysts are released on the prey organism and the tentacles come together to
bring the prey into the hydra’s mouth. Once inside the gastrovascular cavity, gland cells release
enzymes for digestion. The nutritive muscle cells form the nutrients from the digested prey.
Most are predators. Some hydras are symbiotic. These hydras are known as green hydras. They
get the green colour from the symbiotic algae.

Hydra Reproduction

Hydra’s can reproduce asexually by budding and fragmentation. The interstitial cells will be
forming tissues that can develop into a hydra. Fragmentation means that the hydra can break
down and each piece can grow into a mature organisms.
Hydras can also undergo sexual introduction. Most hydras are dioecious. Dioecious organisms
like the hydra have some individuals as males and others as females. In sexual reproduction,
some organisms will differentiate into males and others into females. Interstitial cells will form
either ovaries and others will form testes. Sperm cells develop inside the testes and once
matured, it will be released in the water. The sperm cells will swim in the water until it finds a
female hydra to fertilize it’s egg. Once the egg is fertilized, it will be a diploid zygote. It will
then secrete a tough outer coating to survive environmental conditions. The cyst allows the
zygote to survive.

Genus Obelia
Unlike the hydra, it is a marine and colonial organism. Unlike the hydra, it has a polyp and
medusa stage. Each colony has a number of individual polyps.

Structure of Obelia

The coenosarcs secretes a protective coating known as a perisarc. It is a chitinous layer. The
colony contains a number of different polyps. A common polyp is known as a hydrant. Another
type of polyp is the gonangium that are reproductive asexual polyps. They produce medusa
buds. Once the medusa buds mature, they will leave the colony in the gonangium known a
gonopore.

Genus Aurelia
It is a schyphazoan.

Coral Reefs
Underwater structures composed of limestone. In the class anthozoa, there are a number of
subclasses. Most corals are in the class hexocoralia. These are colonial organisms, that have
calcium exoskeletons in which the polyps have for production. Most occur in very clear topical
water. The presence of the coral allows to bring in more nutrients.

Corals are ecosystems engineers. They come in diverse shapes and structures. They have a
number of microhabitats. They provide habitats to many different diverse organisms. The algae
in their tissue allows nutrients for the corals. The waste products of the coral are nutrients for the
algae and the waste products of the algae are nutrients for the coral.

Human activities increase soil erosions that kill that corals because the sand covers them. In
many developing countries, dynamite fishing kills the coral. Also cyanide fishing is a poison
that kills the corals. Another issue is climate change, warming water temperature kills corals.
Aceolomates
Platyhelmenthes are the most important aceolomates. They are bilaterally symmetrical animals.
Aceolomates are a nontaxomatic grouping (not closely related) but are in the same grouping as
ceolomates. The characteristic of aceolomates are a lack of a ceolom. Phylum Emersia,
Gastrotriga, platyhelmenthes are aceolomates. Platyhelmenthes are largest aceolomates in the
phylum. Scientists are not sure of emersia are a real aceolomates. There are between three or
four phyla of organisms considered as aceolomates

A ceolom is a cavity and aceolomate lacks a cavity. In this context a ceolom is considered as a
cavity of mesodermal derived cells.

All organisms start like a blastula. A blastula is an oval sphere of cells that make up the
blastoderm. Inside the blastula is a hollow liquid filled space called the blastocoel. For most
animals, except for sponges, the blastula moves to a blastula. During the gastrula stage, the
blastula does an invagination to form the ectroderm. The cells that forms the endoderm will line
the gut cavity of the organisms. The endoderm will be the external covering of the organisms.
All the tissues are derived from the endoderm or the ectoderm of the embryo. Cnidirians and
telphores end their development at this stage, therefore they are diploblastic. For all animals, the
embryo proceeds to a triploblastic gastrula stage. At this stage a third germ layer is developed
derived from the endoderm known as the mesoderm. All triploblastic animals have ectoderm,
endoderm and mesoderm . Depending on how the mesoderm is developed in the blastocoels,
will determine if the animal will be aceolomate, ceolomate or pseudoceolomate.

The mesodermal cells can be organized in three primary ways. In the simplest animals, they fill
the entire blastocoels. Animals that develop this way are aceolomates (do not possess coelum).
In other animals, the mesodermal cells do not fill the entire blastocoels. Instead, in some of
them, they form a layer around the ectoderm but they do not cover the endoderm. This empty
space forms the pseudocoelum. Pseudo means false, so it means that it is a false coelom. It is
not a true coelom because the mesodermal cells do not cover the whole portion of the inner
space. In eucoelomate animals, the mesoderms lines the inner portion of the ectoderm and the
outer potion of the endoderm. These animals are known as the coelom animals.

In the aceolomate there is no cavity in the gut cavity. The gut lined by endodermal derived cells
are the cavity inside the animal. The body between the endoderm and ectoderm are filled by
filler cells derived from the mesoderm. These filler cells are known as parenchyma.

In pseudocoelomate derived animals, the guy forms a cavity that has another cavity known as the
pseudocoel that is lined by mesoderm cell on the outside. The pseudocoel as well as the aceolom
are fluid filled. In the eucoelomate animals have mesodermal cells forming a coating around the
inner part of the ectoderm as well as the inner part of the gut. The gut is also part of the other
parts of the body known as the mesentery (strips of tissues that suspend the gut between the
proximal and distal part). Humans are coelomate type animals. We have a body cavity (gut).
We have it derived by mesodermal cells.
Most of the phylum platylhelmenthes has mostly parasitic animals. They are a fairly old
phylum. There are not many fossilized animals because their bodies do not form very hard
structures. It is thought they are also from the Cambrian period. About 80% of this species are
parasitic.

There are four classes in this phylum and all of them are parasitic. They are a very diverse group
and there are many similarities between platyhelmenthes. They are dorsally flattened (which is a
common characteristic). The ectoderm forms the endoderm; the outer coating of the animal as
well as the sense organs. The endoderm forms the aceotocoel gut lining. The mesoderm forms
the parenchyma as well as some organs (like muscles, reproductive organs and excretory
system). Plathelmenthes are composed of a number of different organisms and have complex
level or organization.

Turberllaria, trematoda, monogenea and cestadoa are the four classes of Platyhelminthes.
Turberllaria has all the free living (non-parasitic) species. The remaining three classes only
contain parasitic organisms. Trematoda are known as flukes and parasitize many animals.
Celstoda are known as tape worms. Monogenea are external parasites. Cephalisation is the
development of a head. They have a head and a tail. The head region is the direction in which
the organism will move and the region in which the most sense organs are centred.

Gut Structure

They possess a gastrovascular cavity. The name itself implies two functions. The gastro part is
responsible in digestion and vascular part is the distribution of food. The guts in the
gastrovasculary cavity are highly branched because the food reaches the cells of the animals by
diffusion. Typically, platyhelminthes has only one opening which is the mouth and the same
place is the anus,

Class cestoda are endoparasites that do not possess a gut. They get nourishment from their outer
coatings. Most platyhelminthes possess has exceptions to the one opening. Some have
numerous mouths. The larger the platyhelminthes is, the more branched their intestines. Unlike
Cnidarians, plathelminthes has a complex nervous system. In most platyhelmenthes, the nervous
system is more organized. They have a cerebral ganlia (an aggregation of neuron cells). The
ganglia function as the brain of the platyhelminthes connected to the rest of the body by nerve
cords. The lateral nerve cords are connected by transverse cords. Platyhelminthes have different
types of neurons in their nervous systems. They have sensory neurons, motor neurons and
association neurons. Association neurons are responsible for connecting the different types of
neurons together.

They possess a number of different sense organs. They possess chemoreceptors (sensitive to
chemicals for taste and smell). They have tactile receptors responsible for touch stimuli. Finally
they have ocelli for that are light sensitive to tell the organism the direction to go. They also
have statocysys (equibrium) and finally rheoreceptors (tells the organism which direction the
organisms are going).
The platyhelminthes do not have a specialized circulatory system. Most nutrients circulated by
gastrovascular cavity. Most are monecious. They are capable of both sexual and asexual
reproduction. They have muscles derived from the mesoderm. The outer skin is a layer of
circular muscles to allow the organism to lengthen. Underneath the circular muscles are
longitudinal muscles to allow the organism to shorten. Using all these muscles, the organisms
are capbable of movement (swim or crawl).

Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is the maintenance of water balance in the organism. The concentration of

solutes of an aquatic organism is usually higher than their environment. Water tends to enter the
organism by osmosis. In many animals, osmoregulation is coupled with excretion. In
platyhelminthes, osmomoregulation is to a small extent coupled by excretion but excretion
largely couples diffusion.

Osmoregulation is accomplished by special organs known as protonephridia and the cubule that
connect the protonephridia together. Compose the lateral side of the animals.

Protonephrida is the simplest part of osmoregulatory structure. It is composed of flame cells and
tube cells. The tube cells are connected to flame cells and other tube cells. The flame cells have
a number of flagella and cilia in some cases that look like a flame. The beating of the flagella or
cilia causes the water to move forward of the tube cell. Water moving forward causes lower
pressure. Water inside the organism enters the flame cells to alleviate lower pressure.
Class Tubellaria
There are three major orders, The Macrostomida, Polycladida, and tricladida(planarian) are
three classes of tubellarians.

The class in general has about 4500 species. Most of them are marine species. There are a few
freshwater and marine species. 15% of platyhelminthes are in this class. Most of them are free
living. Five percent of tuberlarians are free living (not parasitic). The fresh water and marine
species are benthic. Benthic are organisms that live in the bottom of the water surface. They are
mostly benthic.

They have eye spots (ocelli). They also have chemical, mechanical and pressure sensors. They
also have statocysts, which are responsible for acceleration. Many of their sensory structures
have auricles. The auricles are little bear-like structures where many chemical sensors are
concentrated. It lets them co-ordinate direction for their prey. Most of them are motile (move
around).

Locomotion

Locomotion is achieved in many different ways. They use ciliary movement. They have many
mucous glands that secrete mucous, and use their cilia to move on the mucous track to “glide”.
Larger tubellarians in addition to cilary movement use musculary movement. The dual gland
organs are composed of three types of cells: anchor cells (to attach organism to substrate), viscid
(to move and release gland cells). Viscid gland cells release a gel-like substance that glues the
anchor cells to the organism. Aquatic tubellarians can swim. They can use the ciliary movement
(small tubellarians) and large tubellarians can use their muscles to swim.

Feeding/Digestion

Most of them are active carnivores to move around in search of their preys. Most tubellarians
are the most active carnivores. Majority of them are predators, some are detrivore (decompose
organic compounds) and herbivores. Tubellarians have symbiotic algae. These algae generate
nourishment to the organism. Feeding is done by a protrusible pharynx. The pharyngeal
chamber opens the mouth. When the organism wants to feed, it protrudes it’s pharynx to it’s
mouth. Food that goes through the pharynx enters the gastrovascular cavity. The gastrovascular
cavity of tubellarian have a number of intestines. Planarians members of the order tricladana
have three intestines. The anterior side of the intestine and the two lateral sides of the intestines.
Each branch of the intestine have branches. These branches are diverticula for system.
Nourishment reaches the rest of the organism of the guy via diffusion.

Once food is ingested, cells lining the gastrovascular cavity release proteolytic enzymes onto the
food ingested. The enzymes begin extracellular digestion of the food. The gastrovascular cavity
is also lined with phagocytic cells. Once the proteolytic enzymes have broken down the food,
the phagocytic cells take up the particles through phagocytosis and begin intracellular digestion.
Once the food is broken down into nutrient molecules, they can be diffused to the rest of the
body.
Reproduction in Tubellarians

Planarians are a subgroup in class tubellarians. They have asexual and sexual reproduction.
Plnarians and other tubellarians can asexually reproduce by transverse fission. They simply
constrict the pharynx, the body separates and each part of the body re-grows the missing pieces.
They have the ability to re-grow into a complete individual no matter how many pieces they are
cut into.

There are three orders of tubellarians. Tubellarians are monecious. The Macrostomida,
Polycladida, and tricladida are three classes of tubellarians. The macrostimida and polycadida
possess ectolecithal eggs and the ticladida possess endolecithal eggs. The male sex organs
include one or more testis and ducts that connect the testis to the penis. These ducts are called
vas deferens and seminal vesicles. Female sex organs include ovaries (where eggs are
generated), the oviducts (connects ovaries to vagina), the vitellaria (secretes yoke cells) and the
vagina. The penis and vagina open through the same pore known as the genital pore. Eggs in
tubellarians come in endo- and ecto-lecithal eggs. In endolecithal eggs, the yoke comes inside
the egg cell. In ectolecithal eggs, there are very little yoke cells. The yoke is supplied by the
vitellaria that produces specialized the yoke cell. The yoke cells provide nourishment for the
developing embryo. Macrostimida and polycladida have endo and ectolecithal eggs.

All other tubellarians have ectolecithal eggs. Fertilization of tubellarians are internal. The sperm
fertilizes the egg on the inside of the body. Planarians are in the order tricladida in the class
tubellarians.

Female Parts

They may have one or more ovaries. The ovaries are connected by the other structures by an
oviduct. The structure connects to the vitellaria and the vagina. The vitellaria secrete yoke cells.
The vagina opens from the genital pore through the outside. The seminal vesicle stores sperm
cells from the male.

Male Parts

There are one or more testis connected to each other by the vas deferens. The testis is connected
to the penis via, the seminal vesicles. The penis opens to the outside by the genital pore. When
two individuals copulate, the one acting like the male release their sperm cells. These sperm
cells will enter and inter the seminal vesicle acting as the females. The sperm will travel up the
oviduct to the ovary. Once the egg is fertilized, it will move from the oviduct. Yoke cells will
provide nourishment to the fertilized egg. The yoke and eggs will be enveloped by an egg cell.
Then it will be released through the vagina via the genital pore. It is very uncommon for
planarians to fertilize them cells. Once the cells are released, they could hatch into a premature
adult or into a marine or aquatic forms become a ciliated larva.
Class Cestoda (commonly tapeworms)
All tapeworms are endoparasites. All 1000 or species of cestodes are endoparasites. Pretty
much all species of vertibrates are paracitised by a particular species of tape worms. Some are
specific of their tape worms, some are more general. Cestoda has a definitive or primary host
that lives and undergoes sexual reproduction. The secondary host is where the juveniles develop.
The humans are the definitive host.

Tapeworms are unusual by number of characteristics:

1. Syncytial tegument

 They are composed of a number of cells that continues as a cytoplasm. The

cytoplasms of the cells are interconnected.

 Allows them to withstand attacks by the immune system of the host

 Do not possess cilia or flagella

 Cell body of tegument are below muscle cells (this implies that the cells forming
the tegument in cestodes are mesodermally derived. The cells of the epidermis
are shed during the life cycles and the adults have the syncytial teguments derived
by the mesoderm cells.

2. Scolex – used to attach the rest of the body (strobula that is the rest of the body). They
have suckes that allows the tapeworms to attach to the small intestines of the host. Most
cestodes have a scolex. The body below the scolex have proglottids.

3. Proglottids – they are repeating structures that are reproductive. The ones at the back are
larger and the ones close to the scolex are smaller. The first proglottid forms the small
body. As it matures and gets larger, another proglottid buds at the neck. The proglottids
closest to the scolex are youngest and the proglottids furthest away from the scolex are
the oldest. Depending on the species, they can be 3 to 5 mm across. Each proglottid
contains both female and male structures (testis and ovaries). The entire body has
repeating reproductive organs. Proglottids can cross-fertilize through the genital pore.
Even though cross-fertilization are typical, cell fertilization are not uncommon. Once a
proglittid has been fertilized, it is known as a gravid proglottid. Gravid proglottid
eventually either burst releasing eggs (which are left through feces) or the proglottids
may break off containing eggs releasing new feces or can crawl out the anus of the host.
Most of the proglottid are occupied by testis. The testis are connected to genital pore via
sperm duct. The vagina is also connected to the genital pore that are connected to the
oviducts. Just like tubellarians, cestodes have vitellaria that are genital gland.

4. Absence (loss) digestive tract – all nourishment are absorbed by the tegument.

Class Trematoda
All the 6000 or so species of Tremadota are parasitic. They have life cycles of two or more
hosts. They have multiple life stages that undergo sexual and asexual life stages. The anatomy
of the adults resemble tubellaria. The major difference between Trematoda and tubellaria is that
the adult trematodes possess a syncitial tegument (composed of interconnected cells). The outer
coating of trematodes are composed of continuous layer of cytoplasm. The class trematoda are
divided to two small subclasses. The smaller of the subclass is aspidogastrea and the larger of
the subclass diginea. The aspidogastrea is a small and not well known class. It includes about
100 species and they particularly parasitize snails and in some cases fish. Their life cycles are
not well known. The subclass diginea includes all the rest 6000 species of trematodes. It
includes 10 or 12 species of trematodes that parasitize humans. They parasitize all types of
vertibrates and many mollusks.

Anatomy of Diginea Fluke

Chlonorchis sinenesis aka human liver fluke parasitize humans. They have specific adaptations
to the parasitic life cycles. They have anterior and ventral suckers that allow the adults to attach
to its host.

Non-reproductive Parts

 The suckers are at the anterior part of the animal and the mouth opens through the
anterior sucker. The ventral sucker is found medially throughout the animal. The ventral
sucker is a blind sucker, unlike the oral sucker, there is no connection to inside of the
animal. The oral sucker connects to the mouth leading to the muscular pharynx. The
food from the mouth goes to the pharynx, to the tubes to the intestinal branching.
 They feed on the body of their bile produced by the liver, others feed on mucous of the
excretory host of species.

Male reproductive Structures:

The male reproductive system consists of two or more testis at the posterior side of the animal.
One at the anterior of the testis and one to the posterior of the testis. The testis are connected to
each other via sperm ducts. The sperm from the testis travel to the sperm duct, to the vas
deferens from there to the seminal vesicle and then leave the body through the gonopore.

Female Reproductive Structures:

They have ovaries where the eggs are produced. The ovaries are connected to the seminal
receptacle where sperm are temporarily stored. The ovary is also connected to the vitellaria.
Trematodes are ectolethical platyhelyminthes. They have specific structures called vitellaria
called yoke cells. The vitellaria are connected to the rest of the reproductive system via vitelline
duct. All these ducts proceeds towards the uterus that make up the central part of the animal.
The uterus opens to the outside through the gonopore. Some trematodes are monecious and
other are diecious. When two monoecious trematodes mate, the one acting as a male injects
sperm to the female through the lower laurer’s canal and is temporily stored to the seminal
recepaticles. From the seminal receptacle it goes to the ovary. Here it fertilizes the egg
combining genetic information from both parents. The egg then goes to the uterus. On it’s way
to the uterus the fertilized egg is drawn by yoke cells produced by the vitellia. As it passes the
yoke cell, a shell is formed. Once the egg is mature, the eggs are expelled through the gonopore.

Life Cycle

There are up to four different intermediate hosts. Typically, the first intermediate host is a
mollusk (usually a snail). The intermediate host of a parasite is asexual stages. The definitive
host holds the sexual stages of the life cycle (typically adults). Trematodes have between one
and three intermediate host and one definitive host. The definitive host is usually a vertebrate
like a human. There are typically six stages of the life cycle. Some species have less than six
stages of the life cycle.

Once an adult sexually reproduces an egg, the egg contains a miracidium. A miracidium is a
ciliated preliving larva. If the egg hatches in the water, the miracidium swims through the water
until it counters its first intermediate host. In some species, the intermediate host ingests the egg
and the miracidium hatches inside the host. Once inside host, the miracidium develops into a
sporocyst. A sporocyst is an asexually reproductive structure. They can produce more sprocyst
or develop into a redia. The redia is different from a sporocyst and has a simple digestive
system. The redia under another cycle of asexual reproduction either produce more redia or goes
on to the next life stage known as the cercaria. The cercaria is a motile stage and have a tad-pole
like tail to move around. Typically cercaria will leave the first intermediate host by burring into
the tissue of the host. It will swim in the water until it finds a definitive or second intermediate
host. If it finds a second intermediate host, it will cyst and form a metacercaria. The
metacercaria will remain dormant (usually in the muscle tissue) until a definitive eats the second
intermediate host. At this stage, the cyst around the metacercaria will dissolve and the juvenile
adult will emerge from the cyst and migrate through its definitive host to its final place. There it
will transform into an adult and undergo sexual reproduction.

Clonorchis sinensis life cycle

The adults reside in the bile passage of humans. There they feed on bile and undergo sexual
reproduction. They are monecious and do cross-fertilization. Once the eggs are produced in the
uterus of the individual of the male, they release from the adults through the feces of the host.
The snail ingests the egg from an aquatic environment and the eggs hatches into a miracidium.
The miracidium travels to the digestive system of the snail and becomes a sporocyst. This
sporocyst undergoes asexual reproduction to produce redia. Once the redia mature, they are
released from the sporocyst and migrate to the liver of the snail. Redia has a pharynx and a
simple excretory systems. Inside the liver of the cell, the redia undergoe asexual reproduction
and become cercaria. The cercaria bur through the body of the snail and swim through the water.
They will swim through the water until they can penetrate the skin of the carp. In the muscle
tissue of the carp will be the place where they reside. If a human or similar mammal eats the
undercooked fish, the cyst around the metacaria will dissolve in the stomoach and migrate up
where they will develop into the adults and the cycle repeats. About 200,000 people are infected.
It is common in Asia.

Leucochloridium
They have two hosts. The intermediate host a terrestrial snail and a definitive bird. There is no
redia or metacircaria stage in their life cycle. The cercaria develops directly from the sporocyst.
The sporocyst of this is highly branched.

The life cycle starts when the snail ingests an egg. The miracidium hatches from the egg and
develops into a digestive system of the snail will they will develop into a highly branch
sporocyst. The sporocyst develops in the brood chambers. Inside the brood chamber, immature
cercaria are formed. Once the brood chamber mature, they protrude through the head and the
tentacles of the snail. The brood chambers have green and sometimes yellow stripes in them.
They can change the behavior of the snail. Snails infected from this seek out light areas. The
combination of coming out to visible areas and the tentacles make birds think they are worms.
Once the cercaria are ingested by the worm, they develop into juvenile adults and develop in the
cloaca of birds. The leuchloridium is not interested in killing the snail because the longer it
survives, the more it can infect other hosts.

Himasthla life cycle

It has one definitive host (usually a seabird) and two intermediate host (both mollusc) The first
intermediate host is a California corn snail and the other is a different type of snail. The adults
reside in the gut passage of the sea bird and undergo sexual reproduction. The eggs are released
through bird droppings. If it goes to the water, the miracidium swims in the water until it finds
it’s first host. It penetrates through the corn snail through the manhole and migrates to the
gonad. In the gonad, sporocyst develops and produces into a redia. The redia contains a number
of cercaria. The cercaria are released through the body of the snail and enter the sea water until
it encounters a second intermediate host. They penetrate the second intermediate host and form
metacircaria. The metaciracia remain dormant until the second intermediate host is eaten by a
sea bird. The sea bird ingests the metaciracia and it develops into an adult.

The first intermediate host can be infected by the same colony of the Himasthla. It can remain in
the snail for a long time. The trematode life stages can be thought of a large colony. They can
be numerous in the snail and can weight almost to half of the snail.

Redia

They can come in two morphs. The primary morphs look different from secondary morphs.
They are large fat and do not move around very much. Secondary are small, thin and large
pharynx. The secondary morph is motile. They also have very different functions. The primary
fat morphs are responsible for asexual reproduction. The secondary morphs are involved in
defense. Primary morphs never transform into secondary morphs and vice versa. They will be
whatever redia they are for life. The secondary morph defends the snail from other species of
trematodes trying to parasitize snails.

Phylum Nematoda
They are commonly called round worms. They are extremely widespread and abundant. They
can get rid of all the matter of the planet excluding nematodes and you can still see the outline of
the world. They are free living. They can be terrestrial, marine or aquatic. Nematode’s are one
of the most important parasites. Elephantitis is a nematode causing disease. The African eye
worm is also a human parasite common in Africa. Along with river blindness which is another
Nematode parasite.

Pseudocoelomate
There are 9 phyla. They are all triploblastic. The distribution of the mesoderm of the adult
animal determines if they are pseudo or acoelom animals. In eucoelomates, mesodermal cells
line the inside of the ectodermal layer and inside of the gut cavity. They are connected to the
body wall via sheets of tissues known as mesentery. In pseudocoelomate such as nematode,
mesodermal cells only line the inside of the ectoderm. Nematodes are the larges phylum of the
pseudocoelomate animals. They are an informal grouping of animals that are pseudocoelomate.
Not all pseudocoelomate are not closely related, therefore they are not a taxonomic grouping.

Ecdysozoan

Nematodes are in this group. They include a large group of vertebrates. They possess a non-
living cuticle outside of the body. They have to periodically moult their cuticle so they can grow
and then re-grow a new cuticle. They are a monophyletic grouping.

• Moult their cuticle (ecdysis)

Eutely

It is believed that each species of nematode have a certain number of cells. All members of a
species of nematode have the same number of cells. This implies that they can only grow by
enlargement of cells. They have predetermined number of cells when they are born. It is a very
unusual characteristic.

Longitudinal muscles only

Their muscles are from the anterior to the posterior end of the animal. Most other worm like
animals have circular muscles.

Lack of motile cilia and flagella

Most nematodes do not possess cilia and flagella. Even their sperm does not have a flagellum,
they have an amoeboid characteristic.

Pseudocoel
The cross-section of the body of a nematode has a cuticle. The pseudocoel in living organisms
are filled with pseudocenomic fluid. The animal is rigid because they have high hydrostatic
structure. The cuticle prevents the animal from bursting. Pseudocenomic fluid provides the
hydrostatic skeleton to maintain shape and movement. When longitudinal muscles contract, the
animal bends. Since nematodes lack circulatory or respiratory structure, the pseudocoel acts like
this. Nutrients are circulated by the pseudocenomic fluid.

Anatomy

Most nematodes are small. Some of them can be large such as the parasitic nematode found in
whales. Some nematodes in humans could be 5-10cm. Generally, they are fairly small. Despind
cylindrical body, their organs are bilaterally symmetrical. They are triploblastic.

The cuticle is a non-living layer. It is made up of collagen fibres (structural proteins). The
cuticle is secreted by the hypodermis (it is called this because it is below the cuticle). It is just
like the epidermis. The living type of epidermis is derived from the ectoderm of the embryo.
The teguments are syncicial. The cells of the cytoplasm are interconnected. The nuclei are
organized into four hypodermal cords. The lateral hypodermal cords, one ventral and one dorsal
cord. There are no cilium or flagellum. The animal has to be moved around by using their
longitudinal muscles. There is coordination of muscle contraction and their hydrostatic skeleton.
The longitudinal muscles have an unusual organization. Each of the muscles are composed of
two portions, a fibular portion and the cell body portion. It is the cell body that possess the
protoplasmic or cytoplasmic extension (processes). These processes in the body of each muscle
cells extend to the dorsal and hypodermal cords. Each contain a single nerve cord. Each muscle
cell are connected to the nerve cord. In nematodes, the muscle cells extend to the nerve cells.

Feeding/digestion

They can be broken down to free-living or parasitic group. Most are free-living. Free-living
nematodes feed on nutrients from soil, yeast, fungi, other nematode, water bearers etc. Most
free-living nematodes feed on bacteria. Depending on their mouth parts, they are specialized.
Parasitic nematodes feed on the tissues or on the body fluids. Parasitic nematodes of plants feed
on the tissues of the plants.

Most animals have a gastrovascular cavity that has one opening that has a mouth and anus.
Nematodes have a mouth, intestine and separate opening called an anus. They have a complete
digestive system that can either neutrostomes or protostomes. Nematodes are protastomes and
they develop in the mouth. The blastopore in the nematode form the mouth. Eventually the
embryonic gut start bending in one side and form an opening of the ectoderm and become an
anus. In neutrostomic animals, the opening of the mouth and anus will form from another
portion of the embryo.

The digestive system are formed from the epidermal germ layer. The digestive system has a
mouth at the anterior end of the body connected to the muscular pharynx that is connected to the
enzyme. Then they connect to the rectum posteriorly and they open outside to the anus. When
the animal wants to eat, it opens its mouth and sucks the organism into its mouth. The mouth
then closes and contracts anteriorly, pushing the food into its intestine. The cells secrete
enzymes on the food and extracellular digestion begins. The food particles break down and are
big enough for phagocytic cells. Then intracellular digestion begins inside of the lining of the
gut. The nutrients are then distributed to the rest of the animal using the pseudocelomic fluid.
Undigested remains are secreted through the anus.

There is no specialized or gas exchange organs. Gas exchange happens through the cuticle. Gas
oxygen exchange circulate to the other organism using the pseudocelomic fluid. The excretory
organs of nematodes do not have prodefredia. They are made up of gland cells.

The nervous system is composed of pair of ganglia that surrounds the pharynx dorsally and
ventrally. The ganglia extend through the nerve cords from the ventral and dorsal nerve cords.
They can respond to a number of stimuli that can respond to the environment. The sensory
structures are sensory papillae that are finger-like projections around the mouth and anus. They
are sensitive to touch. Other prominent sense organs are amphids and phasmid. They have a
modified cilia that have chemical receptors in them. Amphids occur in free-living nematodes (in
the head region). Phasmids are more typical in parasitic animals (in the exterior).

Reproduction / development

Most nematodes are dioecious. Typically the female is larger than the male. Fertilization is
internal (egg occurs inside the female). Females either release egg or they give birth to live
young. The eggs hatch into a small tiny nematode in the juvenile stage. There are four juvenile
stages. Each stage is separate by endysis (shedding of cuticle). At the end of each stage, molting
occurs. Producing a larger nematode at each stage.

Caenorhabditis elegans

It is a small and free-living model organism. They are the first animal to be gene sequenced.
They are eutely. The entire nervous system is mapped.

Parasitic nematodes

Most species carry one species of nematodes and humans carry more than a dozen species of
parasitic nematodes. They can block the nutrient transmission from the host. The migration of
the body of the host do tissue damage.

Hookworms

They have cutting plates as teeth. They attach their teeth to the small intestine and suck the blood
of the host. They typically feed on the blood of the host sucking on the intestinal lining. They
do not usually kill the host but they cause horrendous symptoms. They cause anemia, abdominal
pain and development of retardation of children. Pregnant women with children will have
premature children. About 1/10th of the population in the world are affected by hookworms. It is
done by poor sanitation.

Life Cycle
They live in the small intestine of the host. They produce thousands of eggs. They are deposited
by the feces. Then they are found on the ground in developing countries that lack sewage
system. These eggs have three stages outside the host. The third stage is the infectal stage.
They feed on the skin of the host of the feet and skin of the person. They burrow and end up to
the circulatory system. They transport from the microcappilaries to the alveoli. They crawl up
the trachea and then go down the esophagus. They pass through the stomach unharmed and go
to the intestine. They then attach to the intestine. They can attach for five years. Each female
can produce up to 30,000 eggs a day.

Filarial worms

Name implies they are thick and threadlike. They have two hosts which are an intermediate host
(which can be a mosquito or a blackfly) and a definitive host like a mammal or bird. They adults
of filarial worms live in the circulatory system or the lymphatic system. They can live in the
blood vessels.

Wuchereria bancrofti

They can cause elephantiasis. The worms migrate to the lymphatic system and are present in the
lymph nodes. They cause severe tissue scarring. The juveniles migrate out of the lymph system
to the circulatory system. During the day time, they are found in the deep veins and arteries in
the body. In the night, they migrate to the peripheral environment of the skin. This is because
the mosquitoes bite at night, so they can infect the mosquitoes to have them as intermediate host.

Wolbachia is a symbiotic bacteria that the nematodes carry. It is believed that the symptoms of
elephantiasis is by the wolbachia.

Life Cycle

It begins when a mosquito ingests the nematodes (microfilaria). These nematodes migrate to the
hemocelum of the mosquito undergoes growth. When the mosquito bites the host, it migrates to
the lymphatic system and migrates to the lymph nodes around the lymph. They undergo mating
and give birth to live juveniles. The microfilaria migrate to the blood vessels and go to the
mosquitos.

Onchocerca volvulus cause river blindness. There are 40 million infected. Intermediate hosts are
blackflies blackflies. The larvae migrate to eyes

Dirofilaria immitis are dog heartworms. Their intermediate hosts are mosquitoes