Subkingdom Protozoa

The subkingdom protozoa contains a diverse group of microscopic animals, which are founnd
only in watery or moist places-the sea, freshwater, soil, body fluid, etc. Protozoans are the most
primitive and perhaps, the simplest in the Animal Kingdom; hence protozoa, meaning "First animal".

Characteristics
1. Protozoa are unicellular animals. No germ layer present. The single celled
protozoan is functionally equivalent to the whole multicellular animal and not to
one of its components cells.
2.Protozoa are at the protoplasmic level of organization because they do not
possess organs or tissues but specialized portions of the cytoplasm called
ORGANNELS,which carry out particular functions performed by organs in
multicellular organisms. Examples of such organelles are nucleus (single or
multiples), mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, cilia, flagella,
contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles, trichocysts,etc
3.Protozoa are mostly microscopic although some are large enough to be seen
with the unaided eye. Some are colonial and some have multicellular stages in
their life cycles. All symmetries (bilaterial, radial) are present in protozoa and the
shape could be variable or constant (oval,spherical)
4.Protozoa are found wherever life exists. They are highly adaptable and easily
distributed from place to place. They require moisture whether they live freely in
marine or freshwater habitats, soils, decaying organic matter or plants and
animals. Some are symbiotic, mutualisitic or commensalistic. They may be
sessile or free swimming and form a large part of the floating plankton.
Sporozoans are entirely parasitic. Locomotion is by pseudopodia,,flagella and
cilia. Most are naked but some have simple endoskeleton or exoskeleton.
5. Protozoa exhibit all types of nutrition. Some are autotrophs-manufacture their
 Protoz00
own nutrients by photosynthesis;
heterotrophs-feed on other organisms or on
food manufactured by other organisms e.g.
Amoeba,Paramecium. Among the
heterotrophs, some ingest visible or solid
particles of food (phagotrophs or holozoic
feeders), e.g. Amoeba feeds on
diatoms,Plasmodium on haemoglobin in
human blood, Paramecium with mouth or
cytostome for feeding,their food digested
inside food vacuoles. Heterotrophic protozoa
ingest or absorb food in a soluble form
through cell membrane (osmotrophs or
saprozoic feeders) e.g. Trypanosoma
(parasite of man), Opalina (parasite of toads),
Trichonympha (parasite of termites).
6.Protozoa reproduce asexually by binary
fission,multiple fission and budding. The
most common type of fission is binary, in
which two identical individuals result. Binary
fission is preceded by nuclear division so
that each daughter cell has the full genetic
complements of the mother cell. In budding
which is common in ciliates, the progeny cell
is considerably smaller than the parent,
hence must grow to adult size. In multiple
fission (schizogony) division of cytoplasm
(cytokinesis) is preceded by number of
individuals are produced simultaneously.
This type of fission is common among
sporozoa and sarcodina. If multiple fission is
preceded by or associated with gamete
clicon, it is known as sporogony. Sexual
reproduction is common in protozoa and is
usually followed by binary fission. No
embryonic development. Two forms of
sexual reproduction occur
i. Conjugation e.g. in Paramecium
a) Conjugants come together by their oral
surface; macronucleus begins to breakdown;
b) Micronucleus undergoes meiosis each
producing 4 daughter nuclei;
c) Three of the meiotic micronuclei
disintegrate;
d) The remaining micronucleus divides once
to produce two gamete nuclei in each
conjugant;
Introductory
e) Conjugants exchange a single gamete nucleus;
1) Stationary gamete nucleus and migratory gamete
nucleus fuse in each conjugant to form two zygote
nuclei while the macronucleus is still disintegrating;
g) Zygote nucleus of each conjugant divides once to
produce two nuclei while the conjugant separate. By
this time the macronucleus has completely
disintegrated;
In each ex-conjugant binary fission occurs as
each nucleus divides once more to form one
micronucleus and one macronucleus.
ii. Autogamy: The macronucleus and
micronucleus behave as in conjugation except
that there are no conjugants as a result, gametic
nuclei produced by meiosis fuse to form a
zygote within the same organism that produced
them.
7.Encystment, to withstand adverse
environmental conditions is an important
adaptation in many protozoa. In forming a cyst,
the organism secretes a thickened envelope
about itself and becomes inactive. Reproductive
phases such as fission, budding and syngamy
may occur in cysts of some species especially
parasitic forms.
8.Freshwater protozoans have contractile
vacuales for the elimination of excess water that
has entered the cytoplasm by osmosis. Gas
exchange occurs by diffusion across the cell
membrane. Metabolic wastes diffuse to the
outside of the organism through the membrane.
Ammonia is the major nitrogenous waste.
9. Protozoa play a large .role in the economy of
nature. They have produced gigantic ocean soil
deposits over millions of years by their
skeletons. They have formed interesting
relationship such as symbiosis, mutualism,
commensalism
and parasitism with animals and plants. Parasitic
protozoa cause some of the most important
diseases of human and domestic animals e.g.
malaria, sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis),
coccidiosis kala-zar (leishmaniasis) &
toxoplasmosis (can be very serious in AIDS
patients;
 Subkingdom
Prolozoa
loxoplasmosis increases the chances of
birth defect in babies); amoebic
dysentery,flagellate·diarrhea,trichomor-
iasis (vaginitis).
Classification Of Protozoan Phyla
The fourmain groups of protozoa traditionally
recognized were the flagellates, amoebas, spore
fòrmers, and ciliates. The system that follows
reflects a much more phylogenetic arrangement,
including the recognition that amoebas and
flagellates are more closely related to each other
than they are to other groups, and that the "spore
formers" represent several completely unrelated
fomis.,This taxonomy continues to follow the
principles of evolutionary taxonomy rather than
cladistic taxonomy.
Kingdom Protista' (pro-tees'ta) (Gr. protistos,
first of all).Single-celled eukaryotes
and their immediate descendants (for.
example, multicellular algae).
Subkingdom Protozoa' (pro-to-zo'a) (Gr. protos,
first, primary;+ zoon, animal). Animal-like
protistans.
Introductory
Zoology
unequal flagella,Chlamydomonas with two equal
flagella.Many are sessile; others are colonial.Parasitic
flagellates are the cause of some of the deadliest
diseases of man and his domestic animals. Examples
include Trypanosoma which causes African sleeping
sickness; Trichonympha-aids digestion of wood materials
in the gut of termites and wood roaches.
Flagellates consist of two groups
a) Phytomastigophorea (phytoflagellates) which are plant
like and have chloro-plasts so are autotrophic.
b) Zoomastigophorea (Zooflagellates) which are animal
like and lack chloroplasts, so are heterotrophic (holozoic
or saprozoic).
Class Phytomastigophorea' (fi'to-mas-ti-go-for'e-a)
(Gr.phyton,plant, +mastix, whip,+ phora, bearing).
Plantlike flagellates, usually bearing chromoplasts
(pigment-bearing bodies; chromoplasts with chlorophyll
are chloroplasts), which contain
chlorophyll.Examples:Volvox,Chilomonas, Euglena,
Ceratium,Peranema,Noctiluca.

/Phylum Sarcomastigophora' (sar'ko-mas-ti-gofo-

ra)(Gr. sarkos, flesh, +mastix, whip, + phora,
bearing). Flagella,pseudopodia, or both types of
locomotory organelles; usually with only one type
of nucleus; typically no spore formation;
sexuality, when present, essentially syngamy.

Subphylum Mastigophora' (mas-ti-gof'o-ra) (Gr.

mastix, whip, + phora, bearing).is a large and varied Ceratium Ptychodiscus Noctiluca
group. It includes all protozoans which possess one
or more FLAGELLA as adult locomotory organelle.A
thin pellicle gives flagellates a definitive shape.
Nuclei, if more than one, are of one typè.
Flagellates reproduce asexually by longitudinal
binary fission while sexual reproduction involves the
fusion of gametes or two adults and is not followed by
abundant spore formation.
Most flagellates are solitary and free-living An
example is Euglena, with two Gonium Eudorina

Figure 2.1 Some phytoflagellate protozoa


A Representative Phytomastigophorea
Euglena
Euglena is a representative phytomastigo-phorea
which is easily found in stagnant water, especially
pond containing high percentage of nitrogenous
matter derived from organic sources.
vacuoles and the contractile vacuole. Excess
water is eliminated thus; excess water in the
endoplasm is passed into the accessory,vacuoles,
which in turn empty into the contractile vacuole.
When the contractile vacuole enfarges to its
maximum size, t contracts to þáss the water into
the gullet which then sends it out to the exterior.
Reproduction: This involves simple longitudinal
blnary fission, commencing at the anterior ends,
after 'the loss of flagellum, and terminating at the
ppsterior end. No sexual fusion has ,beèn
observed in Euglena.

Ciass Zoomastigophorea (zo'o-mas-ti-go-for'e-

a) (Gr. zoon, animal, + mastix, whip, + phora,
bearing). Flagellates without chromoplasts; one
to many flagella; ameboid forms with or without
flagella in some groups; species predominantly
symbiotic. E.g Trichomonas, Trichonympha,
Ciass Zoomastigophorea (zo'o-mas-ti-go-for'e-
Figure 2.2 Euglena viridis a) (Gr. zoon, animal, + mastix, whip, + phora,
bearing). Flagellates without chromoplasts; one
Structure: The endoplasm contains the
following:
a) Nucleus
b) Chloroplast, containing the chlorophyll
c) Paramylum granules (starch-like food
reserve) Trichomonas sp. Trichonympha sp
d) Eyespot stigma
e) Contractile vacuole and accessory
vacuoles

Locomotion: This is done by the contraction

and.relaxation (lashing)·of the flagellum,
which acts like the propeller of a ship or a
plane.
Nutrition: The mode of nutrition is holophytic
which involves photosynthesis by means of
the chloroplast. If the surrounding water or
fluid isrich in dissolved organic material or in ·Giardia lamblia Trypanosoma sp
a dark environment where chloroplast cannot
function, food substance in solution is
absorbed in a saprophytic manner.
Respiration and Excretion: Gaseous
exchange for respiration takes place by
diffusion through the general body surface.
Excretory products also diffuse outwards
from the body surface.
Osmoregulation: Water content is regulated Spirotrichonympha sp.
by the action of the accessory Figure 2.3 Some zooflagellate protozoa
 opaline, like opal in appearance, +ata, group suffix)- Introduclory
Body dovered with longitudinal rows of cilium-llke
organelles; parasitic; cylostome (cell mouth) lacking;
two to many nuclei of ohe ype. Examples: Opalina,
Protoopalina.

Difflugla sp. Actinosphaerium

(Testate Amoeba)

Acanthometra Elphidium sp.

(Radiolarian) (Foraminlfera)

Figure 2.4 Opalina sp

Subphylum Sarcodina (sar-ko-di'na) (Gr. sarkos, flesh,

+ina, belonging to).
Globerina sp. Clathrulina sp.
Pseudopodia:typically present; flagella present in
developmental stages of some; free living or
parasitic.
This group Includes all protozoans which possess
pseudopodia (flowering extensions of cytoplasm) df.óne
type or the other (e.g. lobopodia and filopodia) as adult
locomotory organelles. The body form is unstable owing :
Pseudopodia can be formed in any position on the
periphery and can be withdrawn into the main mass.. of
the cell. Many have complex skeletons (shells or test) e.g.
Arcella and Amoeba proteus with lobopodia;
Actinosphaerium with needle-like axopodia or filopodia. Actinophrys sp. Arcella sp.
Most memberg are free-living and occur in
Figure 2.5 Some sarcodine protozoa
freshwater, thë seas and the soil e.g. Amoeba.Some
sarcodines, e.g. Entamoeba are parasitic. There is only A representative Sarcodina: Amoeba
one nucleus but if more than one, they are alike.
proteus
Sarcodinas possess fewer organelles than flagellates,
and they are therefore often regarded as the simplest Amoeba proteus is found creeping on
protozoans. mud surfaces in fresh water ponds and
stagnant pools of water.

Figure 2.6 Amoeba proteus

 Subkingdom
Protozoa
Structure:- The protoplasm consists of two
layers; (i) ectoplasm (outer, layer), (ii)
endoplasm (inner layer) in which granules
are continuously moving. Inside the
endoplasm are, found; the contractile
vacuole, the nucleus and one or more food
vacuoles.
Locomotion:- It moves by meàns of the
pseudopodia which is a temporary
protrusion of the cytoplasm. It is generally
known as:the amoeboid movement.
Nutrition: The free livingAmoëba is
holozoic. Its food consists of bacteria;
algae, protozoans, diatoms, nematodes
'and rotifers. The pseudopodia engulf the
prey along with a drop of water to·form a
food vacuole. Digestion takes place within
the food vacuoles. Enzymes are secreted
into the vacuoles.Digested food is
absorbed into the cytoplasm and the
vacuole becomes smaller. The undigested
remnants are removed through a
temporàry anùs at the posterior end as the
animal moves away.
Respiration: Gaseous exchange for
respiration is through the body surface by
diffusion across the ectoplasm.
Osmoregulation: The contractile vacudle
collects excess water entering the
protoplasm and periodically collapses, to
expel its content, through any partiofthe
body surface.
Excretion: Nitrogenous waste materials
pass into solution and diffuse outwards
through the ectoplasm.
Reproduction: Amoeba reproduces entirely
by asexual methods. There,are two
possible modes of division.
(a) Binary fission: This takes place under
favourable conditions. The nuclear
membra-ne divides by mitotic division,
after which the nucleus elongates and
separates followed by division of the
cytoplasm to produce two daughter
amoebae.
(b) Multiple fission (spore formation): This
occurs under adverse conditions such as
starvation and unfavourable environmental
conditions due to seasonal changes. . The
amoeba produces an outer cyst wall
around its body. Within the cyst the
nucleus divides several times to produce
several spores. Each spore forms a
protective cyst wall from
Introductory
\which a small amoeba will emerge when
conditions become favourable.
There is basically no sexual reproduction, but'
at times, several indivi-duals may flow together to
give a single mass of cytoplasm with several
nuclei,a process known as Plastogamy.
Parasitic Forms: Members of the genus
Entamoeba are examples of the parasitic
forms of Amoeba. Other examples include;
Entamoeba gingivalis, living in human mouth,
E. coli,inhabiting the colon of man, E.
histolytica found in human intestine causing
ameobic dysentery.
Phylum Labyrinthomorpha (Slime nets) (Gr.
labyrinth, maze, labyrinth, + morph, form;
+a,suffix).
The very small phylum Labyrinthomorpha
consistsof protists that have spindle-shaped or
spherical nonamoeboid vegetative cells. In some
genera, amoeboid cells move within a network of
mucous tracks using a typical gliding motion. Most
members are marine and either saprozoic or
parasitic on algae. Several years ago Labyrinthula
killed most of the “eel grass" on the Atlantic coast,
depriving ducks of their food and starving many of
them
Figure 2.7. A cell of Labyrinthula
Phylum Apicomplexa (a'pi-com-plex'a) (L.
apex, tip or summit, +complex, twisted
around, + a, suffix). Characteristic set of
organelles (apical complex).associated with
anterior end present in some developmental
stages; cilia and flagella absent except for
flagellated microgametes in some groups;
cysts oftèn present; all species parasitic.
Exclusively, parasitic protozoa with spore
like infective stages. Usually have

complex life cycles - involving asexual (schizogony) and
sexual (gametogony) generations and sometimes two
hosts. Two groups: Gregarines and Coccidians.
Gregarines: Parasites·of invertebrates especially
annelids and insects.
Schizogony: (asexual multiplication or multiple
fission) may or may not be present: In some cases only
sexual reproduction occurs e.g. Gregarina blattarum.
Coccidians: intracellular parasites of vertebrates
and invertebrates; attack intestinal epithelium, blood or
other cells of the host. Life cycle involves schizogony,
gametogony and.sporogony: e.g. Eimeria causes
coccidiosis in chickens, turkeys, sheep; Isospora
causes less severe coccidiosis in fish and man.
Plasmodium causes malaria in man and birds.
Toxoplasma - parasite of muscles and connective tissue
of birds and mammals including human. Congenital
transmission through the placenta is common in
humans.
A Representative Apicomplexa;
Plasmodium
Species of Plasmodium are found in the blood of
human beings causing malaria fever. Their main vector
to human being is the mosquito.
A study of the life-cycle of Plasmodium describes
better the mode of transmission of the malaria disease.
Life-cycle of Plasmodium: The life cycle is
divided into two stages.
(i) The cycle in man
An infected mosquito injects the sporozoites
stage of the parasite into man's blood stream. The
sporozoites migrate and invade the liver cells,
undergo division (schizogony),forming another
stage called merozoites which migrate back into.
the blood stream.Multiplication in the liver cells
may occure several times and the first
Irttroducto
ry
generation of merozoites are called cryptozoites.
The merozoites enter into the red blood cells in
which they become trophozoites and undergo
schizogony to produce more merozoites. The
destruction of the red blood cells and release of
toxins by the trophozoites cause the malaria
fever. Some merozoites in the red blood cells
form gametocytes of two types, female
gametocyte (macro-gametocytes) and male
gametocyte(micro-gametocytes). These
gametooytes only develop further in the mosquitö
Which is the next stage of the life-cycle.
(ii) The cycle in the Mosquito If mosquito·sucks
the blood of a malaria-
infected man, the parasite in the red blood cells
gets into the stomach of the mosquito. If it is
Culex mosquito, all the stages of the parasite are
digested in the stomach, but if it is an Anopheles
mösquito,the gametocyte stages' of the parasites
are left while all other stages of.the parasites are
digested in the stomach. The gametocyte form
microgametes and macrogametes,which later
fuse to form the zygotes. The zygote is motile
hence it is called Ookinete. It burrows through the
stomach wall, where it encysts, undergoes fission
of the nucleus to form sporoblast (i.e. an oocyst).
Each sporoblast by multiple. fission give rise to
numerous sporozoites. The cyst then
rupturës,setting them free and the sporozoites
migrate to the salivary gland of the mosquito,
from there they get into man when bitten by the
mosquito,while taking a blood meal.
Fig. 2.8. Life cycle of plasmodium parasite
 - Subkingdom Protozoa
Other examples: Monocystis,Gregarina,
Eimeria,Toxoplasma,Babesia,
Phylum Myxozoa (=Myxospora) (mix-o-zo'a)
(Gr. myxa, slime, mucus: + zoon, animal).
The myxozoans are all parasitic,most on
freshwater and marine fish. They have a
resistant spore with one to six coiled polar
filaments. The most economically important
myxozoan is Myxosoma cerebralis, which
infects the nervous system and auditory
organ of trout and salmon (salmonids).
Infected fish lose their sense of balance and
tumble erratically-thus the name whirling or
tumbling disease. Proliferative kidney
disease, caused by· an unclassified
myxozoan, has become one of the most
important diseases of cultured salmon
throughout the world. Other examples are
Chloromyxum,Myxidium.
Chloromyxum catostomi
Figure 2.9. Member of Myxozoa
Phyium Microspora (mi-cros'por-a) (Gr.
micro, small, + sporos, seed). Parasites of.
invertebrates, especially arthropods, and
lovier vertebrates. Examples include Loma,
M:crofilum,Nosema, Pleistophora,
Loma spores Pleislophora spore
Figure 2.9. Members of Microspora
Introductory
Phylum Ascetospora (as-e-tos'por-a) (Gr.
asketos,curiously wrought,+sporos, seed). Phylum of
intracellular protozoan organisms that parasitize
turbellaria, annelids, molluscs and crustaceans.
They'include two classes (Haplosporea and Paramyxea)
and do not possess polar capsules or polar filaments.
The sporoplasms leave the capsule via pores after
bursting of the shell. Genera: e.g. Haplosporidium,
Marteilia, Bonamia.
Phylum Ciliophora (sil-i-of'or-a) (L. cilium, eyelash, +Gr.
phora, bearing).
The phylum Ciliophora with some 6,000 species
constitutes the largest and most homogenous group of
protozoans. They contain the most complex and highly
organised members of the protozoa. The ciliates exhibit
a.high level of organelle development. Ciliates are
characterized by the possession of locomotory
organelles called CILIA at some stage in their life cycle.
Cilia are short, permanent protrusions of the cytoplasm.
Asexual reproduction by binary fission across rows
of cilia, budding and multiple fission also occur; sexuality
involving conjugation, autogamy, and cytogamy; nutrition
heterotrophic; contractile vacuole typically present; most
species free living, but many are commensal, while
some are parasitic.
The classes are separated on the basis of technical
characteristics of the ciliary patterns, especially around
the cytostome, the development of the cytostome, and
other characteristics. E.g: Stentor, Colpoda,
·Paramecium, Tetrahymena, Balantidium,
Blepharisma,Ephelota,Euplotes, Vorticella,
Epidinium, Trichodina, Carchesium, etc
Because the body surface is bounded by a firm
pellicle, the body shape is constant. Ciliates possess
nuclei of two types: a large meganucleus which controls
all cell activities except reproduction; and one to eight
micro nuclei which control sexual reproduction.
Most ciliates are free-living and solitary while a few
are colonial and some are sessile.Only a few ciliates are
parasitic but endo and ecto-commensals are common.
Typically,ciliates are holozoic, feeding on either small
particles or prey.
 Subkingdom
A representative ciliate Paramecium found
in fresh water
Paramecium ponds which contain
decaying orgänic remains and leaves.
They possess cilia for locomotion.They have
definite body shape due to the presence of
a' firm pellicle. Two types of nuclei are
present, the macronucleus and the
micronucleus. Most of them are free-living,
only a few are parasitic. Some common
ciliates are endo and ecto-commensals.
Asexual reproduction involves trans-verse
fission. Sexual reproduction is by conjugation
involving fusion of nuclei, not cell.
Figure 2.10. Paramecium sp
Structure: It has a slipper shape. The
protoplasm consists of the ectoplasm and
the endoplasm. The cilia project through
the pellicle. The endoplasm is granular and
contains the following;
i.food vacuoles.
ii.two nuclei, a macronucleus and a
micronucleus.
iii.two contractile vacuoles.
Locomqtion: This is done by. ciliary
movement. A ciliary beat consist of fast
effective stroke followed by a slow recovery
stroke.
Nutrition:Paramecium feeds on small dead
or living organic particles especially
bacteria. The cilia of the oral groove set up
a current which draws bacteria towards the
animal and into the buccal cavity. Digestion
Introductory
is in the food vacuole as in Amoeba. Egestion is
through the cytoproct on the body surface. The
pathway of movement of food in the cytoplasm is
called cyclosis.
Respiration and Excretion: Gaseous exchange and
elimination of nitrogenous waste products is by
diffusion through the ectoplasm.
Osmoregulation;·The two contractile vacuoles
perform this function. They empty their waste
solutions through a pore in the pellicle, in an
alternating manner.
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction is by transverse
fission, the micronucleus under-goes mitosis while
the macronucleus divides by constriction.
Sexual reproduction is by conjugation which
involves exchange of nuclear material,not fusion of
gametes.
Other forms of ciliates
i) Balantidium: This is an endocommensal in the
rectum of toads, but another species, B. coli is found
in human beings,causing dysenteric conditions.
ii) Vorticella: This is a stalked ciliate.
iii) Steritor. It is a sessile ciliate with a highly
developed region of fussed cilia (the bucca
membranelle).
iv) Diplodinium caudutum is a commensal in the
rumen of herbivorous mammals.
Euplotes. Tetrahymena
Vorticella Stentor
Figure 2.11.Some representative cilites
Characteristics
1. They are triploblastic -have three germ layers-ectoderm, mesoderm and
endo-derm.
2. They have bilateral symmetry-Body can be divided along a sagittal plane
into two mirrored portions of right and left halves.
3. Presence of definite polarity of anterior and posterior ends.
4. Body is flattened dorsoventrally (hence the name platyheminthes - meaning
flatworms) with oral and genital apertures mostly on ventral surface.
5. Epidermis may be cellular or syncytial, ciliated in some flatworms, contains
rhabdites in most turbellaria - (rhabdites - rod-shaped bodies which swell
when discharged with water, forming protective mucous sheath around the
animal).
6. Muscular system is beneath the epidermis and consists of layers of muscle
fibres that run circularly. longitudinally and diagonally.
7.No internal body space (acoelomate); spaces between organs filled with
parenchyma (a form of connective tissue or mesenchyme).
8. Digestive system if present is incomplete (gastrovascular type) with only
one opening,no anus.
9. Nervous system in most forms consists of a pair of anterior ganglia with
longitudinal nerve cords connected by transverse nerves and located in the
mesenchyme.
10.Simple sense organs e.g. eyespot present in some.
11.Excretory system (protonephridia) is of two lateral canals with branches
bearing flame cells.
12.Respiratory, circulatory and skeletal systems are lacking; lymph channels
with free cells in some trematodes.
13.Most forms are monoecious (hermaphro-dites), reproductive systems
complex, usually with well-developed gonads, ducts, and accessory organs;
internal fertilization, development direct in free-swimming forms and those
with a single host life cycle; development indirect in internal parasites in which
there,may be a complicated life cycle often' involving several hosts.
 .-Phylum Platyhelminthes
(Flatworms)
14. Flatworms include both free -
living and parasitic forms, but A Representative Turbellarian
free-living members are found Dugesia
exclusively in the class Dugesia is a common turbellarian
Turbellarria. Most species of found on water plants in ponds,
turbellarians are marine, but there lakes, and rivers and under stones
are many freshwater species and in small streams.
majority are adapted as bottom
dwellers in marine or fresh water
or live in moist places on land. All
members of classes
monogenea, trematoda and
cestoda are parasitic..

Classification

CLASS Figure 5.1 Planaria Dugesia

Structure: The body is broad and

blunt at the anterior end and
pointed at the posterior end. Its
upper surface is black, brown, or
mottled and irregularly spotted
with white, and its under surface
is white or grayish. The anterior
or head end of the animal has at
each side'a sharp projecting
auricle that contains the olfactory
sensory cells. A pair of eyes is
present on the dorsal surface of
the head between the auricles.
The mouth is on the ventral side,
near the middle of the animal. It
opèns into a cavity surrounded
by a muscular tube, the pharynx.
The pharynx consists of a
complex of muscle layers and
many gland cells. By means of
the muscles, the pharynx can be
thrust out of the mouth some
distance when feeding. On the
ventral side, posterior to the
pharynx is a small opening, the
genital pore: this is present only
Class Turbellaria
in sexually mature individuals.
Usually free-living forms with
Dugesia, like other flatworms,
soft, flattened bodies, covered possess mesoderm. The tissues of
with ciliated epidermis containing mesodermal origin, lying between
secreting cells and rod-like bodies the body wall and the intestine,
(rhabdites); mouth ·usually on consist of a fibrous mesh in which
ventral surface sometime near are embedded fixed cells whose
centre of body; mostly processes anastomose (join) and
hermaphroditic e.g. Dugesia free cells that can move about in an
(planaria). amoeboid manner. This mesodermal
network of connective tissue is
called parenchyma (mesenchyme).
The digestive system of Dugesia
consists of a mouth, a pharynx and
an intestine with three main trunks,
each having many small lateral crustaceans, and other small
branches. animals, living or dead. The
Nutrition:The food of planarians auricles are used to locate the
consists of insect larvae, annelids, food.After it is
 -Phylum Platyhelminthes
(Flatworms)
located, the pharynx is protruded
into the prey's body cavity: it
extends In all directions,
secreting endopeptidase to help
break up organs and tissues, and
sucks the inside out. Digestion
occurs within the cells that line
the intestine of the animal. There
is only one opening to the
digestive cavity, therefore the
undigested matter is ejected
through the mouth.
Respiration: The animal has no
respiratory system and gaseous
exchange is by simple diffusion.
Excretion: In Dugesia, there is a
complex network of small vessels
on each side of the animal, from
which many flame cells branch.
The flame cell is large hollow,
with a cluster of flickering cilia
extending into the central cavity,
which create a current and force
the collected fluid through the
tubules which open on the
surface by several minute pores.
Nervous system: The nervous
system is well developed. It
consists of an inverted mass of
tissue, the brain, and two
longitudinal nerve cords
connected by transverse nerves.
Nerves pass to the various parts
of the anterior end of the body.
The pigmented eyes are sensitive
to light but do not form images.
Figure 5.2 Monogeneans (a)Gyodactylus (b)Polystoma intergerrimum (c)
by fission or by sexual method.
An animal may divide
transversely; each part re-
organizes into a complete
animal. Although planarians are
hermaphrodites, self-fertilization
is not known to occur, rather,
cross-fertilization is the rule. The
develop-ment is direct without a
larval stage: Turbellarians show
a remarkable power ol
regeneration. If an individual is
cut in two transversely, the
anterior end will regenerate a
new tail, while the posterior end
will develop a new head. A
section from the middle will
regenerate a new head at the
anterior end and a new tail at
the posterior end
Class Monogenea (Monogenetic
Flukes)
Body of adults covered with
a syncytial tegument without
cilia; body usually leaf-like to
cylindrical in shape; presence of
a complex posterior attachment
organ with hooks (opisthaptor) in
adults, developmenl direct,with
single host and usually with free
swimming, ciliated larva; all
parasitic, mostly on skin or gills
of fish, amphibians e.g.
Polystoma; Dactytogyrus,
Gyrodactylus.
Choricotyle louisianensis

Legend
PH- Pharynx; GP- Genital pore; VG- Vaginae; OV- Ovary; TE - Testis; IN -
Intestine: OH-Opisthaptor; SU-Sucker;HK-Hook; M-Mouth

30
 :-Phylum Platyhelminthes
(Flatworms)
A Representative Monogenea: Polystoma
intergerrimum.
This monogenea is parasite of the urinary
bladder of frogs in Europe and North America.
Other Polystoma species such as P.
galamensis, P. prudhoei and P. mangenoti
infect frogs in Africa.
Structure: The most striking feature of the
monogeneans is the posterior adhesive organ, the
opisthaptor, a well defined disc bearing six suckers.
Two hooks the hamuli lie slightly anterior to the
most posterior pair of suckers.The anterior
adhesive organ takes the form of an oral sucker
surrounding the terminal mouth. The muscular
pharynx leads into the intestine which immediately
bifurcates, the two intestinal caeca uniting again at
the posterior end of the body to form a dilation
which extends into the opisthaptor. The male and
uterine openings form a common genital opening in
the mid-ventral line. Two marginal swellings at the
anterior end indicate the position of the two vaginal
openings. The body is covered by a syncytial
teguments beneath which are three muscle layers
(outer circular, oblique and inner longitudinal). As in
other platyhelminths, the internal spaces between
the organs are filled with a mesenchymatous
parenchyma made up of typical polygonal cells.
Nutrition: The parasite feeds on blood ad the
outline of the gut is often seen to stand out
clearly with contained blood. Blood is digested
by a combination of intraluminar and
intracellular processes.
Excretion:The excretory system is a typical
platyhelminth protonephridial system in which
the flame cells lead to fine canals which join to
form paired excretory canals opening
anteriorly and dorsally at about the same level
of the pharynx.
Nervous system: This consists of a nerve ring
surrounding the pharynx from which nerves
extend anteriorly and posteriorly.The muscles
of the opisthaptor are supplied with fibres from
the ventral nerves.
Reproduction: The life cycle of Polystoma
intergerrimum is of great interest because it
exhibits the phenomenon of synchronization of
the life cycles of parasite and host, an
31
adaptation to the parasitic mode of life which is
of great survival value to the parasite.In spring
when the frog is preparing to enter water for
spawning, the genitalia of the parasite begin to
ripen. When the frog actually enters water,
maturation of the parasite is completed and large
quantities of eggs are released and timed in
such a way that they hatch when the tadpoles
are at the internal gill stage of development. The
larva called an oncomiracidum attaches itself to
the gills, feeding on mucus and detritus. When
the tadpole is about to metamorphose into a
young adult, the juvenile parasite emerge from
the gill chambers at night and migrate over the
ventral surface of the tadpole to the cloaca and
hence to the urinary bladder. Growth and
development to maturity of host and parasite are
well synchronized with both becoming mature in
three years.
If however the oncomiracidium becomes
attached to a tadpole still at the external gill
stage, the larvae attain sexual maturity rapidly
(neotenic development) while still retaining larval
features.The neotenic larvae produce fertilized
eggs in three weeks. These eggs hatch into
oncomiracidium which undergo normal
development as already described.
Class Trematoda (Digenetic Flukes)
Body of adults covered with a syncytial
tegument without cilia; leaf-like or cylindrical in
shape; usually with oral and ventral suckers, no
hooks. Alimentary canal usually with two main
branches; mostly monoecious (hermaphrodites);
development indirect,with first host a mollusc,
final host a vertebrate; parasitic in all classes of
vertebrates and are of medical and economic
importance e.g. Fasciola gigantica - liver fluke
causes fascioliasis or liver rot disease in cattle.
Schistosoma haematobium - blood fluke causes
schistosomiasis or bilharziasis in humans.
Paragonimus westermani - lung fluke
causes.paragonimiasis in humans.
 Chapter 5-Phylum Platyhelminthes
2m
Figure 5.3 Trematodes (a) Fasciola hepatica
(b) Clonorchis sinensis (c) Schistosoma
haematobium (d) Echinostoma revolutum (e)
Gastrodiscoides hominis
Legend: OS-Oral sucker; VS- Ventral sucker;
LC-Laurer's Canal; UT- Uterus; VE-Vas
efference;VI-Vitellaria; GP-Genital pore; OV-
Ovary; TE-Testis; CO-Collar;OH-
Opisthaptor;SU-Sucker, HK.Hook
Introductory
A Representative Digenea: Fasciola gigantica.
This is a parasite of the liver and bile ducts of
cattle.sheep, goats and wild ruminants in Africa and Asia.
It causes the disease fasciolasis or liver rot in cattle.
Fasciola hepatica, which is the better known species,
infects sheep and cattle in the temperate
regions.Occasional infection of humans with this species
has been reported.
Structure: Fasciola gigantica is large and leaf-
like in shape. The oral sucker is to the anterior
end of the animal. One remarkable
charaderistics of this trematode is the branched
nature of the intestinal caeca, testes and ovary.
The uterus which is relatively short and tightly
coiled is situated on the side opposite the
ovary.The vitellaria is extensive, occupying the
whole of the lateral fields. The body is covered
by a tegument which is not only a protective
surface but also has metabolic function. The.
tissue of the body is made up of. parenchyma, a
network of cells and fibres filling the spaces
around the organs. Nutrition: There is divided
opinion on what the parasite feeds on. It is
however generally agreed that it feeds on
tissues and blood may inevitably be ingested in
the process.
Excretion: The excretory system of F. gigantica
is well developed and it is typical of the
platyhelminths. There is a median or longitudinal
trunk from which branches arise like the
branching of a tree·from the main trunk. The
finer branches of these excretory tubules end in
two or three flame cells which facilitate the
removal of waste substances from the
surrounding tissues. The waste collected pass
into the main branches which: empty into the
longitudinal trunk which in turn opens to the
exterior through an excretory pore at the
posterior end of the organism.
Nervous system: The nervous system consists
of a circum-oesophageal ring at the anterior end
of the body, which gives off longitudinal nerves
with interconnecting commissures. There are no
sense organs.
Reproduction: Liver flukes are
hermaphroditic, i.e. male and female
reproductive organs are present in the same
animal. The eggs of the liver fluke are laid in
32
 Mature flukes live in the blood vessels of the human intestine.A female fluke fits into a groove running the length of the
larger male's body, as shown in the LM at right.

Blood flukes
⑤These reproduce sexually in
larvae the human host The
penetrate fertilized eggs exit the
the skin
and blood
vessels of ③ If the
feces
reach a
Asexual reproduction within a snail results in another type of motile larva,which escapes from the snail host.

Figure 33.11 The llfe cycle of a blood fluke (Schistosoma mansoni), a trematode. porid or
WHAT Snails eat algae,whose growth is stimulated by nutrients found in fertilizer.How
would the contamination of irrigation water with fertilizer likely affect the occurrence of
schistosomiasis? Explain.

CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE Invertebrates

675

32
Chapter 5-Phyluin Platyhelminthes
the bile ducts of the host and from there pass
through the intestine and are voided with faeces.
The eggs that encounter water go through the
process of embryonation and hatch into a ciliated
larval stage called the miracidium. They swim
about in water until they encounter a suitable
snail host which in the case of F. gigantica is
Lymnea natalensis. A few hours after penetration,
each miracidium transforms into the sporocyst, a
sac-like body containing germ cells.These germ
cells in the course of two to three weeks develop
into two redia generations- mother redia and
daughter redia. The daughter redia gives rise to
the cercaria. Upon their release from the snail
host,the cercariae swim about for a while in water
and then encyst on a leaf or a blade of grass.
The encysted cercaria is called a metacercaria. A
new host is infected when the animal grazes on
grass bearing the metacercaria. In the small
intestine, the cyst wall is dissolved and the
metacercaria escapes and make their way from
the digestive tract to the bile ducts where they
develop into adults.
Class Cestoda (Tapeworms)
Body of adults covered with nonciliated,
syncytial tegument; general form of body tape-
like. Scolex with suckers and sometimes with
hooks for attachment;body usually divided into
series of proglottids; no digestive organs; usually
monoecious, development is direct with two or
more host -first host usually an invertebrate;
parasitic in digestive tract of all classes of
vertebrates. E.g. Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)-
larvae (cysticerci) migrate to the eye, brain and
other organs of humans causing cysticercosis
that may result to blindness, serious neurological
symptoms or death. Diphyllobothrium latum (fish
tapeworm) -adult in intestine of humans, dogs
and cats while immature stages in crustaceans
and fish. Echinococcus granulosus-the larvae
(bladder-worm or hydatid cysts) in the lung,
liver,heart or brain cause hydatid disease.
Introductory
A Representative Cestode: Taenia solium This is the
pork tapeworm which lives as an adult in the intestine
of man. A related species Taenia saginata uses cattle
as Intermediate host and also infects man.
Structure: The pork tapeworm is long (reaching a
length of 4-7 metres) and consists of a knoblike
“head", the scolex, which in T. solium is armed
with hooks. The scolex of T. saginata lack hooks.
The scolex narrows to form a short neck which
at its posterior end (growing region) buds off a
series of similar segments, the proglottids, which
gradually increases in size from the anterior to
the posterior end. Those closest to the growing
region are the young proglottids. Those further
down, which have a full complement of the
reproductive organs are called the mature
segments. At the posterior end are segments
with fertilized eggs which are called gravid
segments. As in the Trematoda, the body wall is
covered by a tegument.
Nutrition: No digestive tract is present in
tapeworms. The digested food in the intestine of
the host is absorbed through the surface of the
body.
Excretion: The excretory system in tapeworms is
similar to what obtains in other
flatworms.Longitudinal and cross-connecting
excretory canals, which have branches ending in
flame cells, carry metabolic waste out of the
body.
Reproduction: The gravid segments of the
tapeworm (T. solium) contain the fertilized eggs.
Each of these fertilized eggs develops into a six-
hooked embryo called the hexacanth embryo
while still within the proglottids. The gravid
segments are released in the faeces of the
human host.If the proglottids are eaten by a pig,
the hexacanth embryo escape from their
envelopes and bore their way through the wall of
the intestine into the blood or lymph vessels to
be eventually carried to the voluntary muscles,
brain; or eyes, where they form cysts. A scolex is
developed from the cyst wall. The larva form
is·known as a bladder worm or cysticercus at
this stage. If insufficiently ·cooked ·pork
containing cysticerci is eaten by man, the
bladder is
Chapter 5-Phylum Platyhelininilies (Flatworms) Introductory
Zoology
digested off, and the released scolex
becomes fastened to the wall of the human intestine and a series of segments develop.

Progrottid

Scolex
 Progrottid
(d)

Progrottid

(g)

Figure 5.4 Diversity of tapeworms: Monozoic forms (a) Garycotyle urna (b) Cyathocephalus truncatus
Polyzoic forms (c) Echinococcus granulosus (d) Hymenolepis diminuta(e) Dipylidiun caninum (f) Taenia
solium (g) Diphyllobothrium latum

34
General Characteristic

They
are the simplest multicellular 1. animals. Are all aquatic, predominantly. marine,
although a few freshwater species exist. Adult sponges are sessile and attached to rocks and
other hard surfaces at the bottom of the aquatic environment.
2. The body, which may be radial in symmetry, is perforated by numerous pores through
which water pass into the central cavity (or spongocoel). This is why they are called
Porifera or pore-bearing animals. Water in the central cavity is moved out through the
principal opening called OSCULUM at the top of the body, thus the pores are inhalent
while the osculum is exhalent.
3. The body consists of many sponge cells arranged in two layers around a central
cavity making the animal to be sac-like.
4. Sponge cells are loosely arranged in a gelatinous matrix called mesohyl. Mesohyl is
the connective tissue of sponges, in which are found various amoeboid cells, fibrils and
skeletal elements.
5. Several types of cells occur in sponges. PINACOCYTES-thin,flat,epithelial type of
cells that cover the exterior surface (PINACODERM) and some interior surfaces. Some
pinacocytes are contractile (MYOCYTES) and are arranged around oscula or pores
where they help regulate rate of water flow. CHOANOCYTES- ovoid cells with one end
embedded in mesohyl and the other end exposed, bearing a: flagellum surrounded by a
collar. Choanocytes line flagellated canals and chambers,where they strain food
particles from the water. ARCHAEOCYTES-amoeboid cells that move about in the
mesohyl and can phagocytize particles at.the pinacoderm as well as receive particles for
digestion from choanocytes.Archaeocytes·have the ability to differentiated into the
following more specialised sponge cells SCLEROCYTES, secretes spicules;
SPONGOCYTES secrete the spongin fibres of the skeleton. COLLENCYTES secrete
fibrillar collagen; LOPHOCYTES,.
 Porifera
secretes large quantities of collagen and
are morphologically different from
collencyttes.
6. They have skeleton consisting of separate
needle-like or branched hard bodies called
spicules. Spicules are variables in shape and
composition (this is of taxonomic importance),
calcerous spicules made of calcium
carbonate and have one, three or four rays;
siliceous (glass) spicules, made of silica and
with six rays; spongin spicules made of
protein (collagen).
7. No organs or true tissues in sponges;
digestion intracellular, excretion and respiration
by diffusion
8. No nervous system and sense organs. The
cells of the body are therefore not co-ordinated
and reaction to stimuli local and independent.
oxea
(b)
tylote
Figure 3.1 (a-g)Representative
Sponge spicule morphologies
9.Sponges feed primarily on particles
(detritus particles,planktonic organisms
and bacteria) suspended in the water
pumped through their canal systems.
10.They reproduce both asexually and
sexually. Asexually by means of bud
formation and by regeneration after
fragmentation. External buds and
internal buds (gemmules) are produced.
Gemmulation, an adaptation to changing
seasons in freshwater songes involves
archaeocytes collecting in the mesohyl and
become surrounded by a tough spongin coat
suported by siliceous spicules. Gemmules
survive and remain dormant, after death of
parent animal, preserving the sponge
through periods of adverse conditions. Most
sponges are monoecious and viviparious
producing a fre-swimming solid-bodied
parenchymula larva.Calcarea and a few
Demospongiae produce a hollow
amphisblastula larva, with flagellated cells
towards the interior.
11.Sponges are useful mostlyas commercial
sponge for washing and cleaning and can also
be used for various industrial and aesthetic
purposes.
Classification
Sponges are classified according to the shape
and material with which the spicules are made.
Class Calcaria-with calcareous spicules
e.g, Leucosolenia
Class Hexactinellida - with hexactine
siliceous (glass) spicules e.g, Euplectella
Class Demospongia - with protein type
spongin fibres e.g, Spongilla.
Class Sclerospongia-with all three skeletal
materials.e.g. Ceratoporella.
Figure 3.2 Diagrammatic illustrations of the
different levels of complexity of sponge
architecture
 33.1 groups of similar cells that act asa functional unit and ar

33.1 lated from other tissues by membranous layers.Howeyet

sponge body does contain several different cell types.foe

ample, lining the interior of the
spongocoeI are fage
choanocytes, or collar cells (named
for the membranou

Calcarea and lar around the base of the

flagellum).The similarity be
Slllcea Cnidaria
Lophotrochozoa choanocytes and the cells of
choanoflagellates suppor
Ecdysozoa
Deuterostomia
lecular evidence suggesting that
animals evolved
choanoflagellate-like ancestor (see
Figure 32.3).
ponges are basal animals that
lack true tissues

Animals in the phyla Calcarea

and Silicea are known infor-
mally as "sponges." (Previously,
all sponges were placed in a

single phylum,Porifera,now
The body of a sponge consists of two layers of cells sepaa
by a gelatlnous region called the
mesohyl. Wandering
the mesohyl are cells called
amoebocytes,named for tie
of pseudopodia.Amoebocytes have
many functions,Te
up food from the water and from
choanocytes,digesti
carry nutrients to other cells.They
also manufacture to
skeletal fibers within the mesohyl. In
some groups of xpore
these fibers are sharp spicules made
from calcium cao
silica.Other sponges produce more
flexible fibers compai
a protein called spongin; you may
have seen these pliant
tons being sold as fluffy brown bath
sponges.
thought to be paraphyletic based on molecular data.) Among
the simplest of animals, sponges are sedentary and were mis-
taken for plants by the ancient Greeks. They range In size from
a few millimeters to a few meters and live in both fresh and ma-
rine waters. Sponges are suspension feeders: They capture
food particles suspended in the water that passes through their
body, which in some species resembles a sac perforated with
pores. Water is drawn through the pores into a central cavity,
the spongocoel, and then flows out of the sponge through a
larger opening called the osculum (Figure 33.4).More com-
plex sponges have folded body walls, and many contain
branched water canals and several oscula.
Most sponges are
hermaphrodites,meaning that
dividual functions as both
male and female in semnle
duction by producing sperm and
eggs. Álmost all spore
exhibit sequential hermaphroditism，
functioning first 珠哑
sex and then as the other.
Sponges are basal animals; that is, they represent a lineage
that originates near the root of the phylogenetic tree of ani-
mals.Unlike nearly all other animals, sponges lack true tissues,
 Figure 33.4 Anatomy of a sponge.

670
UNIT FIVE The Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity
 -Phylum
Porifera

Digestion is entirely intracellular, occuring in. archaeocytes.

A Representative Sponge: Leucosolenia
Leucosolenia is sac-like and occurs
attached to seaweeds.

Structure: The body wall consists of three layers-

an outer layer of flattened cells, a middle
gelatinous layer (called mesohyl) harbouring the
spicules and an inner layer of collar cells
(choanocytes) lining the central cavity
(spongocoel). Special cells called porocyte cells
surround the pores.

Figure 3.4 The gemmule of a freshwater sponge

Ephydatia

Respiration and Excretion: These processes

Figure 3.3 Asconoid-Leucosolenia
The beating of the flagella of the
choanocytes creates water current which
allows water into the central cavity through
the pores (ostia) and also moves water out of
the central cavity through the osculum. The
movement of this water is utilized for the
processes of feeding, respiration, excretion
and reproduction.
Locomotion: They are sessile and do not
move.
Nutrition: Food particles in the water
moving through the body are trapped and
engulfed by the choanocytes. Food consists
of bacteria, dinoflagellates and detritus.
are by simple diffusion between the animal
body and the water passing through the body.
The main excretory product is Ammonia.
Freshwater sponges have contractile vacuoles
for osmoregulation. Reproduction: Sponges
reproduce or are propagated mostly through
asexual method of reproduction. They have
high powers of regeneration of lost parts and
several new individuals are obtained from
deliberate or accidental fragmentation of the
body. Other asexual methods consist of
production of buds and gemmules, which
develop into full sponges when
conditions become favourable.
Sponges are hermaphroditic and
gametes are formed from specialized cells in
the mesohyl layer called Amoebocytes. Sperms
pass out with water current and enter into
another sponge for cross-fertilisation. Zygote
develops into Amphiblastula larva which
passes out and develop into the Adult.