US & Modern History

Study Guide
Volume I

A Kolbe Academy Publication

Student Book

Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam

© Kolbe Academy Press 2008, 2014
All Rights Reserved.

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WEEK ONE
The Prince by Machiavelli
1. Where and when was Nicolo Machiavelli born?

2. Where and when did Nicolo Machiavelli die?

3. Who, according to Machiavelli, ought a wise man follow? Why

should he do this?

4. What does becoming a prince from a private station presuppose,

accoring to Machiavelli?

5. Of these two things, which should be relied on the least if one

desires to be the strongest?

6. What are the examples Machiavelli gives for those who have
risen to become princes by their own ability? Which of these
does Machiavelli say that “one may not discuss” and why does
he say this?

7. What does Machiavelli say regarding the ease of acquiring and

then keeping a principality through valorous ways? Why is this
the case? “

8. Which does Machiavelli say is more effective for the innovator to

use to consummate his enterprise: prayers or force? Why?

9. In contrast to those who acquire principalities through valorous

ways, what ease and difficulty does one face who acquires a
principality through fortune alone?

10. What must one have if they desire to keep a principality they
have achieved through fortune on a solid foundation such that
the “first storm will not overthrow them”?

11. Complete this quote and explain it: “[H]e who has not first
laid his foundations may be able with great ability to lay them
afterwards,…”

12. Who is Cesare Borgia and did he rule by virtue or by fortune?

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13. To what rank did Agathocles, the Sicilian, ascend?

14. Describe how Agathocles took the city.

15. Why, according to Machiavelli, must one not consider this to be

glorious?

16. Explain how Machiavelli views the use of cruelty in maintaining

order in a principality.

17. Above all things, a prince ought to live how, according to

Machiavelli? Why?

18. What two opposing groups of people are found in any city? From
these two opposites, what three results can occur on account of
their opposition?

19. List reasons why a prince should derive his consent from the
people.

20. Since a prince must rely on the people to maintain his sovereignty,
what must he adopt as a course of action?

21. What does Machiavelli say that a prince, who wishes “to hold his
own,” ought to know?

22. Does Machiavelli believe that good virtues and qualities can be
entirely possessed or observed by human beings? How does
Machiavelli think one should act in light of this? Does this work
in harmony with classical and medieval views?

23. Would a wise prince, according to Machiavelli, pursue a course

emphasizing liberality or emphasizing meanness? Why?

24. Complete this quote: “We have not seen great things done in our
time except by…”

25. What, above all things, should a prince guard himself against,
according to Machiavelli? Can liberality lead to this?

26. Should a prince desire to be clement? If so, what must he caution

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 against? Should he mind if he is called cruel? Why or why
not?

27. For Machiavelli, would it be better to be loved than feared or

feared than loved? Why?

28. What must a prince avoid if he is to inspire fear? How can he

avoid this?

29. When should a wise lord stop observing his faith? What sort of
idea concerning politics does this promote?

30. If a prince is willing to give up his faith for political expediency,

what does Machiavelli think he needs to do? How must the prince
appear? Why is this the case?

31. What does Machiavelli push for in Chapter XXVI?

32. How can the people accomplish the answer to question #31?
WEEK 2
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres by Nicolaus Copernicus

1. When was On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres published?

Did Copernicus publish it himself?

2. What, according to Copernicus, is the duty of an astronomer?

The duty of an astronomer, for Copernicus, is “to compose the
history of the celestial motions through careful and expert study.

3. When presented with “different hypotheses…for one and the

same motion,” what would Copernicus say is the difference
between the astronomer and the philosopher? What would it
take for either to say anything certain?

4. Who requested that Copernicus “communicate [his] discovery…

to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment … send me your
writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and
whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject”? What
office did he hold?
5. To which pope does Copernicus write a preface to “His Books on
the Revolutions”?

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 6. Which two ancient thinkers did Copernicus first discover also
“supposed the earth to move”?

7. Even though, as Copernicus admits, scientists at his time did not

have one homogenous idea concerning the motion of heavenly
bodies, what was the prevalent theory about the motion of the
sun and the earth.

8. To whom does Copernicus dedicate his studies? Why does he

do this?

9. Who does Copernicus think will find fault with his findings? What
does he think they will do to find this fault?

10. What is the purpose of the introduction to Copernicus’

Revolutions?

11. Who does Copernicus cite to confirm the importance and benefit
of astronomy and what did this thinker believe?

Letter to Madame Christina of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany by

Galileo
1. What happens, according to Galileo, as a result of his scientific
discoveries? What does he accuse some people of doing? What
do these people seem to forget?

2. What Christian thinker does Galileo cite that he thinks would

have softened his critics if they truly had understood him? Which
doctrine of his does Galileo think would have been important in
this situation?

3. Is Galileo confident in the truth of his findings? Give an example

to back up your point.

4. Does Galileo think he should listen to those who contradict him?

Does he view them in a very positive light? Explain using quotes
from the text.

5. What does Galileo think is his critics’ ultimate goal?

6. What is the two-step process by which Galileo’s critics work to

ruin Galileo’s reputation (according to Galileo)?
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 7. From this text by Galileo and the dedication by Copernicus to
Pope Paul III, what is one major difference between the two views
on their relationship to the Church?

8. Galileo does not so much disapprove of the condemnation of his

work, he rather disapproves of the condemnation of his book by
people who….?

9. Describe Galileo’s view on the relationship of science and

religion.

10. Does Galileo believe that the road to free philosophizing

concerning mundane and physical things should ever be closed?
Why?

11. Does Galileo believe that scientific (physical) truth can or should
contradict the Bible? Explain his position.

12. Does Galileo believe that anyone, regardless of position, has the
authority to condemn doctrine as heretical? If not, who does
have that authority, if anyone? Also, if some people unjustly
condemn, what would Galileo’s likely response be?

Letter on Galileo’s Theories by St. Robert Bellarmine

1. On which date did St. Robert Bellarmine write this letter and to
whom did he write it?

2. Did Bellarmine have a problem with all Galileo’s scientific

discovery?

3. How many major points does Bellarmine make in this letter?

4. What was Bellarmine’s problem with Galileo?

5. Does Bellarmine consider the issue of Galileo’s claim to be a

matter of faith? Why?

6. If Galileo could be proven correct in his hypothesis, what does

Bellarmine say should happen?

7. What wise man from the Old Testament does Bellarmine cite as
someone who would support his scientific idea?
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Discourse on Method by René Descartes
1. What, according to Descartes, is the “most equally distributed
thing” among men? Why is this the case?

2. From what does Descartes derive his highest satisfaction?

3. What is the purpose of the Discourse on Method according to

Descartes?

4. What discipline was Descartes “especially delighted” to study

and why?

5. How did Descartes perceive the other disciplines (save mathematics

and theology)?

6. After Descartes abandoned letters, what knowledge did he

pursue?

7. What is Descartes referring to when he claims to have “never

contemplated anything higher”? What can you infer, then, about
where he believes knowledge and truth come from?

8. Of what has Descartes stripped himself? Does he believe that this

is for everyone?

9. Descartes says that the majority of men can be divided into two
classes, neither of which are fit to strip entirely their old prejudices.
What are these classes? Explain them. Which does Descartes
think he should have belonged to, provided there were certain
conditions?

10. What three branches of philosophy was Descartes “induced to

seek some other method which would compromise the advantages
of the three and be exempt from their defects”?
Mathematics, Geometrical Analysis, and Algebra

11. List the four precepts that Descartes believed sufficient for himself
and which he made a resolution to never cease observing?

12. Even when Descartes “wished to think that all was false,” what
did he realize? Did he have any doubts about this? What did
he call this principle?

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 13. Other than the principle discussed in #12, did Descartes initially
find anything else which he could absolutely not doubt? Does he
change his mind?

14. Does Descartes believe he is perfect? Explain where his idea of

his relationship to perfection comes from.

15. What two things can Descartes say with certainty exist?

WEEK 3
Against the Spanish Armada by Queen Elizabeth I (1588)
1. Who were the parents of Queen Elizabeth I?

2. Where does Queen Elizabeth claim she has kept her “chiefest
strength and safeguard”?

3. Give an example of the rhetoric used by Queen Elizabeth to

dissuade enemy attackers and assure her people that she will not
allow enemy attackers to enter her realm.

4. Those who wish to attack England are called enemies of whom

by the Queen?

Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants (1579)

1. How many questions does the writer of this defense enumerate?

2. List the questions referred to in question #1.

3. Should subjects obey rules contrary to the law of God? Why

does this seemingly “obvious” answer require an explanation,
according to the author?

4. Who should resist a ruler who violates the law of God, or ruins
his Church? Should it be all the people together?

5. Of what is every magistrate, whatever their rank, an embodiment?

6. What analogy does the writer use to describe the role of the
king and the people in the commonwealth? Explain how this fits
into his idea of whether or not it is lawful to resist a ruler who
oppresses or ruins his country.

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 7. Does this writer believe that a king should be loved or should be
feared? Compare this view to the view of Machiavelli.

8. Can a neighboring rulers aid the subjects of an oppressive ruler?

What conditions must be met if this is to occur?

BONUS QUESTIONS:
1. The writer of this defense writes: “there are many rulers in these
days who call themselves “Christians”, who arrogantly assume
that their power is limited by no one, not even by God, and
they surround themselves with flatterers who adore them as gods
upon earth.” Can you think of any modern examples where this
occurs? Use several sentences to explain your answer.

2. The author writes about what essentially amounts to foreign

intervention. He writes that a neighboring prince may aid
oppressed foreign subjects provided they are oppressed unjustly
and that the assisting prince does not seek to usurp another’s
power and treats the kingdom with equity. Can you think of
a modern example which either fulfills these requirements or
breaks these requirements? Use several sentences to explain
your answer.

The Edict of Nantes (1598)

1. What rights does the Edict of Nantes specifically grant the
“Catholic Apostolic and Roman religion”?

2. What other group of people receive the same rights as the

Catholic Church?

3. Where do those of the Reformed religion have unrestricted

freedom to practice their religion?

4. Do those of the Reformed religion have unlimited freedom of the

press? Explain.

5. What “laws of the Catholic Apostolic and Roman Church” are

adherents of the Reformed religion obliged to follow?

The True Law of Free Monarchies by King James I

1. Next to the knowledge of God, what does King James see as
the most important thing for a people to know? Why is this
particularly true for his people?

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 2. What does King James, who uses Scripture to make his claim,
say that the office of the king consists of? On whose throne does
he claim kings sit?

3. What three things does a king give his oath to do?

4. By what law does the King become Father to his lieges at his
coronation, according to King James?

5. What Old Testament figure does King James refer to when he

makes his case for the monarchy using Scripture?

6. Is the duty and “alleagance” to which the people “sweareth”

limited to just themselves? Explain your answer.

Political Testament by Cardinal Richelieu

1. What activities does Richelieu refer to as offering a “bad example”
that injured the realm? What did this say about the rule of the
king?

2. Did people receive their merit from the king at the time before
Richelieu got there? If not, who did they receive it from?

3. What did Richelieu desire for the king?

On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy by Jean Domat

1. During whose reign and in what country did Jean Domat live?

2. Domat says that all men are equal by nature, that is, in “their
basic humanity” no one is subject to another. Yet, this is not
his final assessment of human equality. What does he go on to
say?

3. To what two distinctions between people does Domat refer? What

forms of government arise as a result of these distinctions?

4. From whose will does government arise, according to Domat?

5. What does Domat say is the first duty of obedience to government?

What does this include? Is this obligation changed if something
in government is unjust?

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BONUS QUESTION: What classically Christian image does the analogy
used by Domat imitate?

6. Whose place does Domat say the head of society should hold?
Why?

7. What are the rights of sovereigns according to Domat?

8. What are the duties of sovereigns according to Domat?

The Court of Louis XIV by Duc de Saint-Simon

1. Of what type of people was the Court composed, according to
Saint-Simon?

2. What was Louis XIV’s weak point, according to Saint-Simon?

What implications did this have for the court?

3. How could members of the court control Louis XIV?

4. From where did Louis XIV move the court? Where did it take up
new residence?

5. What did Louis XIV love “in all things”?

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV (1685)

1. How many years after the Edict of Nantes was written did King
Louis XIV revoke it?

2. Do members of the R.P.R. (the Protestant religion) have the right

to practice their religion?

3. What other restrictions are placed on members of the R.P.R.?

WEEK 4
Magna Carta (1215)
1. Which pope do the writers of the Magna Carta claim ratified the
charter?

2. What will happen to a freeman if he commits a slight offense?

What if he commits a grave offense?

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 3. Does the Magna Carta make a case for unrestrained monarchical
power? Use some examples from the text to answer the
question.

4. Can a bailiff “put anyone to his ‘law’” unconditionally? If not,

what must he have?

5. Quote article 40, then explain what it means.

6. Who will be banned from the kingdom as soon as peace is

restored?

7. What two things do the writers of the Magna Carta “will and
firmly order”? How long are these things supposed to last?

The Petition of Right (1628)

1. What does the Petition of Right say that no person “should be
compelled to do” against his will? Why?

2. What other freedom does the Petition of Right demand the king
honor?

3. By which manner may a freeman “be taken or imprisoned or be

disseized of his freehold or liberties, etc.”? Why?

4. Give an example of rhetoric used by the drafters of the Petition

of Right that shows they are not seeking to do away with the
monarchy.
On Oliver Cromwell by Thomas Macauley
1. Explain in more detail what Macauley refers to as the “new and
alarming class of symptoms…in the distempered body politic.”
Who is the soul of this party?
2. In what year did events “fully prove…the superiority of [Oliver
Cromwell’s] abilities” according to Macauley? What victory by
Cromwell made up for all previous losses?

3. Who did Cromwell defeat in the south? Who acted as the nominal
lord-general of the forces? Who was the real head?

4. How many years following the success of Cromwell was England,

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 “under various names and forms, really governed by the sword”?
What does Macauley say was unique about this time period in
English history?

5. What was the chief difference between Cromwell’s army and

other armies?

6. What group of people received the brunt of Cromwell’s men’s

attacks? Explain.

Letter to his Brother-in-Law after the Battle of Marston Moor, 1644 by

Oliver Cromwell
1. Who does Cromwell claim “hath had a great favour from the
Lord”? What is this “favour”?

2. How many soldiers does Cromwell claim to have fought against?

How many does he estimate are left?

3. Of whom does Cromwell speak when he says that there is a

man who “is a glorious Saint in Heaven; wherein you ought
exceedingly to rejoice”?

His Speech Made upon the Scaffold at Whitehall-Gate by King Charles I

1. On what occasion and on what date did King Charles make this
speech?

2. Who accompanied the King on his walk?

3. What does the King claim is his duty, “to God first and to [his]
country”?

4. Based on his denial, what can you assume the King was charged
with? Where else have you seen this issue come up?
5. What does the king say to try to prove he is a good Christian?
In this section he also says something about those responsible
for his death which makes it sound like he believes his death is
unjust. What does he say?

6. What does the king claim is the way that his opponents have
achieved anything they have achieved? What is the king’s
opinion on this? How does this lend to his claim that his death
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 is unjust?

7. What distinction does King Charles say must be made in order to

have real freedom and liberty? Explain this distinction.

Commonwealth Instrument of Government (1653)

1. Who adopted this instrument of government? On what date?

2. Based on this document, who is to lead the Commonwealth

of England, Scotland and Ireland and their dominions? Give
details.

3. What are some of the duties will be undertaken by the Lord

Protector and his council?

4. In order for a law to be “altered, suspended, abrogated, or

repealed” or for “any new law [to be] made” or a new tax,
charge, or imposition to be “laid upon the people, what is
required?

5. This document claims that two groups of people “shall be

disabled and incapable for ever to be elected, or give any vote
in the election of any member to serve in Parliament.” (That
is, they can never serve in Parliament nor vote in Parliamentary
elections.) What are these two groups?

6. What position does this document affirm Oliver Cromwell to

hold? For how long will he hold this position as stipulated by
this document?

7. What religion is the recommended religion for the state? Under

what conditions is this religion to be practiced?

English Revolution of 1688

1. What religion did James II promote? What happened to his reign
in 1688? Why did this occur?

2. What did most English Catholics want? What did a small section
of English Catholics want and how did they aim to go about it?
Which group was James II influenced by?

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 3. What did Catholics enjoy in London in 1686? What political
windfall occurred on account of this? How did King James
react?

4. What sentiment arose in both England and France around this

time? Why did this occur?

5. Who led the revolution in England? What happened during

the revolution? Did it receive any resistance? What became of
English politics after the revolution?

The English Bill of Rights (1689)

1. Through how many means does this document claim King James
“did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant religion
and the laws and liberties of this kingdom”? Give at least three
examples.

2. What type of instrument does this document claim “his Highness

the prince of Orange” (King William) is? What is the purpose of
this instrument?

3. Does Parliament have any power according to this document?

Explain.

4. Who “shall be excluded and be for ever incapable to inherit,

possess or enjoy the crown and government of this realm and
Ireland and the dominions thereunto belonging or any part of the
same, or to have, use or exercise any regal power, authority or
jurisdiction within the same”?
WEEK 5
Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes
1. What two things does Hobbes deny exist that are written about
“in the Books of the old Morall Philosophers”?

2. What does Hobbes say is real “felicity” (happiness)?

3. What, in the first place, does Hobbes say is a general inclination

in all mankind, “a perpetuall and restlesse desire of…”? What
does this mean for mankind, especially in terms of the root of
man’s actions?
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 4. What are the three main “causes of quarrel”? Each one causes
men to invade for different purposes. What are the three
purposes? Are these self-interested ways of acting?

5. When, according to Hobbes, are men “in that condition which

is called Warre” (war)? Does this mean battles, the act of
fighting,….?

6. What are some things men in a state of war must live without?
What do they live with? What is the life of man like?

7. Is anything unjust in a time of war? Why or why not, according

to Hobbes?

8. When are a multitude of men made one person?

9. What is the “greatest of humane Powers”?

10. Does Hobbes believe in authority-by-majority? That is to say,

does he think that the minority voice should hold any weight or
only the majority voice?

11. Can the subjects of a government change it once they have given
consent to it, according to Hobbes? Why?

12. What do the laws need if they are to protect man?

13. Would Hobbes argue for involuntary military service?

14. How does Hobbes define “civill law”?

15. What does Hobbes say is a good law? What is a good law
not?

16. Does Hobbes think law should bind people from any voluntary
action? If not, what should a law do?

Two Treatises of Government by John Locke

1. What does Locke take political power to be?

2. In what state do men naturally exist according to Locke? How

must men act in this state?

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3. What does the law of nature need in order to mean anything?

4. What does Locke say is the “proper remedy for the inconveniencies
of the state of nature, which must certainly be great, where men
may be judges in their own case”? That is, what helps fix the
problem of each man being his own individual maintainer of
justice?

5. What does Locke say is the natural liberty of man? How does he
reconcile the idea of civil government with this natural liberty?

6. Locke says that every man has a property in his own… what?

7. Discuss what Locke means by, “Law, in its true notion.” How
does freedom fit into this?

8. What did God drive man toward? How?

9. Who executes justice in a commonwealth? Compare this to man

in the natural state.

10. How must man interact with the majority in the commonwealth?

11. Locke says that “men…enter into society… to preserve…” what

better? What is government then obliged to limit itself to and
what is it obliged to do?

12. Locke gives four things that government, “though it be the supreme
power in every commonwealth,” cannot do. What are these four
things?

13. What three powers does Locke say government has?

14. Which power is the supreme power of the commonwealth to

which the other powers are subordinate?

15. What can people do if they “find the legislative act contrary to
the trust reposed in them”? Why?

16. What can the people do when the government is dissolved?

17. Is one “little mismanagement” in public affairs sufficient grounds

for revolt and the overthrowing of a government? What would
be good grounds for this?

18. Does power in society ever revert to individuals?

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WEEK 6
Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith
Introduction and Plan of the Work
1. In what does the annual labor of every nation consist?

2. Smith says that the produce (the output) of a nation may be more
or less than what is necessary for the consumers. What two
circumstances regulate this proportion?

3. What, according to the introduction, is Book I about?

Book I
4. What trade does Smith use as an example for the benefits of the
division of labor?

5. Why is the division of labor good?

6. How does division of labor accomplish the answer to question

#5? (Hint: Three reasons)

7. Why does man resort to a division of labor? What role does

self-interest play?
8. Why do we have money, according to Adam Smith?

9. What is the real price of everything, according to Smith?

10. What example does Smith give to explain the value of

exchange?
11. What does Smith mean by natural price?

12. What is the market price of every good regulated by?

13. What is the problem with monopolies, for Smith?

[N.B. Mercantilism: Remember here the idea of Mercantilism. Mercantilism

was the prominent economic system of Europe prior to Smith’s writings.
Mercantilists held that the driving force behind economics should be the
government, which it achieved through tight regulation and control of
industry. They sought to increase exports and limit imports.]

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 14. In Book I, Chapter 10, Smith essentially decries mercantilism,
what he calls the “policy of Europe.” What problem does he
have with it and in what three ways does it accomplish this bad
purpose?

15. What property does every man have, according to Smith?

Book IV, Chapter II

16. Does man generally intend to promote public interest?

17. What is he led by when he pursues his own interest? What does
this thing lead him to do unknowingly? What force does this
invisible hand take the place of?

WEEK 7
The Social Contract or Principles of Political Right by Jean Jacques
Rousseau
Book I
1. In what year was this work published?

2. With what paradox does Rousseau begin in the “Subject of the

First Book”? Explain what it means.

3. What does Rousseau say is the “sacred right which is the basis
of all other rights”? Does it come from nature?

4. How might man preserve himself better than if he remained in

the individualistic state of nature? How can this arise? What
problems might men run into?

5. What must an association strive to balance? What can help

address this need?

6. What does Rousseau say a social compact (contract) is, when it

“reduces itself to the following terms”?

7. What is the name of the “public person, so formed by the union

of all other persons”?

8. In what double capacity is each individual bound?

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 9. What can the “body politic or the Sovereign” never bind itself
to? What would this essentially constitute?

10. If one were to attack one member of the body politic, what else
would they be attacking?

11. Rousseau says that the social compact tacitly includes the
undertaking of what?

12. What change occurs when man moves from the state of nature
to the civil state?

13. What does man lose and what does man gain upon entering
civil society? What things does Rousseau make sure to draw a
distinction between?

Book II
14. What does the general will alone direct the State toward?

15. What is Sovereignty for Rousseau?

16. Complete this quote and explain it: “As nature gives each man
absolute power over all his members….”

17. Why are the “undertakings which bind us to the social body”
obligatory?

18. What sort of equality does a social compact establish?

19. What are some qualities that Rousseau thinks a legitimate act
of sovereignty should have and how does an act meet these
requirements?

20. What is it that men receive instead of “uncertain and precarious

way[s] of living”? Instead of natural independence? Instead of
the power to harm others? How do they receive it?

21. What analogy does Rousseau use to explain the difference

between the legislator and the prince? Explain it.

22. What must laws have if they are to be valid?

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23. What does a wise legislator do before “laying down laws good
in themselves”?

24. Why did those in “pagan times” never have wars over religion,
according to Rousseau?

25. Rousseau says that Jesus came to establish what kind of kingdom?
What does this mean for politics and religion?

26. What are the three kinds of religion that Rousseau talks about?
Describe each one. Which is the worst for Rousseau? Why?

27. How does Rousseau resolve to fix the problem of the “two-headed
eagle” that is religious and secular power?

28. Rousseau says that “a society of true Christians” would not be

what?

29. Does Rousseau believe in any sort of temporal (earthly) power

for Christianity? Explain what he says and what that means for
the possibility of a Christian state.

30. What does Rousseau think of Christian military troops?

31. Explain how Rousseau thinks that religion and the State should
interact.

32. What does Rousseau mean by “civil religion”?

33. What does Rousseau say about the dogmas of civil religion?

34. Since civil religion is not entirely exclusive, what should it tolerate?
What does this mean for Roman Catholics?

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