A General Review of Resonant Inductive Wireless Power Transmission

Naters Bish

Abstract​: Wireless power transfer (WPT) is a developing technology with a multitude of

applications across numerous industries. This review outlines the basic principles behind short
and midrange inductive power transfer, stemming from Faraday’s Law, Ampere’s Law, and the
phenomenon of electrical resonance. Topics related to the development of wireless power
transfer systems are also discussed. This includes summaries of recent research into
wide-bandgap semiconductors, classes of high frequency inverters, and double-sided
compensation topologies. Considerations for improving system efficiency, achieving zero
voltage switching, minimizing load dependence, and extending transmission range are
highlighted as well. Finally, this review touches on recent progress in the field, as well as
current challenges subject to ongoing research. This includes ongoing work on domino
resonators, relay resonator arrays, resistance to frequency splitting, and human exposure
issues.

I. Introduction
The idea of inductive wireless power transfer as a technology has been around for over
a century, with many of its foundational principles and early practical designs being developed
by Nikola Tesla in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century [1]. However, the research
and development of commercial inductive WPT systems, and resonant inductive coupling
systems in particular, has really only taken off in the past few decades. WPT has the potential
to revolutionize multiple industries, and has been proposed for (or is currently being used in)
wide ranging applications including the wire-free charging of consumer electronics and electric
vehicles, the propulsion of small drones, and the powering of implanted biomedical devices.
In general, wireless power transfer involves the transmission of electric power between
circuits through a non-conducting medium by means of some electromagnetic field or wave.
Though there are several varieties of wireless power transmission, including capacitive
coupling, microwave power transmission, and even laser power transmission, the focus of this
review is on inductive power transmission, specifically inductive transmission aided by
resonance. The inductive method is non-radiative and involves the coupling of magnetic fields
between separate wire coils. The shared magnetic flux between the sending coil, also called
the primary coil, and the receiving coil, called the secondary, results in the transfer of electrical
energy. Non-resonant coupled inductive windings can operate efficiently at very short ranges
where nearly all of the magnetic field is shared between the primary and secondary coils,
especially when a magnetic core is present. However, as transmission distance increases, the
coils become very loosely coupled, resulting in most of the energy being dissipated in the
primary circuit. This leads to very low system efficiency. By utilizing resonance, it is possible to
maintain high efficiency air-core inductive transmission even over mid-range distances greater
than the coil dimensions. This is accomplished by attaching capacitors to the secondary circuit
which resonate with the secondary inductive winding at the operating frequency, increasing the
reflected impedance and boosting efficiency.

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 Advancements made in semiconductor technology, particularly with wide-bandgap
devices, have driven recent progress in WPT capacity, efficiency, and reduction of component
size. Various types of high frequency inverters such as the class D, class E, and class Φ​2
configurations using WBG devices have also shown promise for applications in compact, high
efficiency resonant inductive coupling systems. Compensation topologies which lend useful
system properties such as zero voltage switching ability and load-independent output have been
integral to WPT’s technological development as well. Each of these subjects will be dealt with
in turn.

II. Technical Background

Inductive power transmission involves the coupling of magnetic fields between two or
more wire coils. The physical process by which this occurs is governed by Ampere’s law and
Faraday’s law, the two of Maxwell’s equations which relate electric and magnetic fields. The
generation of magnetic field by the primary winding is described by Ampere’s law, which states
that the curl of magnetic field vector field ​H​ around a point is equal to the current density ​J​ at
that point as shown in equation 1.
Therefore, the alternating current through the primary coil generates a time-varying magnetic
flux perpendicular (assuming near field) to the plane of the coil. For the reverse process,
Faraday’s law describes the way that the oscillating magnetic flux through the receiving coil
induces an AC EMF within the secondary circuit. It is given in equation 2, which states that the
curl of the electric field vector ​E​ is equal to the negative time derivative of the magnetic flux
density ​B​.

​ ∇×H =J
(1)
∂B
∇ × E =− ∂t
(2)

Together these effects result in a transfer of electrical energy from the primary to
secondary circuit. Evidently, not all of the magnetic field from the first winding will be coupled to
the second, and this resulting leakage inductance is one of the primary modes by which
transmission loss occurs. Mutual inductance is a quantity which essentially represents the
amount of coupling between two inductors, being the ratio between the induced voltage in the
secondary inductor and the negative rate of change of the current in the primary. It is an
important factor in the determination of the reflected impedance, which will be discussed later.
The mutual coupling coefficient, k, is a better indicator of the degree of coupling between coils,
as it normalizes the mutual inductance to the geometric mean of the primary and secondary
inductances. The relationship between the coupling coefficient and mutual inductance is given
in equation 3.

M
​ k= ​ ​ (3)
√ p Ls
L

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The mutual inductance and coupling coefficient of a WPT system depend on the distance
between coils, the geometry of the coils, and their respective orientations. Generally, increasing
the coupling coefficient will improve the efficiency of power transfer between windings. This
becomes obvious by analyzing equation 3, which shows that reflected impedance varies directly
with the square of mutual inductance (and therefore with the square of the coupling coefficient).
Reflected impedance is the value of the apparent impedance across the primary winding
resulting from current flowing in the secondary. If efficiency is to be maximized, it is in our best
interest to make the reflected impedance as large as possible as doing so reduces the current in
the primary circuit and minimizes ohmic losses [2]. Therefore, increasing the mutual inductance
by placing the coils close together relative to their diameters with their axes aligned will lead to
higher efficiency.

2
ω2 M
Z Ref lected = RL +jX Ls −jX Cs
​ (4)

Of course, for midrange WPT applications it is not possible to have strongly coupled coils since
the desired transmission distance is relatively large. Instead, some other system parameter
must be changed if high reflected impedance is to be achieved. From an observation of
equation 4, it can be noted that the reflected impedance varies inversely with the impedance of
the secondary circuit, providing another route to improving efficiency. By lowering the reactance
associated with the secondary winding, the secondary impedance is reduced to the value of the
load resistance and reflected impedance is maximized. This can be achieved through the use
of resonance. When a capacitor or capacitive network is attached to the secondary inductor,
the entire combination behaves like a short circuit when driven at the resonant frequency. If the
circuit is carefully designed such that the resonant frequency is the same as the operating
frequency of the circuit, high efficiency can be maintained even when the coils are far apart and
the coupling coefficient is relatively low.
However, efficiency is not the only factor to consider in the design of WPT systems.
Often, it is desirable to maximize the power transferred from the source to load, even at the
expense of efficiency. For maximum power transfer, the impedance of the load should be the
complex conjugate of the source impedance. Additionally, the forward voltage gain of any two
port network connecting the source and load should be maximized to achieve the highest
possible power transfer. This amounts to increasing the S​21​ term in the S-parameter matrix.
Unfortunately, a system utilizing maximum power transfer principles will have a maximum
efficiency of only 50% since half of the power available from the source will be dissipated in the
source resistance even if there are no other losses.
On the other hand, if the goal is to maximize efficiency then the load resistance should
be made much larger than the source resistance so that the vast majority of power is dissipated
in R​L​. Depending on the application, one of these two considerations may be more important.
In high power applications, energy efficiency tends to be the most important factor, while in long
range, high frequency, or signal power applications (RF frequency, telecommunications, etc) it
is maximum power transfer that’s the dominating concern. It is important to note that if

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impedance matching for maximum power transfer is utilized, then the overall system efficiency
may be low even if the link efficiency between the primary coil and load is high.
In addition to efficiency and max power transfer, another important factor to consider in
the design of wireless power transfer hardware is the size and weight of the device. Many
applications where WPT would be useful also require the receiving circuitry and power
electronics to be compact and lightweight, such as the powering of drones or biomedical
devices. A consequence of this fact is that the resonant frequency of the system must be very
high, often in the tens of megahertz range. To support this, the switching frequency must be
very high as well. This poses a challenge to maintaining efficient operation, as switching losses
are proportional to the square of the switching frequency.

Figure 1: Equivalent circuit of a simple two-coil resonant inductive WPT System

Image credit: [3]

III. Compensation Topologies

Compensation is the process of placing a capacitor or network of capacitors in an AC
circuit to improve or modify its performance. In a WPT system, compensation can be used in
both the primary and secondary circuits. As previously stated, compensation capacitors are
used to provide resonance with the inductances of the primary and secondary coils. On the
primary side, compensation is typically used to reduce the apparent input power and the source
VA rating. On the other hand, compensation on the secondary side is primarily used to offset
the inductance of the secondary coil, maximizing real power transfer and efficiency.
Single-sided compensation involves compensating only the primary coil or only the secondary
coil, while double-sided compensation involves adding components to both sides. Double-sided
compensation is typically preferred because its higher number of adjustable resonant
parameters provide more degrees of freedom in the design of the resonant circuitry. This allows
for greater control of the WPT system’s behavior and makes several desirable properties
possible.
One of these desirable properties is the generation of a load-independent output current
or output voltage. Since the apparent load of some systems might have a tendency to change
quickly, for instance, as a result of a sudden change in the gap between coils, it is highly
desirable to have a system output that remains stable regardless of load fluctuations. Certain

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resonant networks are capable of achieving this end, and these can be attained through
compensation.
Another highly beneficial property for WPT is zero voltage switching (ZVS). Zero voltage
switching occurs when the drain-source voltage V​ds​ of a FET in power electronics circuitry is
brought to zero before being turned on. By contrast, in regular hard switching, the voltage
across the transistor doesn’t start decreasing until the gate voltage is forced high, causing the
drain current to increase before V​ds​ has decreased to its off state level. This results in lost
power and also causes transient voltage spikes and high frequency ringing, requiring the use of
FETs with higher voltage ratings. These effects become worse as switching frequency
increases, but it is possible to mitigate them through the use of ZVS. The requirements for ZVS
are given in [4]. A capacitor C​oss​ must be placed in parallel with the transistor, and it discharges
before the transistor current is turned on. In order to attain this sort of waveform, the input
phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms of the transistor must be positive. In
other words, the transistor must have an inductive load. Therefore, compensation topologies for
WPT should be carefully considered to meet this requirement for ZVS.
Additionally, systems which are resistant to frequency splitting should also be sought
after in order to ensure stability. Frequency splitting occurs when there exists more than one
frequency at which a zero phase angle (ZPA) can occur, a condition that may happen when two
resonant coils are closely coupled. The number of ways to achieve a ZPA is dependent on the
load, the compensation topology being used, and the compensation capacitor values, which
should be selected to minimize frequency bifurcation. A couple final considerations for
compensation is the maximization of system efficiency, as well as the allowance for bidirectional
power flow in certain applications.
a. Constant Output Current or Voltage:
Using certain resonance topologies, it is possible to obtain a constant current or constant
voltage output for circuits with either a constant current or constant voltage source as input. In
this context, the word “constant” refers to the magnitude of the current or voltage phasor, and
“output” refers to the voltage across or current through the load R​L​. Different resonant
topologies are used depending on the desired input and output type, the derivations for which
are given in [5]. For a voltage input to constant voltage output, a T-circuit topology of inductive
and capacitive elements must be realized. For current input to constant current output, a
Δ-circuit topology is necessary. The general circuit models for these are displayed in figure 2a
and 2b, respectively. If instead the goal is a transformation from current to constant voltage or
voltage to constant current, the networks illustrated in figures 2c and 2d should be selected,
respectively. The exact capacitances and inductances will depend upon the target frequency at
which constant output should occur. The elements in these networks don’t necessarily need to
be individual inductors or capacitors, but rather they can be subnetworks with overall inductive
or capacitive behavior when viewed from their terminals. By adding capacitors to the inductive
windings (taking leakage inductances into consideration as well) in the primary or secondary
circuit in a WPT system, it is possible to form capacitive and inductive groupings which, taken in
aggregate, form one of the resonant blocks pictured in figure 2. By combining multiple resonant
blocks together, it is possible to gain several desirable system properties at once, such as both
constant current output and zero voltage switching ability, for example.

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Figure 2: a. Top left- Constant voltage output from voltage source, Z elements are purely
capacitive or inductive
b. Top Right- Constant current output from current source, Z elements are purely
capacitive or inductive.
c. Bottom Left- Constant voltage output from current source
d. Bottom Right- Constant current output from voltage source
Image credit: [5]

b. Compensation Topologies​:
Compensation capacitors can be added in several different configurations. One
common method of compensation is the series-series topology, in which compensation
capacitors are placed in series with both the primary coil and the secondary coil. This form of
compensation can be used to realize either a constant output current or constant output voltage.
However, a zero phase angle cannot be obtained in a S-S compensation which also produces a
constant output voltage. Series-parallel compensation is another topology which involves the
primary coil being compensated by a series capacitor while a parallel capacitor is placed across
the secondary winding. S-P compensation is usually used for constant voltage output, though it
can be used for constant current output as well. Primary LCC compensation is used for
systems with more than one load. A large primary loop is used to supply power to multiple
loads, each with their own secondary winding. The main purpose of the primary-side LCC
compensation is to maintain a constant current through the primary loop, and additional
compensation stages may be added to the secondary so that the loads have a constant current
or voltage output. The primary winding circuit has capacitors placed both in series and parallel
with the coil, as well as series inductor. The secondary winding may be series compensated,
parallel compensated, or LCC compensated depending on the desired output in the loads. This
sort of configuration could be used to generate constant current in a track used to power
multiple electric vehicles simultaneously, each equipped with their own secondary coils.

6
Figure 3: An example of an LCC-P compensated WPT circuit. Block one provides a constant
current output through the primary, block three provides a constant current output in the load,
and block two can serve as an inductive load, capacitive load, or short circuit to tune the input
phase angle. The capacitor values should be chosen such that the blocks all function properly
at the same operating frequency. Image credit: [5]

c. ZVS and System Efficiency​:

In order for zero voltage switching to occur, the input phase angle between voltage
and current must be positive. However, for the source to have the smallest possible reactive
power (VA) rating, which is highly desirable for a WPT system, the input phase angle should be
zero. It is therefore usually suitable to tune the circuit to have a small but positive phase angle,
allowing for ZVS while also maintaining a manageable VA rating. The equation for phase angle
determination is given by:

180° −1 Im(Z in )
θin = π tan Re(Z in ) ​ ​ (5)

Additional resonant stages may be required to obtain the optimal phase angle while also
outputting a constant current or voltage. However, the gains in system efficiency and reliability
are usually worth the price of added components and complexity.
For an accurate calculation of efficiency, it is important to take the equivalent resistances
of the coils, R​peq​ and R​seq​, into consideration, even though these variables are usually small
enough to be disregarded for other aspects of compensation design. However, resistance is
important for determining the winding quality factors Q​s​ and Q​p​, which play an important role in
the calculation of efficiency. As provided by [6], the equation for the maximum efficiency of an
S-S or S-P compensated system is:

ωLp ωLs
Qp = Rp eq , Qs = Rs eq ​(6)
η max = c
2 , c = k 2 Qp Qs ​ (7)
(1+√1+c)

As an additional note, if the compensation capacitors have zero equivalent series resistance,
the real power efficiency of the system depends entirely on Z​s​, the secondary circuit’s
impedance. This means it depends only on the impedance of the secondary resonance network
and the transmission efficiency, but is completely independent of the primary resonance
network.

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 IV. Power Electronics
Inductive wireless power transfer requires power electronics to produce oscillating AC
waveforms from DC input power, and usually to produce a constant DC output power in the
receiving device as well. The first function, DC to AC conversion, requires the use of inverters,
while AC to DC conversion involves a full wave rectification step. Both inverters and rectifiers
include semiconductor device components, with the former needing transistors or FETS of some
kind to serve as switching devices and the latter simply needing diodes. In many WPT
applications, high switching frequency and high efficiency is required of the power electronics
systems for WPT, sometimes under high voltage stress or high power conditions. This section
details some emerging wide-bandgap (WBG) semiconductor devices which display advantages
over their silicon counterparts in high frequency or high power applications. It will also discuss
several classes of high frequency inverters being used for resonant inductive power transfer.
a. WBG Devices
Wide band gap semiconductors are semiconductive materials which feature band gaps
significantly higher than that of conventional semiconductors such as silicon or gallium arsenide.
They typically possess bandgaps in the range of 2-4 eV at room temperature, in comparison to
1.14 eV for silicon. Wide bandgap semiconductors display superior properties for high
temperature, high voltage, and high frequency operation in comparison to silicon. Currently,
silicon-based IGBTs have breakdown voltages of 6.5 kVs at most, and furthermore have poor
switching capability at those voltages. Silicon-based devices also are limited to an operating
temperature range below 200 degrees celsius. WBG devices can typically withstand higher
max blocking voltages before breakdown occurs, and many have higher melting points, lower
switching losses, higher average electron velocity, and higher thermal conductivity, which allows
for better conduction of heat away from the device.

Figure 4: A comparison graphic of the properties of Si, SiC, and GaN

Image Source: [7]

Two materials which are especially promising and which have been the subject of a
great deal of research interest in recent years are SiC and GaN. At present, these materials
have the best combination of physical properties, availability, cost, and maturity of their
manufacturing process. At this point, the technology for these materials is not nearly as mature
as for conventional semiconductor devices, and there is a great deal of research still to be done,

8
but in time they may begin to compete with or overtake silicon for high frequency market share.
The following paragraphs describe some of these devices which are currently on the market or
under development.
SiC power diodes are one such device. They have a higher dielectric constant than
silicon and therefore show a tenfold increase in blocking voltage for the same drift layer
thickness, according to [7]. There are three main varieties of SiC diode: P-I-N diodes, Schottky
barrier diodes (SBDs), and junction barrier Schottky (JBS) diodes. PIN diodes have an intrinsic
(non-doped) region between the p-type and n-type sides, giving them a lower peak electric field,
higher breakdown voltage, and lower off-state current. However, they show poor high
frequency switching characteristics. SBDs display excellent high frequency behavior and low
conduction losses, but also have a high off-state leakage current and lower blocking voltage.
JBS diodes represent the best of both worlds, possessing both high switching speeds, high
blocking voltage, low off-state current, and low on state resistance. JBS diodes are available
with blocking voltages up to 1.2 kV, as reported by [7].
SiC transistors also show advantages over their silicon power MOSFET (Metal Oxide
Field Effect Transistor) and IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) alternatives. SiC JFETs
lower conduction losses than silicon power MOSFETs, lower high-frequency switching losses
than IGBTs, and higher breakdown voltages than either. These devices are already hitting the
market. A 1.5 kV breakdown voltage, 0.5 ohm on-resistance JFET has been developed by
Infineon for use in resonance converters and power supplies. SiC bipolar power switches such
as IGBTs also act as transistors with promising properties. Several available SiC IGBTs have
blocking voltage over 10 kV with good switching characteristics and specific on-resistances on
the order of milliohms or tens of mΩ * cm​2​ at a gate bias of 20 V.
GaN power devices are also starting to become available. While their high temperature
viability is not quite as outstanding as that of SiC technology, they have even higher breakdown
voltages and electron mobility than SiC. GaN diodes, for example, are typically lateral devices
which have shown breakdown voltages up to 9.7 kV. GaN transistors such as HEMTs (High
Electron Mobility Transistors) have also seen a great deal of interest in recent years. HEMTs
are lateral GaN devices which feature a junction between two materials with unequal band gaps
that acts as the conducting channel, as opposed to MOSFETs which use a doped region as a
channel. The two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in the junction has an extremely high
electron mobility value, yielding a very low on-state resistance. This trait, combined with low
switching loss, gives them great potential for use in high frequency, high power systems. One
of the biggest hurdles for HEMTs currently is their relatively high cost and long manufacturing
times. As detailed in [8], GaN wafers are typically grown using Hybrid Vapor-Phase Epitaxy
(HVPE) or by chemical deposition on a sapphire substrate. These methods are slower than the
melt-growth process used to fabricate silicon wafers.
b. Inverter Topologies
The first stage of an inductive power transfer system is generally an inverter for
converting DC power to an AC current that can generate a magnetic field. There are several
classes of inverters which show promise for high frequency operation or which support zero
voltage switching. These may use silicon MOSFETs as switches, or they could alternatively
utilize one of the available WBG transistor devices for improved high-frequency performance.

9
 One type of resonant inverter which has often been proposed for use in WPT systems is
the class D, though these are usually lower frequency designs. Class D inverters have low
efficiency at high frequencies due to high switching loss, even despite supporting ZVS
functionality. However, by adding an additional series capacitor and auxiliary switch to the load
branch, the output power can be regulated without modulating the frequency. [9] demonstrates
how this can be used to satisfy the sub-optimum class E switching condition.

Figure 5: A Class D inverter

Image Credit: [4]

Another configuration is the class E resonant inverter. This configuration is typically

used for applications with frequencies above 10 MHz. It allows for zero voltage switching and
features only one transistor switch. However, the active switch is subject to high peak voltage
up to and even exceeding 3.6 times the DC input voltage, so the semiconductor device must be
able to withstand this voltage stress [10]. This is a problem, since switching devices with higher
voltage ratings tend to have lower conductivity and worse switching performance, resulting in
higher power dissipation in the switch. Also, the input inductor L​f​ in class E inverters tends to be
large, slowing down the transient response of the circuit which worsens switching loss. One
final issue with this configuration is that ZVS can only be achieved for a specific load value, so
fluctuations in the load lead to a decrease in efficiency.

Figure 6: A class E inverter

Image Credit: [10]

The class Φ​2​ inverter is similar to the class E, but includes an extra branch in parallel
with the switch with an inductor and capacitor. This branch resonates at the second harmonic
of the switching frequency, providing a low impedance path for those voltage waves and
reducing the peak stress on the switching device to only twice the DC input voltage. Due to this,
the voltage waveforms across the switching transistor of the Φ​2​ inverter appear approximately
trapezoidal [11]. Additionally, the input inductor L​f​ is usually much smaller in class Φ​2​ inverters
than class E inverters, resulting in faster transient response but a larger input ripple current.

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Conveniently, the effect of the larger ripple current is mitigated by the interleaving effect when
two converters are operated in push-pull. Perhaps the most important advantage of this type is
that it can be designed to remain at ZVS conditions over a wider range of load resistance values
without external control loops or physical tuning of the circuit. This is highly desirable for
applications where the apparent load is dynamic and the distance between coils may change
quickly.

Figure 7: A class Φ2​ ​ inverter

Image Credit: [10]

V. Recent Progress and Ongoing Problems

A number of issues for resonant inductive power transfer remain, but there are ongoing
efforts to solve these problems and continue increasing the efficiency and range of WPT
systems. One major range limitation of two-coil midrange WPT systems is the inverse
relationship between the cube of the distance separating the coils and the magnetic coupling
coefficient when the distance between coils is much larger than the radius of either coil.
Because the real power energy efficiency is proportional to the square of the magnetic coupling
coefficient, the efficiency of midrange WPT systems drops rapidly as distance between coils
increases. These relationships are illustrated by equations 8 and 9.

1
k 12 ≈ d 3 ​ ​(8)
2( r )
2 √r 1
k 212
ηE ∝ 2 ​(9)

There are a few options for extending the transmission range, most of which involve the
addition of extra coils into the system. One proposal is to introduce two additional resonating
coils. The four coils are then the driving power coil, the sending resonant coil, the receiving
resonant coil, and the load coil. Strong coupling exists between the power coil and sending coil,
the sending coil and receiving coil, and the receiving coil and the load coil. Weak coupling
exists between the power coil and receiving coil, between the sending coil and load coil, and
between the power coil and load coil. The weak mutual coupling coefficients can be mostly
disregarded. By equating the coupling coefficient between sending and receiving coils with the
product of the coupling coefficients between the power and sending coils and the receiving and
load coils, impedance matching is achieved and the maximum power transfer condition is met.
A more detailed explanation is provided in [3]. The idea for this technique isn’t new, but it may
allow for greater WPT range and peak power transfer at the expense of a maximum efficiency of
only 50%.

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 Relay resonators between the sending and receiving coil have also been proposed as a
means of increasing transmission distance. These can be used at both low and high
frequencies, and they drastically reduce the rate of efficiency loss with increasing distance. At
low frequencies in the tens of kilohertz range, the maximum power transfer principle is generally
not applied and the efficiency of the coil may greatly exceed 50%. However, many proposals
have featured operating frequencies in the MHz+ range and use impedance matching to satisfy
the maximum power transfer principle. One example of this is magneto-inductive waveguides
composed of planar printed resonators [3], although these are only used for low power or signal
transmission applications and have a max efficiency of only 50%.
Another intriguing concept for boosting range is the use of domino-resonator systems.
These are somewhat analogous to the previously-discussed magneto-inductive waveguide idea,
except they are designed for lower frequency, higher power applications, and typically are
designed for maximum efficiency instead of maximum power transfer. Because they typically
operate in the sub-MHz frequency regime, they allow for lower switching losses and AC
resistance, though this does mean they require much bulkier resonating coils. The fact that they
use near-field magnetic coupling, and thus possess relatively high mutual coupling coefficients
also contributes to higher efficiency. Another beneficial property of these systems is that it is
possible to control the power flow with a great deal of flexibility. Different wireless power routes
can be combined, split into branches, bent in an arc, or even made circular. Despite the
exciting features, one challenge with domino resonators is that the coils are close enough to
couple with many other windings, not just the adjacent ones. In many cases, this is enough to
create a mismatch between the optimal switching frequency and the resonant frequency of the
coils, as mentioned in [3]. As long as this phenomenon is understood and accounted for in the
design, however, it will not prevent these systems from working properly.
In addition to range concerns, methods of reducing AC winding resistance in the coils
will also need to be explored. Losses stemming from this sort of resistance are a significant
drag on overall system efficiency. Furthermore, the AC winding resistance due to the skin effect
and proximity effects grows as the frequency increases, making it more challenging to
miniaturize resonators by increasing operating frequency. The skin effect is the tendency of
alternating current in a wire to have the highest density near the surface and exponentially
decrease toward the center. The proximity effect is the tendency of alternating current in
densely packed conductors to cluster away from other nearby conductors. Both of these
processes tend to decrease the effective conduction area and increase the apparent resistance.
To diminish these effects, a tubular winding with spiralling surface conductors has been
designed [12] which could reduce the AC winding resistance. The conductor surface width is
roughly equal to the skin depth at the operating frequency, minimizing the skin effect, while the
twisting conduction layer reduces the proximity effect. Magnetoplated wires are another option
for decreasing AC resistance, as these have been shown to decrease it by 40% at 12 MHz
according to [3].
Another issue with WPT is the potential for harmful human exposure to electromagnetic
fields. This may not necessarily be a big problem for short-range transmission, as there are
certain protections which can be put in place. Some examples include EM shields and localized
charging for portable electronic charges and magnetic flux guide designs for higher power

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applications such as EV charging. However, midrange power transfer may prove to be more
problematic in this regard. Further research into the harmful effects of strong electromagnetic
field exposure and potential methods for mitigating such exposure is still needed.

Figure 8: Acceptable human exposure levels to electric and magnetic fields given by the
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
Image Credit: [3]

VI. Conclusion
This paper has provided a general overview of resonant inductive wireless power
transfer, touching on a number of related subtopics including compensation topologies, WBG
devices, and inverter types. The basic operating principles of WPT governed by Ampere’s law
and Faraday’s law were highlighted, as well as the important concepts of the maximum power
transfer principle and the maximum efficiency principle. Maximum power transfer requires
impedance matching and is limited to a maximum system efficiency of only 50%, making it less
suitable for high power applications. Efficiency is maximized when the equivalent load
resistance is large relative to the source resistance. In a two coil system, it is therefore
desirable to maximize the reflected impedance by minimizing the reactance of the secondary
circuit and maximizing mutual inductance.
Resonant WPT systems can be compensated in ways which result in advantageous
system properties, such as constant current or voltage output, zero voltage switching, and high
efficiency. Many of these involve double-sided compensation, in which compensation
capacitors are added to both the primary and secondary circuits for added degrees of freedom
in the adjustment of resonant parameters. The end goal of secondary compensation is often to
achieve a high Q factor to boost efficiency, while the goal of primary side compensation is often
to adjust the input phase angle.
Wide bandgap devices are another important facet of many WPT systems in
development. Many WBG semiconductors display superior performance under high voltage,
high power, or high frequency conditions compared to their silicon counterparts. These have
been used in various classes of inverters which have been proposed for WPT, including class
D, class E, class EF, class EF​2​ and class Φ​2​ inverters.

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 There is still a great deal of work to be done. Methods of improving efficiency and range,
reducing size, mitigating frequency splitting, and generating more stable outputs are all still the
subject of ongoing research. Human electromagnetic field exposure issues may also be a
significant barrier to high power, midrange inductive transmission becoming commonplace in
everyday life. Despite being a still maturing technology, the potential of WPT is very appealing,
and the subject offers bountiful opportunities for further research.

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