EECS 203: Discrete Mathematics

Fall 2019
Discussion 5 Notes
1 Definitions
• Mathematical Induction:

• Strong Induction:

• Well-Ordering:

Solution:

• Mathematical Induction: Mathematical Induction is a proof method use to

prove a statement P (n) holds for “all” n. Often “all” n is n or Z+ , but the desired
range of n varies by problem. Mathematical induction has two steps:
(1) Base case: Show the statement is true for a base case. Often this is for n = 0
or n = 1, but it doesn’t have to be.
(2) Inductive Step: For an arbitrary k, show that if the statement is true for
n = k, then the statement is true for n = k + 1. That is, show P (k) → P (k + 1).
In this step, we assume P (k) – this is called the Inductive Hypothesis (IH).

• Strong Induction: Similar to mathematical induction but using a different in-

ductive hypothesis:
∀k[(P (1)∧P (2)∧· · ·∧P (k)) → P (k +1)], where k ≥ some starting case. everything
else has to be proven with base cases.
There is often more than one base case for strong induction

• Well-Ordering: A set A with ordering ≺ is well-ordered iff every non-empty

subset S ⊆ A has a least element according to ≺.

1. Exercise 5.1.8
Prove that 2 − 2 · 7 + 2 · 72 − · · · + 2 · (−7)n = [1 − (−7)n+1 ]/4 whenever n is a nonnegative
integer.

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 Solution:

The proposition to be proved is P (n):

[1−(−7)n+1 ]
2 − 2 · 7 + 2 · 72 − · · · + 2 · (−7)n = 4

In order to prove this for all integers n ≥ 0, we prove the basis P (0) and prove the
inductive step, that is, P (k) implies P (k + 1) for an arbitrary natural number k.

For the inductive step, we assume that P (k) is true and derive P (k + 1). Our Inductive
Hypothesis is P (k):

2 − 2 · 7 + 2 · 72 − · · · + 2 · (−7)k = [1 − (−7)k+1 ]/4.

We want to show P (k + 1):

[1−(−7)(k+1)+1 ]
2 − 2 · 7 + 2 · 72 − · · · + 2 · (−7)k + 2 · (−7)k+1 = 4

To prove an equation like this, it is usually the best to start with the more complicated
side and manipulate it until we arrive at the other side. In this case we start on the
left. Note that all but the last term constitute precisely the left-hand side of P (k), and
therefore by the inductive hypothesis, we can replace it by the right-hand side of P (k).
The rest is algebra:

[1 − (−7)k+1 ]
−2 · 7 + 2 · 72 − · · · + 2(−7)k + 2 · (−7)k+1 = + 2 · (−7)k+1
4
[1 − (−7)k+1 ] + 8 · (−7)k+1
=
4
[1 + 7 · (−7)k+1 ]
=
4
[1 − (−7) · (−7)k+1 ]
=
4
[1 − (−7)(k+1)+1 ]
=
4

Now in P (0) for our basis, the left hand side has just one term, i.e. 2 · (−7)0 = 2, and
the right hand side is [1 − (−7)0+1 ]/4 = 8/4 = 2. Since 2 = 2, we have verified that P (0)
is true.

2. Exercise 5.1.24
1 1·3·5·...·(2n−1)
Prove that 2n
≤ 2·4·...·2n
whenever n is a positive integer.

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 Solution: Let P (n) be the proposition given above.
We assume the inductive hypothesis 2k 1
≤ 1·3·5·...·(2k−1)
2·4·...·2k
and want to prove the similar
inequality for k + 1.
1 1
We proceed as follows, using the trick of writing 2(k+1) in terms of 2k so that we can
invoke the inductive hypothesis:

1 1 2k
= ·
2(k + 1) 2k 2(k + 1)
1 · 3 · 5 · ... · (2k − 1) 2k
≤ ·
2 · 4 · ... · 2k 2(k + 1)
1 · 3 · 5 · ... · (2k − 1) · 2k
=
2 · 4 · ... · 2(k + 1)
1 · 3 · 5 · ... · (2k − 1) · (2k + 1)
≤
2 · 4 · ... · 2(k + 1)

1 1
Our basis step of P (1) is 2
≤ 2
which is the true statement.

3. Exercise 5.1.21
Prove that 2n > n2 if n is greater than 4.

Solution: Let P (n) : 2n > n2 .

Base step for n = 5: 25 > 52 or 32 > 25.
Inductive step: Assume that P (k) is true, that is 2k > k 2 . Show the statement is true
for when n = k + 1:

2k+1 = 2 · 2k > 2 · k 2 > k 2 + 4k ≥ k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2 .

Hence, 2k+1 > (k + 1)2 and so 2n > n2 if n is greater than 4.

4. Exercise 5.1.34
Prove that 6 divides n3 − n where n is a nonnegative integer.

Solution: Let P (n) be the predicate that 6 divides n3 − n.

Base step for n = 0: 06 = 0, so it is true for n = 0.

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 Inductive step: Assume that P (k) is true, that is 6 divides k 3 − k. Show the statement
is true for when n = k + 1, that is show that 6 divides (k + 1)3 − (k + 1):

(k + 1)3 − (k + 1) = k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 − k − 1 = (k 3 − k) + 3k(k + 1)

The inductive step shows that 6 divides the first term.

We can see that 3k(k + 1) is divisible by 3 because 3 is factored out. We can also see
that 3k(k + 1) is an even number, by the definition of an even number. Since 3k(k + 1)
is divisible by both 2 and 3, it is by definition also divisible by 6.
Hence, 6 divides n3 − n where n is a nonnegative integer.

5. Exercise 5.1.80
Prove or disprove that all checkerboards of these shapes can be completely covered using
right triominoes whenever n is a positive integer (Hint: A right triomino is an L-shaped piece
that covers 3 squares):
b) 6 × 2n
d) 6n × 6n

Solution: b) Let P (n) be that you can tile a 6 × 2n board.

Inductive Step:
Assume that P (k) is true for any k|k ∈ Z+ .
Prove that P (k + 1) is true:
Since we know that P (k) is true, we know that to satisfy P (k + 1) we have to somehow
fill the new 6 × 2 squares. We can fill these new squares by combining 2 right triominoes
to make a 3 × 2 piece. Next we stack 2 of these 3 × 2 pieces on top of each other to make
a 6 × 2 piece. Once we place the new 6 × 2 piece next to the 6 × 2k filled pieces given by
P (k), we have completely covered the board of size P (k + 1).

Base case:
When n = 1: Board size = 6 × 21 = 6 × 2.
To fill a 6 × 2 board we can stack and combine 2 triominoes to make a 3 × 2 piece. Next
we stack these 3 × 2 pieces on top of each other to make a 6 × 2 piece. Then we have a
6 × 2 piece that can cover the 6 × 2 board.

Hence, by mathematical induction we have shown that you can tile a 6 × 2n board
with right triominoes.

d) Let P (n) be that you can tile a 6n × 6n board.

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 Inductive Step:
Assume that P (k) is true for any k|k ∈ Z+ .
Prove that P (k + 1) is true:
Since we know that P (k) is true, we know that to satisfy P (k + 1) we have to somehow
fill the remaining squares to fill a 6k+1 × 6k+1 squares. We can fill these new squares by
combining 2 right triominoes to make a 3 × 2 piece. Next we stack 2 of these 3 × 2 pieces
on top of each other to make a 6 × 2 piece. Then we place 3 of the 6 × 2 pieces next to
each other to make a 6 × 6 piece.

We then place k of the 6×6 pieces on top of each other and place them next to the 6k ×6k
board given by P (k). Then we place k + 1 6 × 6 pieces next to each other and place that
entire block below the 6k × 6k squares. Once we appended all the new 6 × 6 pieces to the
6k × 6k filled pieces given by P (k), we have completely covered the board of size P (k + 1).

Base case:
When n = 1: Board size = 61 × 61 = 6 × 6.
To fill a 6 × 6 board we can stack and combine 2 triominoes to make a 3 × 2 piece. Next
we stack these 3 × 2 pieces on top of each other to make a 6 × 2 piece. Place 3 6 × 2 pieces
side by side to make a 6×6 piece. Then we have a 6×6 piece that can cover the 6×6 board.

Hence, by mathematical induction we have shown that you can tile a 6n × 6n board
with right triominoes.

6. Exercise 5.2.12
Use strong induction to show that every positive integer n can be written as a sum of distinct
powers of two, that is, as a sum of a subset of the integers 20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, and so on.
[Hint: For the inductive step, separately consider the case where k + 1 is even and where it
is odd. Note that when (k + 1) is even, (k + 1)/2 is an integer.]

Solution: The basis step is to note that 1 = 20 . Notice for subsequent steps that 2 = 21
, 3 = 21 + 20 , 4 = 22 , 5 = 22 + 20 , and so on. Indeed this is simply the representation
of a number in binary form (base two).

Assume the inductive hypothesis, that every positive integer up to k can be written
as a sum of distinct powers of 2. We must show that k + 1 can be written as a sum of
distinct powers of 2. Consider the case where k is even. Because the only odd power of
2 is 20 = 1, and for 20 to be part of the numbers summing to k we would therefore have

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 to have 20 twice (but these are distinct powers of 2), we can assume that when k is even,
k can be written as a sum of distinct powers of 2 without a 20 term. If k + 1 is odd,
then k is even, so 20 was not part of the sum for k. Therefore the sum for k + 1 is the
same as the sum for k with the extra term 20 added. If k + 1 is even, then (k + 1)/2 is
a positive integer, so by the inductive hypothesis (k + 1)/2 can be written as a sum of
distinct powers of 2. Increasing each exponent by 1 doubles the value and gives us the
desired sum for k + 1.

7. Exercise 5.2.13
A jigsaw puzzle is put together by successively joining pieces that fit together into blocks.
A move is made each time a piece is added to a block, or when two blocks are joined. Use
strong induction to prove that no matter how the moves are carried out, exactly n − 1 moves
are required to assemble a puzzle with n pieces.

Solution: Let P (n) be the statement that exactly n − 1 moves are required to assemble
a puzzle with n pieces. Now P (1) is trivially true. Assume that P (j) is true for all j < n,
and consider a puzzle with n pieces. The final move must be the joining of two blocks,
of size k and n − k for some integer k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. By the inductive hypothesis, it
required k − 1 moves to construct the one block, and n − k − 1 moves to construct the
other. Therefore 1 + (k − 1) + (n − k − 1) = n − 1 moves are required in all, so P (n) is
true.