CBT How To Do It - For Trainers

COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING
HOW TO DO IT
FOR TRAINERS
Percy J Worsnop PhD, BA, BEd, MEd
TD/TNC
36.04
'AL CENTRE FOR VOCATIONAL
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NAT
EDUCATION! RESEARCH LTD.
A.C.N. 007 967 311
COMPETENCY
BASED
TRAINING
HOW TO DO IT - FOR TRAINERS
by
Percy J Worsnop PhD, BA, BEd, MEd
Education Project Manager, Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS AND TRAINERS

ON APPROACHES TO COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING
Developed for the COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING WORKING PARTY, of

the Vocational Education and Employment Training Advisory Committee
(VEETAC)
Canberra 1993
Contents Page
1. Introduction 2
2. What is Meant by Competency? 3
3. Teaching and Learning to Become Competent 5

Competency Standards the Base
Competency Standards and the NTB
4. The Framework for Competency Based Training 9
5. Identifying the Need for Training 12

Training Plans
6. Design and Develop Training 18

Check Existing Training Programs
7. Organise Training Resources 21

A Useful Checklist
Supervisors in the Training Process
8 Deliver and Evaluate Training 25

Continuous Improvement
Changes in the Trainer's Role
Some Thoughts on Delivery
9. Assess Performance of Trainees 34

The Key to Effective Learning
Competency based Assessment
Assessment in the CBT Framework
10. The Extras 45

Doing the Paperwork
Promoting a Learning Culture
11. Bibliography 47
12. Glossary of Terms 50

COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING - HOW TO DO IT FOR TRAINERS
1. Introduction
COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING (CBT) procedures, and at the same time to open up
is being introduced into vocational a training market where private providers
education and training in Australia could compete on an equal footing with the
with the key objective of raising the publicly-funded systems, was a momentous
efficiency of the Australian workforce. task.
The decision to adopt a competency It will take time, but it is proceeding and
based approach to training in Australia was gradually the required changes are being
made by the Ministers of Vocational made. The most difficult of all the changes
Education, Employment and Training required is the mind set change which
(MOVEET) in 1989. This follows teachers and trainers in particular will have
considerable research both in Australia and to undergo, but which relates as well to other
overseas. The decision was aimed at making participants in the training scene.
vocational education and training more Not least among these other participants
effective, closely directed at industry needs are the trainees. Many of these have been in
and able to compare favourably with that of the workforce for some time and are looking
Australia's trading partners. for their existing competencies to be given
The essence of CBT is that it is credit towards vocational education and
concentrated on the end product on what training awards. They, and others, are finding
people can do as the result of training. That it necessary to re-enter training in response
concept is not in itself new. What is new is to change in the technology, the organisation
the wholehearted attempt to introduce CBT or the structure of the workplace. For more
into all areas of vocational education and than a few, their educational background has
training. At the same time, the decision was included experiences they look back on
taken to underpin this approach with a poorly. The new world in vocational
national system of industry competency education and training must serve them
standards endorsed by the National Training better.
Board, which was set up specifically for that This book is written with all these
purpose. factors in the background. It is intended to be
The decision was indeed a bold one. The a practical guide for those who have to
task of setting up a nationally consistent prepare and deliver vocational education and
system of vocational education and training training in the new and reformed order. Their
based on industry-developed competency role has changed forever, and the ideas and
standards was never going to be easy. To do practices outlined are intended to help them
so in a federation where each State and make the most of the exciting opportunities
Territory had its own operating system and their new role offers.
COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING HOW TO DO IT FOR TRAINERS
2. What is meant by Competency?

/N PURSUING a competency based positive and responsible attitude towards
approach to vocational education and one's role in the workplace.
training, it is fundamental to establish a The teaching/learning process that is
clear understanding and a sound working required to achieve competency as defined
knowledge of what is meant by competency. below has to answer a number of questions,
The National Training Board has namely:
adopted a definition which focuses on what
is expected of an employee in the workplace. WHAT
It is consistent with the definition used in the END? What is the end product of the
UK and other countries that have adopted behaviour or practice that one is
CBT. It is reproduced here from the NTB learning? If the job is done
publication National Competency correctly, what is the result?
Standards. Policy and Guidelines, 2nd
Edition, October 1992. WHAT
This definition of competency has MEANS? How does one do the job or
significant implications for the perform the task correctly?
teacher/trainer and for the trainee/learner in Efficiently? Effectively?
the development of competencies. Clearly it Meeting the task requirements
extends well beyond "training" that develops in terms of quality, timing and
simple (or complex) manual skills. It also appropriate use of materials,
involves knowledge, reasoning and a facilities, equipment?
COMPETENCY
The concept of competency focuses on what is expected of an employee in the workplace rather'
than on the learning process; and embodies the ability to transfer and apply skills and knowledge
to new situations and environments. Competency isa broad concept that includes all aspects of
work performance and not only narrow task skills.
Competency encompasses:
the requireMent to perform individual tasks (task skills);
the requirement to manage a number of different tasks within the job (task
management skills);
the requirement to respond to irregularities and breakdowns in routine
(contingency management skills);
the requirement to'deal with the responsibilities and expectations of the work
environment (job/role environment skills), including working with others.
WHAT intellectually challenging and the content,

REASON? Why does a person perform a the inputs to training, the training
task? Why perform it in a given methodology are all vitally important if one
way? Why follow particular is to achieve the outcomes.
patterns or guidelines? Why There is a danger that an outcomes-
plan the task? based approach, which is the essential nature
of CBT, and an input-based system come to
WHAT IF? What if problems occur? What be seen as mutually exclusive. Nothing could
if faults arise? What if the be further from the truth. The inputs, in terms
unexpected happens? What if of content and methodology, are vital to
one tries alternative achievement of the desired outcome. And if
approaches? What if one tries to the desired outcome is that the learner
bend the lawssay of physics? achieves competency at a given task, then
that result which is sought guides the inputs.
WHAT It does not replace or deny them. It guides
ROLE? What role is a person in this them.
function expected to fulfil?
What is the expected level of
involvement, commitment,
creativity, responsibility? How
do people at a particular level
know what the expectations are
and meet them?
WHAT
PEOPLE? Who is dependent on one's
performance? One's assistance?
One's co-operation? One's
contribution? How do people
interact collaboratively with
each other? What does that
mean in the workplace?
This list is not exhaustive, but it does

give a good indication of the consequences
of adopting the agreed definition of
competency.
It indicates that education and training
in a competency based system are
4
3. Teaching and Learning

to become Competent
COMPETENCY in a job is developed. It Practice
does not suddenly happen with a Review
flash of insight. Nor does a person
Application
achieve competency by knowing what to do
and being able to talk about it. Ultimately the The amount of repetition required
gaining of competency requires practice in depends on a number of factors, such as the
the work. complexity of the work, the learning ability
It is interesting that we accept the notion of the learner, the teaching ability of the
of "going into practice" in a number of the teacher, the quality of feedback from
professions, through which practitioners assessment steps during the learning process
gain competence. At the same time we have and the motivation of the learner, among a
not always been as ready to recognise the whole host of environmental and other
need for, and the value of, practice as a factors.
fundamental part of gaining competency in Most of these factors are not new, nor
the performance of jobs at all levels. Perhaps are they confined to CBT. They have always
this has been brought about by an been inherent in the learning process. What
unwillingness to undertake the assessment of is different in a CBT system compared to
performance rather than the more simple other approaches is the emphasis on doing
assessment of knowledge, leading to things to show competency, rather than just
assumptions about the likelihood of knowing about them. This brings a very
performance matching knowledge. While different perspective for both the learner and
there is little doubt of the correlation between the teacher/trainer.
lack of performance and lack of knowledge The learner needs to know, from a very
it is dangerous to assume the same level of early stage in the process, exactly what is
correlation between performance and eventually going to be required of him or her,
knowledge. primarily so that he or she can begin to
To return to the main theme. The prepare mentally, emotionally and physically
development of competency can usually be to perform at the level required for
plotted through a sequence of training which competency. The teacher/trainer needs to
requires: tell the learner what will be required.
This simple action marks the beginning
Demonstration
of a whole new relationship between the
Explanation trainer/teacher and the learner. Through it
5
starts the empowerment of the learner and

putting of control of the learning process
much more in the hands of the trainee/learner
then has ever been the case before.
A teacher discussing CBT recently
commented that the most significant change
for teachers would be the role they would
play under the CBT system. Once teachers
could simply present the theoretical concepts
and pass the application to the learner. Under
CBT, teachers have to base their process on
the application of concepts so that the learner
works on the basis of knowing what are the
competency standards to be achieved. The
learner gains more control of the learning
process than ever before.
6
Competency Standards the Base
COMPETENCY STANDARDS are in the workplace, competency standards can

statements of the level of skills, be used for a number of purposes within the
knowledge and attitude expected of three groups noted above:
people in various functions, positions and the basis for developing training
roles in the workplace. programs;
Competency refers to a person's ability
the basis for job instruction;
to perform at a satisfactory level in the
workplace. It includes a person's ability to setting up individualised training plans;
transfer and apply skills and knowledge to establishing enterprise training plans;
new situations and a new environment.
recognition of prior learning;
Competency is a much broader concept
than simply skill at a task. It includes a set of performance reviews;
skills, underlying knowledge and selection and promotion reviews;
appropriate attitude.
a guide for planning job rotation;
Competency covers:
developing job descriptions; and
performance of individual tasks (task
skills); work organisation and job design.
In the training area, competency
managing a number of different tasks
standards form the basis of the material to be
within the job (task management skills);
learned, the way it is learned and practised
responding to problems, breakdowns and the assessment which confirms the
and changes in routine (contingency learning.
management skills); and Training based on well-stated outcomes
dealing with the responsibilities and is focused, efficient and effective. Because it
expectations of the workplace (job or focuses on training people for actual jobs in
role environment skills). the world of work, it is relevant to them and
has an inbuilt motivational factor.
Competency standards form the base
for many workplace activities. They are
particularly at the heart of three key
elementstraining, performance and job
allocation.
Because they are statements of real
expectations of the way people will behave
7
Competency Standards and the NTB
THE NATIONAL Training Board (NTB) and no doubt the revised standards which the
has been established to guide the Board requires after a two-year review
development of competency period will reflect experience in writing and
standards in Australia as part of the using the standards.
vocational education and training reform In its most recent communications, the
agenda. The Board is responsible for National Training Board has moved to break
endorsing national standards of competency any link between competency standards and
and for recognising the competency award classifications, real or perceived. It
standards bodies (CSBs), the industry bodies has also moved to provide a more generous
set up to develop and maintain national approach to the development and
competency standards. endorsement of enterprise competency
The NTB has published its policy and standards, although its original goal was for
guidelines on the development of standards to be primarily industry based.
competency standards. It has also published Standards have been endorsed by the
a binder of technical guidance notes and NTB which have application across
assigns advisers to work with competency industries. These include the competency
standards bodies in developing standards. standards for assessors, for trainers, for
The writing of competency standards is a clerical functions and for some areas of
task in which the practitioners develop skill, occupational health and safety.
4. The Framework for

Competency Based Training
COMPETENCY BASED training is a Each of these in turn has a range of
system of training which rests on a activities associated with it. The guide that
series of interlocking steps or follows will discuss each of the steps in this
processes. In their simplest form, these sequence in turn in some detail. That will
consist of: constitute, together with these initial points
and some pointers to further reading and
establishing the end product (the
information, a useful and usable
competencies to be gained);
compendium on CBT for practical providers
providing training and practice of training. For the moment, this section will
opportunities (the learning/training conclude with a brief statement of the tasks
process); of each step.
checking that the final performance
meets the requirements (the assessment 1. Identifying the Need for Training
process). The necessary element in this task is the
If those steps are successful the training development of competency standards to
works. They are the basic elements to return provide a reference point. Competency
to whenever the process looks complex and
standards provide the measure of the
the tasks seem overwhelming. Whatever is
workplace requirements. In the reform of the
added, and the full sequence is about to be
Australian system of vocational education
displayed, those three elements remain the
and training, competency standards are
key.
generally being developed on an industry
The full sequence consists of: basis, following approaches and formats laid
1. identify the need for training down by the National Training Board to
ensure nationally consistent final products
2. design and develop training
which are subject to endorsement by the
3. organise training resources
Board.
4. deliver and evaluate training
The Board's guidelines make provision
5. assess performance of trainees
for enterprise specific competency standards
and for competency standards that apply
The Extras:
across industries.
do the paperwork associated with
The general principle is that the
training;
competency standards will be developed by
promote a learning culture. representatives of the industry group. The
9
Board facilitates that process by recognising compulsory, except insofar as it relates to the
competency standards bodies as the official public system.
voice of the industry and allocating an There is a vast body of training material
adviser to help the body. All the competency available in the community. In many cases,
standards bodies (CSBs) are tripartite it may well be possible to find that the
representatives from employers, unions and required training can be developed more
government. readily from existing material than would be
the case if entirely new material were to be
2. Design and Develop Training developed.
In a CBT system, competency standards Even material that is not in a
form the base on which training is developed. competency based format may be readily
The design and development of training is transposed, provided that the content is
frequently referred to, particularly among appropriate. It would be a waste of resources
educationalists as curriculum development. to disregard all pre-CBT material because of
Curriculum covers the full range of incorrect formatting without first examining
work in preparation for training, covering the the context for usefulness.
preparation of training objectives, course or The possibility of linking new material
program outlines, learning materials, to accredited courses, for instance, should
teacher's guides and assessment strategy. also be kept in mind in considering how to
In a public and publicly funded system, provide training to fulfil the identified need.
where the intention is to recognise the
achievement of competency for general 3. Organise Training Resources
employment purposes, a system of checks Training is a physical process as well as a
and reviews operates to ensure training mental and psychological one. And yet the
standards and public confidence in the three aspects are interrelated. As McLuhan is
system. These goals result in requirements to often quoted, or perhaps misquoted, "The
have courses accredited by authorised medium is the message". A powerful
agencies. message is given to those people who find
Accreditation is intended to grant that training is not organised. Equally, they
official endorsement of the quality of the are given a powerful message when the
proposed training. The accreditation process trainer is organised, the training place is
is administered by recognition bodies set up organised and training and learning materials
by State and Territory training authorities. are organised and ready for use before the
The recognition bodies review the quality of training commences. To add to that, if their
the material, particularly in relation to work environment and supervisors are
educational principles and the extent to supportive of the training, then its value is
which courses are able to articulate into other enormously enhanced.
facets of education to make lifelong learning
possible and attractive. Accreditation is not
4. Deliver and Evaluate Training The Extras:

The delivery of training may take many Do the Paperwork Associated
forms. In the more detailed discussion of with Training
training delivery, attention will be focused on The recording of competencies achieved by
the need for a mindset change, to think in trainees will assume increasing importance
terms of the facilitation of learning. as the value of a job or skills passport
Evaluation of the effectiveness of becomes more readily recognised. People
training in terms of helping people become will need to be able to rely on records of
competent, and equally in terms of helping attainment both for internal job and
people to want to become competent, is a placement requirements and for seeking new
vital part of training. Without careful and fields whether in employment or in
collaborative evaluation between trainers continuing education.
and learners, there will be no possibility of
continuous improvement in the provision of Promote a Learning Culture
training. Teachers and trainers have a very clear
function, indeed a deep-seated responsibility
5. Assess Performance of Trainees to be advocates for training. Their influence
Assessment may be classified into two main in shaping people's attitudes towards
types by function. These types are training is unchallengeable. But the direction
summative assessment and formative or of those attitudes can swing towards a highly
diagnostic assessment. favourable view of training or with
Summative assessment is the final step vehemence of equal measure towards an
in the process of developing competency to unfavourable view.
the standard required. It serves to confirm The way that teachers and trainers
that a person has achieved the competency behave, on the job and in their relationships
standard sought. There should be no with their clients, the learners, is the most
surprises at the final assessment. It is a powerful single factor that motivates people
confirmation, not a hurdle to overcome. to want to participate in training, or motivates
Formative or diagnostic assessment, them to get as far away from it as they can as
which are simply variations on the same quickly as they can.
theme, are an inherent part of the The guides in the following pages will
learning/training process. They are the expand each of these main steps towards
means through which the learner and the implementation of CBT.
teacher/trainer track progress. The analysis
of performance can then serve to guide the
succeeding phases of learning.
The different functions of these
assessment types calls for different
approaches, which will be discussed later.
11
5. Identifying the Need for Training
THE DISTINGUISHING feature of because the job has changed for whatever
competency based training is that it reason. Training may be required when the
is focused training. Focused training work is not being performed correctly. There
is, by its nature, directed towards satisfying is a general rule which says that training is
an identified need. It is quite important, often the answer for "CAN'T DO"
therefore, for trainers to develop and use situations. It is rarely the answer for
skills in identifying the need for training. "WON'T DO" situations.
These skills will include The decision on whether training is
communication skills, interpersonal skills needed should be based on information. The
such as interviewing and negotiating, trainer needs to gather the information from
problem solving and analytical skills and a appropriate people. One useful question
knowledge of the workplace and empathy might be to ask whether anybody has ever
with the people in the work situation. done the job correctly. The job may well need
The first step is for the trainer to talk to to be re-designed, for instance. Other useful
people to see if a training need exists. This questions relate to information about the
means consultation with the people extent of instruction or training provided, if
responsible for supervising the work and any.
people who are responsible for doing the When jobs are not being done correctly,
work. they may well be "WON'T DO" jobs. People
Sometimes training will be required to know how to do WON'T DO jobs. They just
equip people with competencies for the job don't do them the way they should. The
because the people are new to the job or corrective action in this situation is rarely
"CAN'T DO" SITUATIONS

Test Yourself: Is Training Required?
The person can't do the job correctly because he/she does not know how to do the
job.
The person can't do the job correctly because he/she does not have the right
equipment.
Nobody has ever shown the person how to do the job correctly.
The person doesn't do the job correctly because he/she does not have enough
authority.
The job is too hard for one person to do properly.
12
SITUATION ANALYSIS IS TRAINING REQUIRED?
Standard YES Review Competency Standards

of
Competence
Met? NO Can't Do/Won't Do Analysis
Can't Do Won't Do
Find Cause Find Cause
Don't know how

Physically impossible Take Action
Organisationally impossible
Change Reward System
Possibilities Train Supervisors
Undertake Training Re-structure
Change jobs, etc
training, for the operator anyway. The cause In time, competency standards will be
is usually an unsatisfactory reward system, endorsed for most functions in Australian
or perhaps even negative reward
a business and industry. The competency
(punishment) for doing the job properly, standards will show what people are
which discourages people. Not training, but expected to do at work and the quality of
changes in the work structure and performance required. For specific jobs, the
relationships are usually indicated in these trainer will need to discuss with the people
situations. intimately associated with the job, and reach
If analysis of the situation shows the agreement, on the units of competency
need for training, where does the trainer go applicable and those to which the training
next? In a competency based system, the should be directed.
answer is always to look up the competencies These initial analytical steps are critical
required in the job in question. If that seems to successful training and are fundamental to
too easy, it is at least the starting position. CBT. Too often training endeavour is
The having looked up the
task, misdirected. It requires quite strongly
standards of competence required, is to find maintained discipline to work through the
out the actual performance of people on the analysis phase before rushing into training.
job. If it is a CAN'T DO situation, then But the analysis stage is not yet finished.
training should be provided to help people Before starting to prepare for training,
reach the standard of competence required. If the trainer should note the outline of the
it is a WON'T DO situation, the appropriate analysis and have the key players agree with
action needs to be worked out. the position. The value of this step is that it
13
CAN'T DO or WON'T DO? WHAT DO YOU THINK?

A store manager complained that he'd have to train his staff again. For some reason
they did not maintain a proper stock rotation on the supermarket shelves. He hadn't
seen anyone doing the job incorrectly, but he knew they weren't rotating the stock,
because of the checks on Use By dates.
The trainer noticed that a batch of newly-hired apprentices differed greatly in their
approach to handling tools and equipment. One group were most careful to replace
the tools properly on a shadow board system. The other group just hung them up any
old way and got out the door as fast as they could.
both relies on the people in the affected However, if the process is clear and logical,
function to give the analysis a final review then the practice has a good chance of
and gets them both committed to it and succeeding. Certainly practice (no pun
involved in the next step. intended) will help the trainer become much
more proficient in following the process.
Preparing to Train: In working through the process, it is
When the analysis indicates that there is a quite important to work closely with the
need for training, the work of preparing for stakeholders, who are primarily the potential
training can begin. There are three steps in trainers and their supervisors. Other key
this preparatory stage: players in the situation may include
experienced workers in the area or the peers
(i) identify the competencies requiredin or team mates of the trainee.
the performance of the specific task, or As well as this process of uncovering
the job, or in fulfilling the role in the the things that people need to learn to do prior
workplace; to developing the training, the trainer should
also examine the work and learning
(ii) identify the competencies already held environment. There may well be barriers to
by the people or the person for whom learning, or to training, which need to be
training is proposed; and taken into account. As far as possible these
should be uncovered and strategies
(iii) the difference between steps (i) and (ii) developed to circumvent them. Potential
should highlight the competencies on problems that are exposed are more likely to
which the training will need to be be overcome than those which pop up
focused. unexpectedly.
As with all these preliminary steps, the
If only the practice were as simple as the trainer should make maximum use of the
steps (i), (ii) and (iii) might make it appear! expertise of people on the job in identifying
14
potential problems and working out

remedies. The plan to achieve the goals of the
training is much more likely to be successful
with a strong foundation of that sort.
The preliminaries are highly important.
They provide the context and the focus for
the training. Sometimes they can be as
exciting as the training itself, particularly if
one likes being sleuth. The next step allows
for creative activity based on that detective
work.
15
Training Plans
THERE MAY BE occasions when ad hoc The enterprise training plan may well
training is necessary to fill a short- go into some detail, outlining the sort of
term need. A policy or process training that will be provided, for people in
change, for instance, might require training various parts of the organisation, for
in new ways of operating for the people instance, or for people at various levels, such
affected by the change. A problem in terms as technical personnel or supervisors. The
of product, or relationship with customers, plan may also extend some time into the
might best be fixed with training for the future in parallel with the business plan.
people involved. More frequently training is The functions of the enterprise training
a longer term function which needs to be plan are to set up the context within which
planned over a period of time, extending to training activities ought to take place and to
years. serve as the basis for detailed training
Three sorts of training plans are program content and timing. It provides a
commonindustry training plans, basis on which to organise facilities,
enterprise training plans and individualised personnel and other arrangements for
training plans. training both within the enterprise and
Industry training plans are usually a externally and it provides a framework
broad aggregation of the extent and type of within which individualised training plans
training that can be predicted for an industry. can be developed.
They are usually put together by a body Training plans for individual employees
formed to represent at least key players in the in an enterprise are a fundamental part of the
industry. The plans are intended to provide human resources management and
information to government authorities in development activity for all supervisors and
particular to guide budget planning for managers. They should be developed in
instance, and the planning associated with consultation with the employee as part of the
infrastructure development and personnel regular review of employee performance,
arrangements in the public education and personal development objectives and career
training systems. goals.
Enterprise training plans must support
the business plan of the enterprise. Not
infrequently they are incorporated into the
business plan, at least in a broad form. They
are commonly developed as a means of
fulfilling parts of the business plan.
Well-developed personal training plans training, for an enterprise, for a section or

for individual employees will indicate unit of the enterprise, or for individuals, the
proposed training activities over a period of trainer needs to co-ordinate the evidence
time. They will include both training presented for the need for training with the
programs and other learning experiences guide provided by the various levels of
such as reading of specific texts. They should training plans. Co-ordinated, organised,
also provide some pointers to appropriate planned training activities avoid many of the
work assignments and career moves. pitfalls of scattered, ad hoc approachesthe
Both enterprise training plans and the "butterfly" approach to trainingwhich
individual plans are of particular value and frequently lead to management's calling the
interest to trainers. In identifying the need for value of training into question after the event.
IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR TRAINING
A CHECKLIST
Can't do/Won't do Analysis Done Related to corporate goal

Problem is known Participant group known
Supervision involved in Related to training plans for
discussions group
Purpose of training agreed Related to individual training
plans
Fits in with enterprise training
plan Options for training discussed
17
6. Design and Develop Training

THE MOST USEFUL, and most effective ACTRAC-sponsored work, User's Guide to
training is usually that which forms Course Design for competency based
part of a coherent wholea training Curriculum. Rather it addresses the
plan. preparation of training for delivery and
The training plan should set out clearly review on the job in a step by step process.
the outcomes that are being sought, relating A recommended set of steps is as
them to the organisational objectives and the follows:
requirements of the individuals concerned.
Sample proformas are attached for guidance. (i) Establish the outcomes expected
As well as the goals of the training, the in terms of the competency
training plan should set out details such as the standards for the job.
time allocation, the timing sequence and the
sequence of training activities and practice. The outcomes might be
Estimates should also be made of the costs of competencies. They might be the
training. background or necessary knowledge
The finished product may be a under-pinning the performance
spreadsheet or it may comprise a series of required. They should be built on
individualised training plans depending on action verbs.
the depth and complexity of the training
proposed and the organisation's approach. (ii) Breakdown complex outcomes
The plan provides the overall map of the into simple steps.
intended activity. It facilitates development
of training programs in an organised way. It is quite important that participants
Some of the training required might be can follow very directly the
already developed"off the shelf'. Others outcomes they are trying to achieve
may be purchased or available through some through the learning process. This
agreement with a supplier, for instance. Part need requires careful thought on the
of the trainer's function is to seek and review trainer's part to both explain the
alternatives. outcomes and to show their
This section will not address the relevance in terms of their
requirements involved in developing relationship to the standards of
curriculum documents for accreditation of a performance expected on the job.
course or program in line with the National
Framework for the Recognition of Training.
Those requirements are spelt out in the
(iii) Choose the assessment There are some general rules that might
approach. be followed, such as the relationship between
the whole and the parts, movement from
This step involves establishing theory to practice or leading from simple to
statements of the evidence that will complex, even following a consistent
be required to assure both progress pattern, but in every case arguments can be
toward the learning outcome and mounted to move either way. Often the
indicators that the desired standard participants, whether in a group or as
of performance has been achieved. individuals, will share meaningfully in
Assessment must be seen as a suggesting the sequence that suits them. One
diagnostic tool (formative) and a principle always worth considering is to
confirmation of achievement ensure that action learning occurs as early as
(summative). In either case, possible in the process.
assessment that is open, non-
threatening (in that it is not (v) Review the process with the
perceived as a hurdle to be participants.
overcome) ,and planned and carried
out in a joint activity with the During a training program or course,
learner, will fit in with the both at appropriate points and at the
requirements for a learner-centred end, the trainer should evaluate
approach to training that is progress and the response of the
fundamental to CBT. It is enhanced participants. Both understanding
by a system of self-checks to and enjoyment should be probed.
encourage participants to learn to People learn best when:
assess their own progress. they know where they have been;
they know where they are going;
(iv) Plan the sequence of the and
learning program. they enjoy the learning
experience.
The sequence in which items are
presented in a learning program is
not always greatly significant. Some
steps in learning are pre-requisite to
others, and the two should follow in
close proximity in that
circumstance.
19
Check Existing Training Programs
WHEN THE TRAINER has identified accredited training where it may be possible
the need for trainingthat is to link in new training activities in some sort
analysed the situation and can of credit transfer or articulation arrangement.
show that training is required, and what sort The value in this linkage lies in the
of training would be appropriate, at least in possibility that the proposed training might
general termsthen it is time to step back contribute to a vocational education and
from the situation and review the training training award for some of the participants.
scene. In these circumstances they would have
The objective of this exercise is not to additional motivation to participate in the
slow down the process. Nor is it simply to training.
have a rest. It is to provide the opportunity to Existing training could come from the
see if there are training programs available in stocks of private or public providers. It might
the community that would help fulfil the be found to be on the national register of
requirements. accredited courses maintained by the
The development of training programs National Training Board, or it might be on
can be a very time-consuming task. It may be the listing of the Australian Committee for
the only way to ensure that the training meets Training Curriculum (ACTRAC) which
the need, but there may well be training commissions each year a range of publicly
materials available in the community which, available training.
with little adaptation or perhaps some
customisation, will meet the current need. In
this case, the better and more economical
course might be to work with previously
developed, available material.
Even where there is not material readily
available a search may well identify some
I
7. Organise Training Resources
TRAINERS ARE OFTEN recognisable participants in their care. They will

from their long armsthe result of certainly need to be briefed on the task
years of carrying boxes of manuals they have to perform and the role they
and other training equipment to training have to perform. Participants need to be
sessions. On a more serious note, the need to made aware what they can expect from
organise resources and prepare the training staff involved in the training.
materials and facility to ensure smooth
running, high performance training is a 2. The place where training is to take
fundamental requirement to facilitate place, be it a classroom, a training
learning. centre, a vestibule or a work location,
The motivational effect on participants needs to be organised beforehand. It
who find that their training has been prepared needs, in the first instance, to be
for in an efficient and business-like manner available, and if booking is required,
makes the effort worthwhile. Conversely, the then the trainer should ensure that
demotivating effect of an ill-prepared bookings have been made. It is
training session outweighs by far the value of important that a suitable choice of
the material itself, however much thought location be made, if a choice is
has gone into its preparation. A number of available. Factors to be considered
suggested items to consider follows. include noise, proximity, comfort,
security and the general ambience
1. The trainer needs to make sure that which gives the learner a strong feeling
enough suitably competent staff are that the training is important in the
available to provide training and affairs of the business or the institution.
assistance for learners. These people
might be subject or job experts. They 3. Added to the suitability of the location,
might have a training or mentoring role. and an inherent part of it are the
They might work with groups large or facilities at the place. Learning will at
small or they might be required on a best be difficult if not impossible and
one-to-one basis. They may well the training effort ineffectual if the
provide assessment, either formative or facilities do not support the learning
summative, or both. They may need opportunities that should be provided.
training or advice on how to train and/or Particularly where equipment is
how to assess, guide and advise required, there must be enough, it must
21
be the right equipment and it must be

freely available for efficient training
A USEFUL CHECKLIST
and effective leirning to take place.
Preparation for Learning
4. Tools and other resources need to be in
Trainers ready and briefed
good working order, appropriate for the
Mentors ready and briefed
learning process and available in Assessors ready and briefed
sufficient quantity. The trainer is Training area(s) booked
responsible to ensure that the learning Written materials ready
Handouts prepared
process is enhanced by the work that is Course Leader guides ready
expended in preparing the people, the Assessment planned
location, the facilities and the other Evaluation materials ready
Visuals prepared
resources that are required. Overhead transparencies
slides
diagrams, pictures, charts
video material
audio material
films
sample products/parts
breakdown sheets
job instruction guides
Materials and tools ready
Equipment ready
People notified
Supervisors in the Training Process
IN MANY INSTANCES, supervisors will be training is low in his/her esteem to an

the people responsible for conducting employee who is attending training does not
the training. Indeed, training people, have to do much to demotivate the employee.
particularly on a one-toe-one basis, how to do Consider the supervisor comments below to
specific jobs, is an inherent part of the an employee going off to a training session.
supervisory role. Where the training is to be On the other hand, a supervisor who is
done by specialised trainers, either internal supportive, who makes it obvious that
or external to the enterprise, then the role of training is valuable and encourages his or her
the supervisor changesin function but not employees to participate in training, is an
in importance. invaluable support to a trainer. This sort of
It is important that the trainer enlists the supervisor:
aid of the supervisor in an endeavour to
create an environment that will support the helps prepare employees for training by
trainee, if such an environment does not discussing the program beforehand and
already exist. The supervisor is the key clearing the decks at work so that the
person in forming that environment. A employee can attend the training with a
supervisor who makes it obvious that mind free of work worries;
TEST YOURSELF: MOTIVATING OR DEMOTIVATING?

a. Let's know how it goes.
b. Off to Mickey Mouse land again.

c. I wish I could get away to school for a while.
d. We'll talk about the course when you get back.
e. Don't worry. We'll manage ... somehow.
f. Just as well Fred's in today or we'd be in real trouble.
g. See if you can put our time problem as a case study.

h. Enjoy your holiday. Ha Ha.
i. You must have got the big boss at a weak moment to get him to agree to this.
J. Anything you need us to do?
23
may be useful as a reference or

supporting expert in the training itself,
particularly where assignments or
practical work are required between
sessions;
helps the application of the learning by
supporting the work that needs to be
done on the job after the training. This
assists the participant to gain full value
from the learning process; and
supports the trainee in developing
competency in the workplace based on
the learning achieved through training.
A
8. Deliver and Evaluate Training

CBT Is ESSENTIALLY a learner-centred Explain the objectives and the
and learner-based approach to outcomes of the training to the
training. This imposes a set of people being trained.
conditions on the trainer in relation to the If they are to be truly participants in the
delivery of training which may well be quite training process as learners, then at the very
different from the experience in a different least they must be known where they should
approachparticularly a trainer-centred be going and what the outcomes are
approach. supposed to be. By sharing in the
The role of the trainer becomes very understanding of the goals, they will better
much more that of a facilitator of learning understand the relevance of the activities in
than anything else. If highly-developed the learning experience and be motivated to
presentation skills assist the learning process want to learn. They are owed the confidence
and provide inspiration for learners, then that of the trainer as partners in the
is the measure of their value. But training/learning process.
presentation skills are transitory in that they
die with the passing of the presenter. The Explain the learning and assessment
greater gift that the trainer can impart to the process to the trainees.
learners is the guidance which teaches them There should be no surprises to learners and
how to learn. they can participate more fully as partners in
Following from this, it is axiomatic that the experience with the trainer if they know
the trainer seek and provide suitable what to expect and why it is being done.
opportunities, resources and guidance for Adult learners, indeed, have the right to
participants in the training experience to expect that the trainer will take time to
manage their own learning. This includes the explain the learning and assessment
full gamut of learning, from preparation to processes to them. This explanation is part of
seeking resources to self-evaluation and self- the empowerment of the learner which is a
assessment. There used to be a saying which significant feature of CBT.
was perhaps questionable: "If the learner
hasn't learnt, then the teacher hasn't taught". Ensure that presentation and
However, if one substitutes "then the teacher training methods are appropriate.
hasn't done his/her job", then the saying is To do this the trainer needs to develop a good
apt. understanding of the trainee's background
The following items will provide a and aptitudes. Inappropriate presentation
useful guide for trainers who seek to do their style and training methods are counter-
job well. productive and inhibit learning. They may
25
well cause lasting damage to participants by Provide ample practice opportunities.

making them cynical and suspicious of Learning and the gaining of competency are
training of all sorts as not for them. The contingent upon knowing what to do, how
ultimate test is whether competencies are and why to do it and then being given the
developed, but if they are developed in spite opportunity for guided practice. There are
of the influence of the trainer rather than several aspects to guided practice. One is that
because of it, then the trainer is a failure on the practice is appropriate for the specific
many counts. learning situation and leads to the desired
competencies. A second aspect is that,
Use training equipment and initially at least, there is guidance to ensure
materials correctly. that the practice reinforces the correct
Correct use of training equipment and approach to the task. And then there are the
materials adds to the value and efficiency of feedback and diagnostic aspects of guidance
the learning experience. If learning is through which the trainer maximises the
enhanced by it and learners are conscious quality of the practice to the learning process
that they are seeing good practice, then the and the gaining of both confidence and
lessons learned are valuable. Training competence.
equipment and materials are available to
assist learning. They should be used Monitor trainees' readiness for
thoughtfully and appropriately. Visuals such assessment.
as films which only provide a break for the The trainer has a role to play in preparing
trainer, for example, are valueless and trainees for assessment. This not only
usually seen as a waste by the learners. To consists of instruction and ensuring that the
use or not to use can be a vexed question, and trainee is aware of the sort and extent of
should be subject to frequent review. evidence of competency required. It goes
further, too, than the feedback on
Provide frequent advice and feedback performance during training. It includes
to facilitate the learning process. helping the learner realise his or her level of
The trainer should be an active facilitator. capability so that the final assessment
Facilitation is not a passive role, nor is it decision is both anticipated by the learner
contained only in sound preparation and and approached in the full knowledge that the
introduction activities. Learners need the summative assessment will be confirmation
regular and frequent contact a trainer can of competency and not a potential failure
provide to reinforce their learning, to provide situation. The experienced trainer will
feedback and to guide them in the learning perform this role easily. The inexperienced
processes. trainer will need to work on his or her
learning in this important area.
Follow up trainees' performance on trainee can show how the learning is able to
the job. be applied on the job. The trainer also gains.
The main value of training in economic terms In the first place he/she is able to monitor that
is that it helps people improve their competencies are being used. There is also
performance. The task of the trainer is an the feedback and evaluation element. The
ongoing loop that starts at the workplace and direct feedback from application experiences
then come comes back to the workplace with is probably the best there is and enables the
follow up and support for trainees back on trainer to fine tune the training approach.
the job. Finally there is the aspect of the trainer
There is a special relationship which remaining close to the job. It is both a
develops between trainers and those with concern and a possible criticism that trainers
whom they work. It means a lot to trainees gradually become remote from the
that the trainer finds time to visit them on the workplace. Following up on trainees is a
job. It rounds off the training when the pleasant way to keep close to the job.
27
Continuous Improvement
ALL TRAINING should be dynamic in 3 interaction between/among

that it is continually evolving to trainees on perceived basis
meet the changing needs of the
learners. Part of the drive for continuous D. Examine success of the training
improvement will come from looking ahead program in light of objective
and calculating what requirements are likely criteria:
to be in the future. Part will come from 1 number of attempts needed to
examination of experiences with the training reach required standard on
and adapting future behaviour based on the assessment
results of that analysis. The trainer should 2 success rate in assessment
gather the information for analysis of the 3 average length of time, following
experience by using some of these evaluation training, before trainees maintain
approaches. a satisfactory level of
performance
A. Seek expression of satisfaction
with the training process from the E. Review success of training
trainee(s): program in meeting enterprise
1 orally goals:
2 in written form on a scale 1 gain oral comments from
3 in written comments management on their perception
of success of training
B. Examine his/her own perception 2 follow up to confirm performance
of the success of the training after training and practice period
process: 3 have participants report on
1 own satisfaction application plans made during
2 apparent satisfaction of trainee(s) training
3 review comments made by 4 measure effects of training on
trainee(s) work performance
C. Examine success of the training F. Examine own performance:

program in light of subjective 1 preparation
criteria: 2 timeliness
1 response of trainee(s) 3 thoroughness
2 interaction between trainee(s) 4 attitude to trainee(s)
and self 5 closing off the training session
Changes in the Trainer's Role
ANUMBER OF changes in the role of and teacher of people who provide training
the trainer have taken place in incidental to their main role. A recent ILO
recent years. Not all of these study (G F Pillay, 1992) concluded that the
changes are directly related to the largest task confronting trainers in the rest of
introduction of CBT, but CBT has speeded this decade is likely to be the training of part-
up the process of change quite dramatically time trainers. The report claimed that, in
and it will continue to do so. developing organisations, everyone had a
One aspect of change is the change from training role at times. For these people,
being a teacher/instructor to being a training involves not only learning how to
facilitator of learning. This is partly a result train, or how to assess performance, but also
learning to appreciate and exercise their
of the change in emphasis, mentioned above,
rapidly expanding training responsibility.
from the teacher to the learner. The trainer's
The task is probably more
role is to set up a situation which encourages
straightforward for training staff employed
people to pursue their own learning and
within an organisation. They are more likely
development.
to be in contact with supervisors on a regular
An extension of this role is advising
basis. The trainers are most likely to have had
people in establishing their own learning
ongoing input to the training and
goals and the development of individualised
organisational policies that have been
training plans. In the relationship between
developed to involve enterprise personnel
the trainer and the trainee, there is an
such as supervisors directly in training.
emphasis on teaching the trainee to learn
For external trainers, such as TAFE
rather than teaching the trainee things.
teachers or private consultants, the first task
A different aspect of the change in the
will be to set about establishing sound
role of the trainer is the increased emphasis relationships with supervisors and likely
on the trainer's function as the one who trainers. This will be important in working
actively co-ordinates and supports the with enterprise personnel, and it will also be
involvement of others, particularly important in planning the nature and extent
supervisors and subject or content experts in of involvement of in-house personnel.
the training process. As training becomes Finally, sound relationships will help in
more and more recognised as a continuing integrating the training into the work and life
function of work rather than as a specialised of the organisation. Only when a comfortable
activity, the co-ordinating role of the trainer rapport has been established with an
will increase in importance. organisation and its culture can an external
Beyond the co-ordinating role, there is trainer provide the quality of facilitating
also a specialised role as the guide, mentor which is so necessary to build training into
29
the organisational ethos. The facilitation and

review efforts of the trainer are more likely
to be effective in a receptive environment
than otherwise.
The trainer who has established good
rapport with those on the ground will do his
or her bit to create a learning culture within
the organisation:
by listening to them;
by taking an interest in what they are
doing;
by avoiding the temptation to preach
solutions rather than indicating how to
approach problems; and
by being ever ready to acknowledge the
skills, knowledge and experience of
others.
Some Thoughts on Delivery
THE NATURE of competency based (b) Another effect is that, where the goal is
training, with its emphasis on the competency, rather than competition,
primacy of the outcome, puts the trainees are more likely and able to
learner into focus as the centre of the process. work in a team or group. The experience
This has a significant effect on the delivery of those people who have worked in
teams in the workplace reinforces the
methods for training.
expectation that people who train in
teams, and are not competing with each
(a) One of the effects is an increase in the
other for results, will help each other to
value and appropriateness of
learn and to gain the necessary
individually-paced learning programs.
competencies. This tendency should be
People learn at different rates, and
used by the trainer in planning the
always have. That differential learning approach to delivery of training, to
rate is the chief justification for practice and review. People work better
individually-paced, or self-paced in groups, by and large, and the non-
learning programs. The introduction of competitive element of competency
CBT brings with it, because of its based training facilitates group activity
emphasis on predetermined outcomes, and co-operation.
the opportunity to develop more or less
standard programs which the learner (c) If the outcome of training is to help
can tackle alone. Motivation to participants gain competency, then the
continue, always a problem with integration of off and on-the-job
programmed learning materials, is learning achieves a level of importance
and demands a level of commitment
assisted because the learner can move
that is quite new.
through a series of outcomes and be
Directing training at the achievement of
buoyed up by successfully completing
competency gives it a much tighter
the sequence of known goals. In group
focus than training with a different base.
sessions, the different learning rates
Focus is one of the key words associated
tend either to inhibit faster learners'
with CBT. This tight focus means that
progress or confuse slower learners. the relationship between theory and
CBT lends itself to self-paced learning practice needs to be very closely
programs. The newest technology, with maintained. It would be generally
interactive computer assisted learning, inappropriate to provide a significant
helps make the learning programs even amount of training in theoretical
more lively, effective and palatable. concepts over a period of time and let
31
the application happen as it may. enterprises as the use of the

Certainly no one would become competency standards might well
competent without opportunity to apply extend beyond the vision of the
learning and to practise application. If overall industry body. Integration
competency is to be achieved, the nexus of off and on the job training will
between theoretical understanding and demand the development of close
practical application must be strong and relationships between trainers and
must be maintained. people in the workplace. The
Based on these premises, a number of resulting training will, however, be
points follow: better focused, far more obviously
There must be a limit to the amount relevant to the trainees and richer
of time spent in block release away in consequence.
from the job. The amount of time
is a point to consider in planning (d) The introduction of CBT brings with it
block release and the work to be the need to spell out to trainees the
done in that period. outcome of their training in specific
It is quite critical that the trainer terms. Many trainees will undoubtedly
establishes a firm relationship with have achieved the competencies
the trainee and with the trainee's associated with these outcomes already.
workplace. If the trainer has a good
working knowledge of the It is not in any way uncommon for
workplace and can, in conjunction trainers to recognise that the people they
with the trainee relate theoretical are training have a considerable body of
understanding to the job, then knowledge, understanding and
integration of off and on-the-job experience pertinent to the topic under
learning becomes likely. In cases review. This is particularly true for adult
where the trainee does not come trainees, but is not restricted to adults.
from a job, then the trainer's Moving into competency based training
knowledge of current practice in highlights the necessity of
the workplace becomes doubly acknowledging the experience of the
important. Simulation is a bridge learners and planning to use it in the
to practice, but it is at best a pale delivery of training.
imitation. Acknowledging the experience of the
The trainer must maintain up to learners is a form of RPL. RPL is
date and close familiarity with, and usually thought of as a means of
understanding of, the competency providing formal recognition for
standards and the way they are experience through advanced entry to
interpreted and used in industry. courses, qualifications, movement in
Trainers also need to liaise with award structures and the like. It also
32
applies at an informal level in training.

The trainer should work with the
trainee, using the competencies as the
base, to identify and acknowledge what
the trainee knows and can do. This need
not be a time-consuming or highly
formalised, rigorous process because
the risk level of assigning too much
credit is low. The outcome should,
however, have a direct effect on the
delivery approach adopted by the
trainer.
Options to use the experience of
trainees in a group session include the
following:
pair an experienced trainee with
one less experienced;
have experienced trainees make
presentations;
use a number of experienced
trainees to talk about their practical
experience in a forum;
integrate trainees' experience with
theoretical information;
refer to experienced trainees for
illustrative examples;
use them as syndicate leaders; and
involve them in leading
discussions.
33
9. Assess Performance of Trainees

ASSESSMENT IS the thread that binds both the type and the amount. As these
together the three key elements of must flow directly from the learning
CBT leading to effective outcome or competency standards, it
performancecompetency standards, can be seen how directly this stage fits
training and practice. into the training and the empowerment
Assessment is a fundamental part of of the learner. As part of this preparatory
training. The trainer and the trainee need stage, the trainer would explain the
continually to assess progress towards the nature of the assessment procedure and
goal of competency. The information from any requirements, rules or guidelines
this ongoing assessment will guide both the that are relevant. The arrangements
emphasis in the training and the need for should be, and be seen to be, transparent
amendment, re-training or more frequent and freely available. There should be no
review. surprises in the assessment process.
This is the most important function of
assessmentto guide the training effort and Second stage: This stage involves the
then provide constant feedback on the gathering of evidence and consideration
direction and rate of progress. Eventually the of its value. Clearly the participant can
last of this series of continuing assessments help in assembling appropriate
will confirm that the trainee has gained the evidence. Indeed, that exercise is itself
competency or competencies. a valuable part of the learning
There are constant features which are experience. The trainer who works with
always part of the assessment process. They people and has them working towards
involve the preparation for assessment, the same goal is perhaps giving them
assessment of performance itself and the one of the most valuable gifts a trainer
need to deal with the results following the can provideguiding or teaching them
assessment. to assess their own performance and to
In all these activities, it is important recognise the essential features of that
that the process be seen as a joint venture performance.
between the assessor and the person being
assessed. The joint approach affects the Third stage: With evidence gathered
way each stage in the process is handled. and reviewed, the trainer must decide
whether there is sufficient evidence that
First stage: The trainer needs to share the trainee has achieved the standard of
with the trainee the nature of the performance expected. The tasks then
evidence required in the assessment, left are to record the results, so that they
34
are safe, available to the appropriate inherent part of the teamwork that must
people and known to the trainee. This is develop between the trainer and trainees to
the trainer's best opportunity to counsel assure the most effective learning possible.
and help the trainee by providing The principles involved are that the
feedback which is fair and friendly but trainee knows what is expected in the first
at the same time analytical and frank. instance. The trainer has to trust the trainees,
They need to look to the future, and and show that trust. Both parties have to
further competency requirements, not make a strong commitment to the common
to the past, except insofar as it will goal of achieving competency. In a technical
shape the future. As a final step the sense, the analysis, diagnosis and feedback
trainer should review the assessment are sound training practice.
process with the trainee in the interests Assessment is not a stand alone process.
of continuous improvement. Seen in that light, as a hurdle to cross at the
final stage, it is not value adding, nor can the
The Key to Effective Learning cost be justified. As an inherent part of the
training and learning process, it contributes
The stages above have been adopted from the to success and absorbs the cost in that
competency standards for assessors. The success.
intention has been to show them as an
35
Competency Based Assessment
COMPETENCY BASED assessment is appropriate level. They can then go on

assessment that is based on the to look for opportunities to gather
competency standards that people relevant evidence. They should look for
aim to achieve. It does not preclude gaining opportunities in activities that the
assurance that people have developed the candidate takes part in as a normal part
background knowledge and understanding. of their job or work role. On this basis
Nor does it suggest that there is only one best it is possible to draw up an assessment
way to gather evidence on which to base the plan, fully negotiated with the candidate
judgement that the person is competent in and agreed with others who may be
terms of the accepted definition of involved or affected, such as work
competency. (See page 3.) colleagues, for instance.
The definition of competency has
important implications for the approach to Collecting. This stage involves
assessing people's performance. It impacts gathering evidence. It may come from
on both the sort of information that is sought direct observation, to finished products,
to confirm competence, or otherwise, and the to supplementary questions. It will
approach to the assessment process, which is usually come from a variety of sources.
based on the gathering of appropriate and The most effective way to collect
sufficient evidence on which to base the evidence is usually through some
judgement that the person is competent. This combination of planned and
aspect is the governing concept of validity spontaneous activities, together with
and fairness in assessment. Equally reviews after the event. Candidates
importantly it leads to reliability. should be encouraged to collect their
own evidence, and, indeed training
Stages in Assessment ought to include teaching people how to
gather and present evidence of their
Stages in the process of outcomes-based attainment of competency.
assessment are:
Judging. As with evidence in any
Planning. Both the assessor and the context, the assessor has to determine
candidate (used in this context as a whether the evidence before him or her
general word to cover trainee, learner, is valid and meets the requirements of
employee, etc) need to study the the case, in this case the performance
standards they are aiming to achieve criteria established.
and to check that they are at an
1
If the considered judgement is that advantages. The candidate becomes a better

the evidence meets the operator by gaining a full and accurate
requirements, the assessor should picture of his or her own level of competence.
advise the candidate accordingly Candidates are encouraged to become
and note the judgement for further actively involved in the process when they
reference. are:
If the evidence does not yet satisfy
the requirements laid down in the encouraged to take as much
performance criteria, the assessor responsibility as possible for gathering
should advise the candidate, and organising evidence;
discuss the reasons with the
candidate and plan how to help the encouraged to assess their own
candidate become competent in performance;
the future or to collect evidence of
competent performance. given informative and constructive
feedback;
Deciding. When the assessor is
satisfied that sufficient evidence has helped to see the basis on which
been gathered and judged to cover the assessments are made; and
range of activities and situations and
skill areas that would indicate the encouraged to identify the next steps in
candidate's ability to meet the required their learning and development.
performance standard consistently, then
the candidate's competency should be
attested and recorded. Types of Evidence
There are three main categories of evidence
Involving the Candidate to help in competency based assessment.
They are:
It will be noticed in the above description as
well as in the assessor's competency direct performance evidence. This
standards that there is emphasis on involves observing the candidate
assessment as a co-operative venture working normally, or taking account of
between the assessor and the assessee (the products that he or she would have
candidate). It is important that the candidate made irrespective of whether being
be given significant control over the process, assessed or not. Assessors should look
with the responsibility that goes with that for this sort of evidence wherever
control. This approach can be a major possible.
challenge to both the assessor and the
candidate, but it offers significant
37
TESTING QUESTIONS FOR ASSESSORS
Is the evidence valid?

Is it really relevant to this area of performance?
Is the evidence authentic?
Does it genuinely represent the candidate's own performance?
Does the evidence meet the performance criteria?
Does it demonstrate that the candidate meets the competency standard?
Is the evidence consistent?
Is it typical of the candidate's performance?
Is the evidence sufficient?
Is there enough evidence to demonstrate that the candidate has met the requirements
and can perform competently across the various contexts specified in the competency
standards?
alternative performance evidence. People usually can only transfer their

Sometimes it is necessary, and performance to new situations if they know
sometimes it is desirable, to create why work is done in a particular way and
situations where candidates can understand the principles which underpin the
demonstrate their competence. This job. Often the best and easiest way of
might happen where a candidate does gathering evidence of a candidate's
not have access to the workplace, for knowledge and understanding will be
instance. Arrangements might include through oral or written questioning or project
projects, simulation or, in some work. The evidence in these circumstances
circumstances, skills or proficiency would be expected to satisfy the assessor that
tests. the candidate would perform competently in
a variety of circumstances.
supplementary evidence. The three types of evidence are
Supplementary evidence might be complementary. Together they give a
necessary to satisfy the assessor that the balanced picture of the candidate's level of
candidate can perform competently in competency. To ensure both that assessment
various environments and in can be kept manageable and cost effective, it
circumstances that are unusual. is necessary to pursue an appropriate mix of
Supplementary evidence is often gained the three types of evidence.
through questioning (oral or written) or
through reports from former or current
supervisors.
e
Assessment in the CBT Framework
THE ARTICLE that follows is taken from a unit of competency expected in

the "Framework for the employment for a particular level of
Implementation of a Competency competency; and/or
Based Vocational Education and Training a learning outcome of a training
System", VEETAC, 1993. It is program.
recommended reading.
A competency based system
Definition: encourages individuals to attain their full
potential in that it allows them to be assessed
Assessment is the process of collecting for a particular level of competency and then
evidence and making judgements on the to move on to achieve further competencies,
nature and extent of progress towards should they wish to do so.
the performance requirements set out in
a standard, or a learning outcome, and, Purposes of Assessment
at the appropriate point, making the
judgement as to whether competency Assessments can be taken to:
has been achieved.
assist and support learning by advising
Another way of describing assessment the learner about the quality of
within competency based approaches to performance and the learner's rate of
learning is to say it is criterion referenced. progress towards the achievement of the
This means that it measures a person's competency standard This is known as
performance or identifies their achievement formative assessment;
in relation to criteria and not in relation to the
performance of other learners to trainees. help learners and their supervisors
It follows from this definition that, in determine their education and training
the context of competency based training, needs. Assessment for this purpose is
assessments will measure the range of called diagnostic assessment;
knowledge and skills and their application
against the standards developed by industrial determine whether a unit of competency
parties and endorsed by the National or a learning outcome has been
Training Board for: achieved for the purpose of formal
recognition of training. This kind of
assessment is called summative
assessment; and
39
determine whether a person has groups; the completed project is used as

achieved standards of competency evidence from which the assessor
which have not yet been formally makes a judgment.
assessed or recognised so that they may
gain entry to or credit in recognised 111 simulations, including computer
courses. This is assessment for the simulations and role playingwhere
recognition of prior learning. actual tasks and conditions are similar
to real life situations.
Forms of Assessment
portfolios, these are useful for assessing
There are various methods of determining skills achieved in the past. Work
learner achievement. They include: samples provide a similar source of
evidence.
observation, where a trainer and/or
assessor observes a learner carrying out computer-based assessment, which can
a particular task. The observation may take the form of question and answer, or
be complemented by questions. be interactive, so that the assessor can
seek further responses or clarification.
demonstration and questioning, where
the observation consists of a structured The assessment method must be
practical demonstration, and the appropriate to the situation, the conditions
observer/assessor can see both the and the expected performance to be assessed.
process and finished product. Learners should also be encouraged to
use these methods for self-assessment. This
pen and paper tests and essays, which will assist in their learning and help them to
are often used to measure the extent of make judgments about their readiness for
knowledge; they may also be used to summative assessment.
assess deductive powers or as a
complement to practical demonstration. Conduct of Assessment
oral tests, which can be used as an Responsibility for arranging assessment lies
adjunct to practical demonstration or to with the registered provider principally
test speed and accuracy or recall when responsible for the relevant integrated
these are essential to development of learning and training process.
particular elements of competency. A registered training provider is a
public, commercial, industry, enterprise or
projects, these are used on a largely community based provider who has been
unsupervised basis, though they may in formally approved by a State/Territory
some instances involve working in recognition authority or its agent, as being a
40
competent and ethical provider/deliverer of a evidence is collected from activities and

particular training program or accredited tasks that can be clearly related to the
course. The principal registered provider will unit of competency or learning
also be responsible for issuing the credential outcomes specified for the course or
and/or statement of attainment. training program;
Where relevant, the registered provider
will negotiate the circumstances of and evidence demonstrates that the
methods for assessment with the industry performancecriteria have been met; and
parties.
Where providers are registered by a evidence is sufficient.
State or Territory recognition authority they
will be obliged to demonstrate compliance Validity Principles
with the assessment principles listed under
the National Framework for the Recognition I. Assessments will cover the range of
of Training. These are explained in the key skills and knowledge needed to
principles of assessment provided below. demonstrate competency.
The form of assessment used, method of
conducting and recording and the assessor While the basis for recording the outcomes
used will be at the discretion of the registered of assessment is the unit of competency, the
provider, providing these principles are met. basis for developing the assessment
procedures is the performance criteria. Each
Key Principles of Assessment unit must be assessed in a way that ensures
competency can be demonstrated. There may
Assessments should be valid, reliable, fair be a need to assess groups of units together
and flexible. The principles which follow are to ensure this.
reflections of these four essential features.
2. Assessment of competency should be a
Validity process which integrates knowledge
and skills with their practical
Competency standards assessments are valid application.
when they assess what they claim to assess.
Validity of assessment is achieved when: This principle reflects the CBT focus on
performance and the need to use assessment
assessors are fully aware of what is to methods which provide valid measures of
be assessed, as indicated by the units of performance. Competency should be
competency, learning outcomes and assessed using methods which take account
clearly defined performance criteria; of the knowledge and skills underpinning
performance.
Methods of assessment will need to be Reliability principles

appropriate to the evidence sought and
setting in which assessment may be logically, 4. Assessment practices should be
safely, and economically conducted. monitored and reviewed to ensure that
there is consistency in the
3. During assessment, judgments to interpretation of evidence.
determine a learner's competency
should, wherever practicable, be made Training providers should establish
on evidence gathered on a number of consultative mechanisms to resolve
occasions and in a variety of contexts anomalies and ensure the assessment
or situations. principles set out in the National Framework
for the Recognition of Training (NFROT)
In most cases it is not possible to infer continue to be upheld.
competency from one successful
performance. The ability of a learner to apply 5. Assessors must be competent in terms
knowledge and skills in new and different of the national competency standards
situations usually cannot be inferred when for assessors.
performance has only occurred once and in
one context. A competency standards body for assessors
has been established and has developed a set
Reliability of standards for assessors.
Assessors should also have adequate
Reliable assessment uses methods and knowledge of the area of competence they
procedures which engender confidence that are assessing.
competency standards and their levels are
interpreted and applied consistently from Flexibility
learner to learner and context to context.
Without reliable assessments there can be no The assessment practices endorsed for the
comparability of credentials. implementation of CBT must be flexible if
High quality competency standards are they are to be appropriate to the range of
fundamental to reliability. delivery modes, sites of delivery and needs
of learners. There is no single approach or set
of approaches to the assessment of
performance in a competency based system.
A
Flexibility principles competencies have not always been

recognised .
6. Assessment should cover both the on
and off-the-job components of 8. Assessment procedures should be
training. made accessible to learners so that they
can proceed readily from one
The most appropriate site for the assessment competency standard to another.
of workplace competencies is the workplace
itself. Here the learner will be using By not tying assessment to time served or
appropriate equipment and performing roles leaving it until a course or training program
and tasks which are part of everyday has been completed, learners are able to
activities. Not all trainees have access to on- manage their own learning experiences.
the-job assessment and this should not Learners need to know what kinds of
impede their gaining recognition for training assessment methods will be used and to have
through the assessment process. There are access to assessment in a way that is timely.
ways of simulating workplace practices
which will allow for a valid assessment of Fairness
performance.
Competency must be demonstrated and Assessment is fair if it does not disadvantage
assessed according to the endorsed standards particular learners. If learners understand
and under conditions as close as possible to clearly what is expected of them and what
those under which the competency will be form assessment will take, and if the
normally practised. assessment places all learners on equal
Assessment should be practical, terms, and the assessment procedure
conducted under safe conditions and create supports their learning, then the assessment
minimum disruption where carried out in the should be fair.
workplace.
9. Assessment practices and methods
7. Assessment procedures should provide must be equitable to all groups of
for the recognition of competencies no learners.
matter how, where or when they have
been acquired. Assessment must not directly or indirectly
limit or impede access by individuals solely
Provision must be made to assess and on the grounds of age, race, sex, disability,
recognise prior learning. Competencies are employment status, social or educational
gained by people through a variety of background. Nor should it discriminate
meansthrough formal training, work against people from non-English speaking
experience and life experiences. These backgrounds or people with low literacy
43
skills where English literacy communication 12. Opportunities must be provided to

is not critical to the competency required in allow learners to challenge
the workplace. assessments and provision must be
made for reassessment.
10. Assessment procedures and the
criteria for judging performance must The nature and form of the provision for
be made clear to all learners seeking reassessment will depend upon the
assessment. circumstances under which the learner is
being assessed. Counselling services should
Everyone involved in the assessment process be provided to assist learners to understand
should be made aware of their their assessment rights and needs.
responsibilities through formal processes While many of the processes of
built into the design of the training program assessment have already been agreed to and
and assessment instruments. Non- many of the principles have been addressed
compliance with this requirement should above, this should not be interpreted as a
provide the basis for an appeal or for an definitive statement on assessment. Many
application for reassessment. issues related to assessment are still being
addressed, e.g. integrated assessment, group
11. There should be a participatory assessment, cost effectiveness, grading or
approach to assessment. The process assessment. Resolution of these issues will
of assessment should be jointly be the subject of further discussion and
developed/agreed between the assessor consultation.
and the assessee.
This approach will assist the learner and the

assessor in that it can help both to become
aware of what skills and knowledge are
required for particular work processes and
how these can best be developed and
assessed.
I I
10. The Extras
oing the Paperwork assessment procedures and materials;

and
reports to management on training.

This will be a short section. Its importance,
however, should not be judged by its brevity. It is axiomatic that trainees' personal records
The administration of the training function are secured so that they are available only to
forms part of the job and merits attention. the proper people on a limited basis and at the
Things to take into account cover: required times.
enterprise policies and procedures; Promoting a Learning Culture
requirements of the Training Guarantee Australia does not have a learning culture. A
Act; learning culture may develop, especially
given the current impetus. In the meantime,
information and needs of organisations it is up to the people who earn their living
such as the Australian Tax Office and training to ensure that they do their best to
affirmative action agencies; generate enthusiasm for learning and to
demonstrate the connection between training
public education and training authority and career path development.
needs; Motivation has its place in training
delivery. The bigger picture, highlighting
enterprise records systems; training's essential character as one of the
ways of achieving the sort of changes in the
the needs of individual trainees; workplace that are required, needs
continuing, concerted effort. The public
matters for the budget preparation and perspective on the value of training can be
control exercise, including expenditure raised, but it will take time.
and projected fund raising; The list below might provide some
thought starters on publicising training in an
course materials, learning materials and effort to raise its image in the community.
guides and trainer guides;
a. Write up training activities on a regular
inventory of all sorts from writing basis in enterprise publications.
materials to training aids;
45
b. Develop awareness of training f. Provide training advice to management.

activities and courses through notice
boards, displays of various sorts, photo g. Take an active role in enterprise
collections etc. committees.
c. Provide visibility for trainees by using h. Serve as a focal point for information on
the services of senior personnel on a training developments, products and
"drop in" basis in training. services external to the enterprise.
d. Maintain personal contact with trainees i. Organise apprentice prize nights, for
and their supervisors in their work instance, or other celebratory events.
environment.
e. Provide a career development advice

service.
$
11. Bibliography
The following material has been included in response Competency-based training in TAFE: an inventory
to suggestions from reviewers. It has been compiled and report of competency-based approaches in
by the Learning Resource Centre at the Adelaide TAFE vocational courses and programs in Australia
College of TAFE for general information in the area of (1990), TAFE National Centre for Research and
competency based training. Development, Adelaide.
Arrangements for the recognition ofprior learning in Competency-based training. implicationsfor TAFE
Australia (1993) VEETAC, Sydney. facilities (1992), Planning and Properties Division,
NSW TAFE Commission, Sydney.
Assessing competency in the workplace (1990) NSW
Technical and Further Education Authority, Sydney The Complete workplace trainer [videorecording]
(includes video). (1991), Skillworks, West Pymble, NSW
Assessor competency standards (1993) Competency Confederation of Australian Industry (1991) CBT'
Standards Body-Assessors and Workplace Trainers, propsals for the Australian vocational education
Canberra. and training system, Melbourne
Bees, Mike (ed) (1990) National vocational [Now the Australian Chamber of Commerce and
qualifications and further education, Kogan Page, Industry] (1993) CBT: How to Make it Workfor You,
London. Melbourne.
Best of both worlds: the final report on the Data base: competency-based pilot programs (1991-
college/workplace partnership project (1991) 1993), CBT National Secretariat, Adelaide,
SCOTVEC, Glasgow. (Looseleaf)
Boam, Rosemary and Sparrow, Paul (1992) Designing Dufty, N F (1992), Competency-based education,
and achieving competency a competency-based Western Australian Labour Market Research Centre,
approach to developing people and organisations, Perth.
McGraw-Hill, London.
Education in the 1990s: competencies, credentialism,
Buchanan, et al (1992) An analysis of workplace competitiveness? Employment and Skills Formation
training practices: the equity implications, Council, Canberra.
University of Sydney, Sydney.
Employment and Skills Formation Council (1992),
Bumheim, Robert (1992) College library services to Australian Vocational Certificate training system,
support competency-based training: new roles, skills National Board of Employment, Education and
and partnerships, TAFE TEQ, Brisbane. Training, Canberra. (Carmichael Report).
CBT: competency-based training and assessment: Evaluation of competency-based training pilot

why? what? how? (1993), National Centre for projects: summary report April 1993, CBT National
Vocational Educational Research, Adelaide. Secretariat
CBT: how's it done? Competency-based education and Evans, Shirley (1991) Research project to examine
training: an interactive workshop (1992) Dept of socialjustice implications for the delivery of
Employment, Vocational Education and Training, competency based training, State Training Board,
Perth. Melbourne.
CBT implementation progress report (1993), Field, Laurie (1990) Skilling Australia: a handbook for
Department of Employment and TAFE, Adelaide, trainers and TAFE teachers, Longman Cheshire,
S.A. Sydney.
CBT working for you (1991), VEETAC, Brisbane Fletcher, Shirley (1991) Designing competency-based
training, Kogan Page, London.
Collins, Cherry (ed.) (1993) Competencies: the
competencies debate in Australian education and Fletcher, Shirley (1991) NVQ's, standards and
training, Australian College of Education, competence: a practical guide for employers,
Canberra. managers and trainers, Kogan Page, London
Competence kit: aframework for introducing work- Fletcher, Shirley (1992) Competence-based assessment
based competence into training programmes techniques, Kogan Page, London.
(1989), OPTIS, Oxford.
47
Fletcher, Shirley (1992) Quality and competence: Heywood, Lindsay et. al. (1992) A guide to
building quality assurance onto computerized competency standards for professions, AGPS,
systems, Kogan Page, London. Canberra.
approach to CBT at Richmond College of

A Flexible Implementing CBT, competency-based training (1992),
TAFE [videorecording] (1993), National Centre for National Centre for Competency-Based Training,
Competency-Based Training, Richmond, Vic Richmond, Vic.
Flexible delivery: a national framework for Jennings, L E (1991) A critical analysis of the
implementation in TAFE (1992), Flexible Delivery competency-based approach in education and
Working Party, Brisbane. training, unpublished paper presented at the
Australian Association for Research in Education
Foyster, John (1990) Getting to grips with competency- annual conference, Surfers Paradise, 26-30
based training and assessment, TAFE National November 1991.
Centre for Research and Development, Adelaide.
Jessup, G (1991) Outcomes: NVQ's and the emerging
Foyster, John (1991) Getting to grips with on-the-job model of education and training, Falmer Press,
competencies, TAFE National Centre for Research London
and Development, Adelaide.
Masters, Geoffrey N and McCurry, Doug (1990)
Garrick, John (1992) "Competency standards: a case Competency-based assessment in the professions,
study on trainer competencies," in What future for NOOSR Research paper No 2, AGPS, Canberra.
technical and vocational education and training
conference papers, Vol. 1, National Centre for Mitchell, Lindsay (1987) "Assessing occupational
Vocational Educational Research, Adelaide. competence: what does it mean in practice?" in
Competence and Assessment Compendium 2, 1992,
Gibb, Jennifer (publication due Sept 1993) Getting to Employment Department, Sheffield.
grips with developing competency standards,
National Centre for Vocational Educational National Training Board (1992) National competency
Research, Adelaide. standards: policy and guidelines, 2nd ed, NTB,
Canberra.
Gonczi, A (1990) Establishing competency-based
standards in the professions, AGPS, Canberra. Parsloe, Eric (1992) Coaching, mentoring and
assessing: a practical guide to developing
Gonczi, A (ed) (1992) Developing a competent competence, Kogan Page, London.
workforce: adult learning strategies for vocational
educators and trainers, National Centre for Peter Kearns and Associates (1992) Competency-based
Vocational Education Research, Adelaide. approach to training overview, Peter Kearns and
Associates, Kambah, ACT.
A Guide to training partnerships (1991) SCOTVEC,
Glasgow. Recognition ofprior learning [videorecording] (1992)
Cairns College of TAFE, Cairns, Qld.
Haffenden, Ian and Brown, Alan (1989) Implications
of competency-based curricula: report ofphase 1 of Simply explaining ... competency based training
an FEUproject, Further Education Unit, London. [videorecording] (1992) Education Image,
Richmond, Vic.
Harris, R McL (1991) "Competency-based programs: a
viable alternative in vocational educational and Thomson, Peter (1991) Competency-based training:
training," in Australian Journal of TAFE Research some development and assessment issues for
and Development v.6 n.2, TAFE National Centre for policymakers, TAFE National Centre for Research
Research and Development, Adelaide. and Development, Adelaide.
Harris, Roger (1993) Getting to grips with Thomson, Peter (1992) Assessing prior achievement:
implementing CBT, National Centre for Vocational methods for recognising learning gained through
Education Research, Adelaide. experience, Dept of Employment, Education and
Training, Canberra.
Harris, Roger et. al. (1985) Competency-based
vocational education: an evaluation, TAFE Users guide to course design for competency-based
National Centre for Research and Devlopment, curriculum (1992) ACTRAC Products, Frankston,
Adelaide. Vic.
Harris, Roger et. al. (1987) Competency-based VEETAC CBT Working Party (1991) Operational plan,
vocational education: a continuing evaluation, The Working Party, Canberra.
TAFE National Centre for Research and
Development, Adelaide. VEETAC CBT Working Party (1992) Framework for the
implementation of a competency-based vocational
Hawkins, K and Lyall, K (1993) Different futures, education and training system, The Working
DEET, Canberra. Party, Canberra.
48
VEETAC Working Party on the Recognition of Whitely, John (1991) CBT: assessment models
Training (1992) Nationalframework for the appropriatefor competency-based training and
recognition of training, The Working Party, their relationship to teaching and learning
Canberra. approaches, Research and Development Division,
Office of Vocational Education, Training and
VEETAC Working Party on the Recognition of Employment Commission, Brisbane.
Training (1992) Vocational education and training
credentials: a progress report, The Working Report, Wood, G W (1992) Competency-based training is
Canberra. where we're going ... how will we know when we've
arrived: a discussion paper exploring the defining
VEETAC Working Party on the Implementation of characteristics of competency-based training, Dept
Competency-Based Training (1992), Assessment of of Employment and Technical and Further
performance under competency-based training Education, Adelaide.
[and] administration of competency-based
training, VEETAC, Darlinghurst, NSW. Work-based learning: a report identifying the
implications for TAFE teacher training and
VEETAC Working Party on the Recognition of retraining (1992) Holmesglen College of TAFE,
Training (1992) Vocational education and training Training Research and Development Unit,
credentials. a progress report, The Working Party, Chadstone, Vic.
Canberra.
Workplace trainer competency standards (1992)
VEETAC Women's Standing Committee (1992) Competency Standards Body Assessors and
Guidelines and principles of gender equity in Workplace Trainers, Fitzroy, Vic. Assessors and
industry training plans. the Assessors Competency Standards. (1992)
49
12. Glossary of Terms

This glossary is based on the glossary provided with the National Training Board's National Competency Standards
Policy and Guidelines (1992). Although the following definitions are not exhaustive, in order to avoid confusion and
debate, it is necessary to agree on terminology.
Accreditation organise, summarise and report on this

refers to the official recognition by vocational information.
education and training recognition authorities
that: Common competencies
the contents and standards of a course are refer to those competencies that are used in a
appropriate to the credential that is number of industries with essentially the same
received ; form of expression. Often they would
the course and methods of delivering. be the competencies used in cross-industry
it fulfil the purposes for which it was standards.
introduced;
the curriculum and assessment are based Competency interview
on national competency standards, where is a one-to-one interview carried out by a person
they exist. skilled in the technique. Its purpose is to
identify and list competencies of workers in
Advanced Standing particular positions. Only persons in the position
refers to the amount of exemption granted to a under investigation or their immediate
student or trainee from an accredited course or supervisors participate.
training program on the basis of previous study,
experience or competencies held. Competency standard bodies (CSBs)
refers to organisations formally recognised by
Articulation the National Training Board to develop, submit
refers to the formal linkage between different for endorsement and maintain national
levels or different fields of study, including competency standards for specific industry or
enterprise and industry-based training. cross-industry application. CSBs comprise the
Articulation arrangements allow the horizontal relevant industry parties, are often Industry
or vertical movement between programs or Training Advisory Boards (ITABs), and are
between education and employment. partners with training providers and recognition
bodies in the implementation of standards.
Assessment
refers to the process of collecting evidence and Contributory skilling
making judgements on the extent and nature of see multiskilling
progress towards the performance requirements
set out in a standard, or learning outcome, and at Core competencies
the appropriate point making the judgement refers to a group of units of competency within
whether competency has been achieved. a competency standard that an industry has
agreed are essential to be achieved if a person is
Broadskilling to be accepted as competent at a particular level.
see multiskilling. All units may be core, but in many cases
competency at a level will involve core units
Career path plus optional or specialisation units of
refers to the sequence of jobs or classifications competency. Core competencies are normally
in a work structure that an individual can attain those central to work in that industry.
through progressive achievement of
competencies and other requirements. Career Course (accredited)
paths can enable a person to make a hierarchical refers to a sequence of vocational education
progression in a particular industry or sector of and training which is consistent with the
an industry, or lateral movement and principles of accreditation under NFROT,
progression into other related sectors of an accredited by a recognition authority and leads
industry or another industry. to a credential.
CODAP
is a technique of job analysis based on the
concept of dividing a job into tasks. Based on
interviews with representative members
of an occupation, a questionnaire is developed,
tested and refined. Job information is collected
from workers and supervisors by means of the
questionnaire after which a set of computer
programs is used to enter, rank, quantify,
I
Critical incident technique General competencies

is one-to-one interview carried out by a person refers to those that apply to work generally
skilled in the technique which requires rather than being specific to work in particular
participants to focus on significant occupations or industries. They tend to underpin
work incidents from their past and the performance in other more
competencies which enabled them to perform industry-specific competencies. The Key
successfully. The technique focuses on the Competencies developed by the Mayer
underlying attributes and individual Committee are an example. Also may be called
characteristics of successful performance rather generic competencies.
than on routine duties and tasks.
Industry competency standard
Cross-industry competency standard refers to a grouping of units of competency that
refers to a group of units of competency that expresses at a minimum the requirements to be
express common competencies across a number competent at particular ASF levels, and at a
of industries. The units of competency may be maximum the requirements for all ASF levels
grouped to relate to certain functions of work linked together in a career path in that industry.
common across those industries. They are They are developed by recognised CSBs.
developed by recognised CSBs.
Key Competencies
Curriculum refers to general competencies defined by the
refers to a plan incorporating a structured series Mayer Committee as essential for all young
of intended learning outcomes and associated people's effective participation in emerging
learning experiences. patterns of work and work organisation. They
focus on the capacity to apply knowledge and
DACUM skills in an integrated way in work situations
is an information collection technique using and are not restricted to narrow or specific
participation from a group which is application. They are also essential for effective
representative of the particular occupation and a participation in further education and life, more
skilled facilitator which identifies: generally.
the duties of the occupation
the component tasks of each duty Knowledge
the knowledge, skills and applications refers to two aspects:
needed to perform each task. 1. cognitive skills involved in processes
such as judgement, thinking and
Delphi understanding; and
is a survey technique usually conducted by mail 2. information, which is the base of factual
which aims to reach consensus by repeatedly and theoretical material that is
summarising participants' responses and accessed, manipulated and used
incorporating these into subsequent cognitively.
questionnaires. Participants learn the opinions of
others and can revise their own position Monitoring or verification
accordingly, but discussion, debate and open is the process of quality assurance involving
conflict are not possible. internal, local and external validation of the
integrity of the training system. It should not be
Endorsement confused with assessment.
refers to the formal recognition by the National
Training Board of a national competency Multiskilling
standard and its inclusion in the National refers to development of competencies through
Register of Competency Standards. Endorsed training or other means that have been
standards have been agreed by Commonwealth, associated with a number of formerly discrete
State and Territory Ministers to be the bench occupations or classification levels. This equips
marks for accreditation of courses, curriculum a worker to perform a variety of tasks or
development and recognition of training in functions across traditional boundaries. It
the Vocational Education and Training sector. includes concepts such as broadskilling (the
expansion of competency into new areas at the
Functional job analysis same level), upskilling (the expansion of
is an information collection technique using a competency into new areas at higher levels) and
group participation and a skilled facilitator to contributory skilling (the expansion of
establish the competency standards for an competency into new areas at the same or
occupation. It identifies: different levels drawn from other industries).
the key purpose or function of the
occupation in terms of outcome; Nationally recognised training
the elements of competency which allow refers to accredited courses and recognised
the key purpose to be achieved; and training programs under NFROT. They relate to
the performance criteria for each task competency based outcomes, and lead to
identified as necessary for competency. students gaining a credential or credit transfer
towards a credential.
51
Nominal group technique Skill

is an information collection technique using may be perceptual, motor, manual intellectual,
group participation and skilled facilitator which social. The nature of tasks usually requires a
focuses on the generation of answers to a combination of these and usually involves the
specified question. Participants work application of cognitive and psychomotor
independently on the question before the functions, together with appropriate knowledge.
facilitator collects and records information from
each person in turn. Skills audit
refers to a systematic process which identifies
Optional competencies then compares the present stock of skills held by
refers to a group of units of competency within an individual or a workforce (at the enterprise,
a competency standard where a certain number occupation or industry level), whether or not
drawn from the overall group must be achieved they are being actively used (i.e. what is), with
if a person is to be accepted as competent at a the skills needed (i.e. what should be), including
particular level. Normally combined with core future skills needs.
competencies to make up the overall group of
units to achieve competency at a level. These Upskilling
are also sometimes called elective units, or see multiskilling.
specialisation units.
Verification
Recognition authority see monitoring.
refers to bodies authorised under State, Territory
or Commonwealth legislation and designated as Vocational education training(VET)
agencies under the NFROT Agreement to refers to post-compulsory education or training
accredit courses, recognise training programs which is directed to the development of
and register providers of training. They may competencies or is preparatory to or is directed
have other functions in relation to the to the enhancement of opportunities for such
recognition of training, including determining education and training up to and including para-
credit transfer and certification. professional education and training.
Registration of providers of training

refers to formal recognition by a State/Territory
Recognition Authority that a provider is
competent to offer a particular
accredited course or recognised training
program.
Search conference
is an information collection technique using
group participation and a skilled facilitator
which moves from generating ideas through
synthesising and analysing these ideas to action
planning. It is particularly useful in exploring
desirable environments and strategies for
achieving goals.
52

CBT How To Do It - For Trainers

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COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING

Percy J Worsnop PhD, BA, BEd, MEd

A GUIDE FOR TEACHERS AND TRAINERS

Developed for the COMPETENCY BASED TRAINING WORKING PARTY, of

2. What is Meant by Competency? 3

3. Teaching and Learning to Become Competent 5

4. The Framework for Competency Based Training 9

5. Identifying the Need for Training 12

6. Design and Develop Training 18

7. Organise Training Resources 21

8 Deliver and Evaluate Training 25

9. Assess Performance of Trainees 34

10. The Extras 45

12. Glossary of Terms 50

2. What is meant by Competency?

WHAT intellectually challenging and the content,

This list is not exhaustive, but it does

3. Teaching and Learning

starts the empowerment of the learner and

Competency Standards the Base

COMPETENCY STANDARDS are in the workplace, competency standards can

Competency Standards and the NTB

4. The Framework for

4. Deliver and Evaluate Training The Extras:

5. Identifying the Need for Training

"CAN'T DO" SITUATIONS

SITUATION ANALYSIS IS TRAINING REQUIRED?

Standard YES Review Competency Standards

Find Cause Find Cause

Don't know how

CAN'T DO or WON'T DO? WHAT DO YOU THINK?

potential problems and working out

Well-developed personal training plans training, for an enterprise, for a section or

IDENTIFYING THE NEED FOR TRAINING

Can't do/Won't do Analysis Done Related to corporate goal

6. Design and Develop Training

Check Existing Training Programs

7. Organise Training Resources

TRAINERS ARE OFTEN recognisable participants in their care. They will

be the right equipment and it must be

Supervisors in the Training Process

IN MANY INSTANCES, supervisors will be training is low in his/her esteem to an

TEST YOURSELF: MOTIVATING OR DEMOTIVATING?

b. Off to Mickey Mouse land again.

g. See if you can put our time problem as a case study.

J. Anything you need us to do?

may be useful as a reference or

8. Deliver and Evaluate Training

well cause lasting damage to participants by Provide ample practice opportunities.

ALL TRAINING should be dynamic in 3 interaction between/among

C. Examine success of the training F. Examine own performance:

Changes in the Trainer's Role

the organisational ethos. The facilitation and

Some Thoughts on Delivery

the application happen as it may. enterprises as the use of the

applies at an informal level in training.

9. Assess Performance of Trainees

Competency Based Assessment

COMPETENCY BASED assessment is appropriate level. They can then go on

If the considered judgement is that advantages. The candidate becomes a better

TESTING QUESTIONS FOR ASSESSORS

Is the evidence valid?