International Journal of Pavement Engineering

ISSN: 1029-8436 (Print) 1477-268X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gpav20

Evaluation of moisture sensitivity of stone matrix

asphalt mixtures using polymerised warm mix
asphalt technologies

Punith V. Shivaprasad , Feipeng Xiao & Serji N. Amirkhanian

To cite this article: Punith V. Shivaprasad , Feipeng Xiao & Serji N. Amirkhanian (2012)
Evaluation of moisture sensitivity of stone matrix asphalt mixtures using polymerised warm
mix asphalt technologies, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 13:2, 152-165, DOI:
10.1080/10298436.2011.643792

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.643792

Published online: 31 Jan 2012.

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International Journal of Pavement Engineering
Vol. 13, No. 2, April 2012, 152–165

Evaluation of moisture sensitivity of stone matrix asphalt mixtures using polymerised warm mix
asphalt technologies
Punith V. Shivaprasada*, Feipeng Xiaob1 and Serji N. Amirkhanianb2
a
Asphalt Rubber Technology Service (ARTS), Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA;
b
Guest Professor, Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials Science and Engineering of Ministry of Education, Wuhan University of
Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
(Received 2 March 2010; final version received 21 November 2011)
The present study is focused on using warm mix asphalt (WMA) technology in stone matrix asphalt mixtures and
investigated in detail on the moisture sensitivity of these mixtures using three different types of WMA technologies.
The experimental design involved three sources of aggregates (A, B and C) and three WMA technologies using additives
Asphaminw, Sasobitw and Evothermw technology. Test results indicated that 13 mixtures failed to meet the minimum
tensile strength ratio requirement of 85%, and all mixtures tested met the minimum wet indirect tensile strength (ITS) value
of 448 kPa (65 psi) as per SCDOT specifications. Statistical analysis showed that there was significant difference in the wet
ITS values between aggregate A (micaceous granite) and granite (C) for all the mixtures studied. Statistical analysis showed
that except for two mixtures, there were no significant differences in the wet ITS values of WMA mixtures amongst four
types of mixtures under identical conditions. The mixtures containing over 15% rubber (by weight of virgin binder)
produced similar resistance to moisture susceptibility compared with mixtures made with PG 76-22 þ fibres.
Keywords: moisture susceptibility; warm mix asphalt; indirect tensile strength; tensile strength ratio; toughness;
deformation

1. Introduction stricter emission regulations have led to the development of

Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) technology has been used in
Europe and the USA for the past 20 years to resist studded-
tire wear and to provide better rutting resistance. On the
basis of US experience, SMAs, which are primarily used as
surface-coarse mixtures, perform better under heavy traffic
loads and are more cost-effective than dense graded
mixtures (Brown and Haddock 1996, Brown et al. 1997,
NAPA 2002, Prowell et al. 2002). This type of rut resistance
mixture has been used by several states in the USA since
1991 and its popularity is growing. SMA is a type of hot mix
asphalt (HMA) consisting of a coarse aggregate skeleton
and a high binder content mortar (Mogawer and Stuart
1994, Stuart and Malmquist 1994, Watson et al. 2004,
2007). The larger coarse aggregate fraction provides rut
resistance through stone-to-stone contact, whereas the
high-binder content (typically 5.5% –7.0% by weight of
mixture) provides durability through an increased film
thickness around the aggregate particles. In order to obtain
high-binder content without excessive draindown, cellulose
fibres with stabilising additives are added to the mixture.
Polymer-modified asphalt binders are typically used in the
production of SMA mixtures due to their rut resistant
properties. The increased viscosities of these binders are
also beneficial to minimise draindown in the mixture
(Brown and Mallick 1995). For the past few years,
increased environmental awareness on global warming and
warm mix asphalt (WMA) to reduce the high mixing
temperatures of regular HMA (Butz et al. 2001, Hurley and
Prowell 2005a, 2005b, 2006, USDOT 2005, Barthel et al.
2007, Wasiuddin et al. 2007, Punith et al. 2011a). Several
demonstration projects were studied in detail using WMA
technologies, and some of the promising advantages
reported are longer paving seasons, longer hauling
distances, reduced wear and tear of the plants, ability to
open the site to traffic sooner, reduced ageing of the binder
in mixtures and thus reduced cracking (Gandhi 2008).
Many researchers believe that lowering temperatures may
not allow for proper drying of aggregates. Especially at the
mixing temperature of 100 –1408C, the aggregate may not
be completely dried during the mixing process and the
presence of moisture could prevent binder and aggregate
from adequately bonding, leading to moisture-induced
damage of the mixtures.
Even though some US states and some other countries
have specifications that require a completely dry aggregate
in WMA mixtures (Prowell 2007), there have not been
many research projects conducted in the past to determine
the effects of the moisture susceptibility of SMA mixtures
using WMA additives. There could be resulting moisture
damage which could lead to the failure of the pavement
(Punith et al. 2011b). Based on the popularity of SMA in
the past and the present interest by the state agencies to

*Corresponding author. Email: pshivap@clemson.edu

ISSN 1029-8436 print/ISSN 1477-268X online
q 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2011.643792
http://www.tandfonline.com
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 153

adopt WMA technologies, it has become necessary to Table 1. Aggregate gradation, chemical and physical properties
better understand the moisture susceptibility of such of aggregates used.
mixtures using WMA technologies. This paper presents
Sieve size Adopted Specified limits
the results of the research study using three types of WMA
00
technologies, (Asphaminw, Sasobitw and Evothermw). 3/4 100 100
1/200 93 90 100
Two types of binders from the same asphalt binder 3/800 73 50 80
terminal source, rubber-modified PG 64-22 and polymer- #4 28 20 35
modified PG 76-22 grade asphalt binder were used in the #8 17 16 24
present study. The base binder obtained from the supply #30 15 12 16
terminal was from mixed refinery sources. Cellulose fibres #50 13 12 15
#200 10 8 10
were used as stabilisers for the SMA mixtures using PG
76-22 binder. The conventional moisture susceptibility Chemical properties of aggregates used
testing procedures such as indirect tensile strength (ITS),
Aggregate source A B C
tensile strength ratio (TSR), deformation and toughness
were carried out for the mixtures using WMA additives Aggregate type Micaceous Marble Crushed
and were statistically compared to evaluate the moisture granite schist granite
susceptibility of WMA mixtures. Compound Chemical analysis (%)
Al2O3 14.92 7.13 14.28
CaO 3.22 19.9 1.49
1.1 Objectives of the present study Fe2O3 6.64 5.00 2.32
The main purposes of the research were to understand the K2O 2.85 2.07 4.25
viability of using WMA technology in SMA and to MgO 2.12 12.88 0.33
compare in detail the moisture-induced damage property Na2O 2.85 1.15 3.49
SiO2 64.44 28.2 72.27
of mixtures using three different types of warm mix TiO2 1.00 0.75 0.29
technologies. Specific objectives are as follows: LOI 0.83 21.94 –
. to evaluate the moisture susceptibility of rubberised Total 98.87 99.02 98.72
and polymerised SMA mixtures using WMA Physical properties of aggregates used
additives;
. to evaluate the effect of type of binder, aggregates LA abrasion loss (%) 43 33 25
Absorption (%) 1.1 0.7 0.5
and warm mix additive type on the moisture Specific gravity for course aggregate
susceptibility of the SMA mixtures; BLK (Dry) 2.69 2.77 2.63
. to determine the draindown characteristics of SMA BLK (SSD) 2.72 2.78 2.64
mixtures using WMA technologies and Apparent 2.77 2.77 2.66
. to evaluate the moisture damage related properties Soundness % loss at 5 cycles
3/4 to 3/8 0.1 0.6 1.7
such as wet toughness, wet ITS and wet deformation 3/8 to # 4 0.1 0.9 4.1
potential of the mixtures using different WMA Sand equivalent – 38 53
technologies. Hardness 5 5 6
Specific gravity for fine aggregate
Bulk (SSD) 2.59 2.65 2.64
Absorption 0.4 0.2 0.6
2. Experimental materials and test procedure Soundness % loss 4.5 2.8 0.1
2.1 Materials used in this study
The experimental design adopted in this study included the (Gandhi 2008). Coarse aggregate A has the highest Los
use of virgin binder and three WMA additives (Aspha- Angeles (LA) abrasion loss percentage and the highest
minw, Sasobitw and Evothermw), four binder types (PG
absorption, whereas aggregate C has the lowest ones.
64-22 þ 10% crumb rubber (CR), PG 64-22 þ 15% CR,
A total of 48 types of mixture designs and 192 ITS
PG 64-22 þ 20% CR and PG 76-22 þ fibres) and three
aggregate sources (designated as A, B and C). The specimens were examined in this study. In this study,
engineering properties of coarse and fine aggregate hydrated lime was used as an anti-stripping agent for the
sources are shown in Table 1. Aggregate B (marble mixtures being added into aggregate at 2% by weight of
schist) is a metamorphic rock whereas aggregate sources A dry aggregate.
(micaceous granite) and C (granite) are composed The physical and chemical properties of WMA
predominantly of quartz and potassium feldspar. Although additives are presented in Table 2. Asphaminw, Sasobitw
both aggregates A and C are granite, the engineering and Evothermw were WMA additives used in this study.
properties of these two aggregates are very different Asphaminw is sodium – aluminium –silicate which is hydro
154 P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of WMA additives used.

Properties Asphaminw Sasobitw H8 Evothermw H5

Ingredients Sodium aluminosilicate Solid saturated hydrocarbons Fatty acid polyamine condensate water
Na2OzAl2O3z2SiO2
Physical state Granular powder Pastilles, flakes Viscous liquid
Colour White Off-white to pale brown Amber (dark)
Odour Odorless Practically odorless Fishy, amine-like
Molecular weight 365 Approx. 1000 g/mole
Specific gravity 2 (208C) 0.9 (258C) 1.03 –1.08
Vapor density – – ,1
Bulk density 500– 600 kg/m3 – 1.03 g/cm3
PH values 11 – 12 Neutral 9 – 11
Boiling point – – . 1008C
Flashpoint – 2858C (ASTM D92) –
Solubility in water Insoluble Insoluble Water solubility

Table 3. Binder test properties.

Unaged RTFO PAV

Viscosity G*/sin d G*/sin d G*/sin d G*/sin d G*sin d Stiffness
at 1358C (kPa) at (kPa) at (kPa) at (kPa) at (kPa) at (MPa) at m-values
Binder types (cP) 648C 768C 648C 768C 258C 2128C at 2 128C
PG 64-22 430 1.28 – 2.81 – 4074 217 0.307
PG 64-22 þ 10% CR 1270 2.97 – 9.31 2.06 2256 138 0.301
PG 64-22 þ 15% CR 2260 – 3.81 6.85 2.99 1361 124 0.315
PG 64-22 þ 20% CR 6030 – 3.78 3.17 – 931 82 0.334
PG 76-22 1475 – 1.56 – 3.34 3784 219 0.298

thermally crystallised as a very fine powder (Table 2). It was mixing and compaction temperatures for WMA mixtures;
added to the mixture at a rate of 0.3% by weight of the total however, the manufacturer reports a reduction in mixing and
mixture. Sasobitw is a long chain aliphatic hydrocarbon compaction temperatures of 30–508C (Butz et al. 2001,
obtained from coal gasification using the Fischer –Tropsch Barthel et al. 2007), and some researchers have developed
processw (Table 2). Sasobitw forms a homogeneous
guidelines for mixing and compaction temperatures when
solution with the base binder on stirring (1.5% by weight of
the binder), and produces a marked reduction in the binder using WMA (Hurley and Prowell 2005b, 2006, USDOT
viscosity at 1358C. The mixtures without any WMA 2005, Barthel et al. 2007). The mixing and compaction
additive were referred to virgin mixture. Evotherm temperatures of materials, as shown in Table 4, were
dispersed asphalt technology is a concentrated solution of employed after a series of trial processes.
water and chemical additives which is directly injected into
the asphalt line at the mix plant (Table 2).
Table 4. Mixing and compaction temperatures of WMA
mixtures.
2.2 Mix design, sample fabrication and testing Mixture type
The mix design included the aggregates used for a 12.5 mm
10% CRM 15% CRM 20% CRM 3% SBS
mixture that satisfied the specifications set forth by
AASHTO M 325-08 (AASHTO 2008). The design Mixing temperature (8F)
Virgin 315– 325 320– 325 325– 335 325–335
aggregate gradations for each aggregate source were the Sasobit 250– 265 270– 275 290– 305 290–305
same when using different WMA additives (Virgin binder, Asphamin 265– 275 270– 275 290– 305 290–305
Sasobitw, Asphaminw and Evothermw) and various asphalt Evotherm 265– 275 275– 280 290– 305 290–305
binder types. The rheological properties of asphalt binders Compaction temperature (8F)
are shown in Table 3. Superpavew mix design defines that Virgin 290– 300 300– 305 305– 310 305–310
Sasobit 245– 250 255– 260 275– 285 275–285
the laboratory mixing and compaction temperatures can be Asphamin 245– 250 255– 260 275– 285 275–285
determined by using a plot of viscosity versus temperature. Evotherm 245– 250 260– 265 275– 285 275–285
There are no previous specifications available regarding the
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 155

For this study, the optimum binder content (OBC) was

VFA
(%)
80
79
80
78
79
80
80
79
81
81
80
80
78
77
77
76
defined as the amount of binder required to achieve 4.0%
air voids in accordance with AASHTO M 325-08
volumetric specifications (AASHTO 2008). After the

VMA

18.7
18.5
18.4
18.7
19.6
19.3
19.6
18.9
19.8
19.7
19.6
19.5
19.4
19.1
18.7
18.7
(%)
Aggregate C
mix designs were completed, for each aggregate/binder
types/warm asphalt additive combination Superpave
gyratory compacted specimens, 150 mm in diameter and

OBC

6.70
6.55
6.50
6.55
7.35
7.00
7.10
6.90
7.20
7.20
7.00
7.00
7.00
6.85
6.70
6.75
(%)
95 mm in height, were prepared with 7 ^ 1% air voids and
then the samples were tested at 258C to determine the ITS,
flow and toughness values. One set of the samples was

2.396
2.388
2.393
2.383
2.382
2.385
2.389
2.389
2.381
2.374
2.372
2.370
2.370
2.380
2.372
2.382
MSG
tested in dry condition and the other set in wet condition.
The wet samples were conditioned in accordance with
AASHTO T 283. The evaluated parameters included ITS,

VFA
TSR, toughness, percentage of flow and toughness loss.

(%)
80
77
77
78
78
78
77
79
79
80
78
80
82
81
85
80
From these tests, the following parameters were obtained
and evaluated:

VMA

17.1
17.1
17.7
17.2
18.4
17.8
18.0
17.9
18.5
18.4
19.3
18.4
17.0
17.3
17.1
17.3
Aggregate B

(%)
. ITS and TSR
. Toughness: defined as the area under the indirect
tensile stress –deformation curve up to a defor-

OBC

5.70
5.75
5.70
5.75
6.00
5.90
5.85
5.90
6.15
6.30
6.60
6.30
5.50
5.85
5.50
5.85
(%)
mation of twice that incurred at maximum tensile
stress (Xiao and Amirkhanian 2008).
. Percentage of toughness loss (PTL):

2.527
2.533
2.546
2.508
2.533
2.511
2.538
2.501
2.516

2.508
2.504
2.522
2.501
2.514
2.486
MSG

2.52
Toughness ðdryÞ 2 Toughness ðwetÞ
PTL ¼
Toughness ðdryÞ Draindown

£ 100: ð1Þ 0.051

0.016
0.036
0.019
0.043
0.040
0.047
0.004
0.016
0.016
0.051
0.016
0.024
0.028
0.044
0.020
(%)

3. Analysis of test results and discussions

Test results of the ITS, toughness and deformation values
VFA
(%)
77
77
77
77
76
77
78
78
72
77
78
79
78
79
78
78
were statistically analysed as reported in Tables 6 and 7 at
Aggregate A

the 5% level of significance (0.05 probability of a Type I

error) with respect to the effects of aggregate sources,
VMA

18.5
17.3
17.9
17.8
18.5
18.0
18.9
19.0
18.6
18.1
18.5
19.5
18.5
17.7
17.9
17.7
(%)

binder types and WMA additive types. For these

comparisons, it should be noted that all specimens were
produced at OBC. The error bars on the graphs indicate
OBC

standard deviation.
6.15
5.75
6.00
6.00
6.05
6.05
6.40
6.40
6.30
6.10
6.35
6.82
6.40
6.10
6.00
6.00
(%)
Mixture design and draindown test results.

3.1 OBC analysis

2.477
2.464
2.461
2.453
2.462
2.473
2.470
2.463
2.469
2.454
2.464
2.458
2.448
2.438
2.439
2.439
MSG

Table 5 shows the OBC for mix designs with various

percentages of CR content using PG 64-22 grade binder,
with different WMA additives, and with PG 76-22 binder
WMA type

Asphamin

Asphamin

Asphamin

Asphamin
Evotherm

Evotherm

Evotherm

Evotherm

with fibres. The unit weight of aggregate B material was

Sasobit

Sasobit

Sasobit

Sasobit
Virgin

Virgin

Virgin

Virgin

found to be higher than the other two aggregate source

types. The lowest maximum specific gravity values were
observed for the loose asphalt mixtures using aggregate C.
All the designed mixtures met the minimum voids in
PG 64-22 þ 10% CR

PG 64-22 þ 15% CR

PG 64-22 þ 20% CR

PG 76-22 þ fibres

mineral aggregate (VMA) requirement of 17% as per the

AASHTO specifications (AASHTO 2008). The OBC
Binder type

values for mixtures with aggregate C were found to be

higher than for mixtures with aggregates A and B. Since
Table 5.

aggregate B has a high-specific gravity for coarse

aggregate (2.77), the OBC values for the majority of
156 P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

these mixtures were found to be less than minimum 6%

A,B B,C A,C A,B B,C A,C A,B B,C A,C A,B B,C A,C A,B B,C A,C A,B B,C A,C
binder content requirement as per the AASHTO require-

NS

NS

NS

NS
Wet deformation
ment (AASHTO 2008). Also, surface of aggregate B is
smoother with very less irregular faces. Due to lesser

NS

NS

NS

NS
surface area, these mixtures required lower asphalt binder
content than the other two aggregate source asphalt
mixtures at the design air voids levels. The VCADry voids

NS

NS

NS
in coarse aggregate (VCA) values observed for aggregates

S
A, B and C were 41.88%, 41.52% and 42.35%,
respectively. VCAMix for all the mixtures were found to

NS

NS

NS

NS
Dry deformation
be lower than VCADry. Mixture design test results
indicated that as the percentage of rubber content

NS

NS

NS

NS
increased, the OBCs in the mixtures also slightly increased.
As reported earlier, it was observed that due to increased
viscosity, more modified binder was required to achieve

NS

NS

NS

NS
the target air void of the mixture at the specified mixing and
compaction temperatures (Bahia and Davis 1994).

NS

NS

NS
S
Wet toughness
3.2 Draindown test results

Aggregate source (A, B, and C)

NS

NS

NS

NS
Draindown was tested at OBCs for all the mixtures as per
AASHTO T 305-2001, and the test results are shown in
Table 5. Mixtures were tested at respective production

NS

NS

NS

NS
temperatures plus 158C for both virgin and WMA
mixtures. No fibres were used for rubberised asphalt
mixtures, whereas cellulose fibres were used for mixtures

NS

NS

NS
Dry toughness

S
with binder PG 76-22. It was observed that the draindown
values increased slightly as the binder contents increased
Statistical analysis for aggregate sources A, B and C and binder types used.

NS

NS

NS
in the asphalt mixture. Most states require that the

Note: S, P-value , a ¼ 0.05 (significant difference) and NS, P-value . a ¼ 0.05 (no significant difference).
S
draindown of SMA mixtures does not exceed 0.3% by
weight of mixture. There was no significant difference in
NS

NS

NS

NS
the draindown property of all the mixtures, and all the
mixtures showed draindown values lower than the
specification requirement of 0.3%.
S

S
Wet ITS

NS

NS

NS

NS

3.3 Dry ITS analysis

From the statistical analysis data, for mixtures with 20%
rubberised asphalt made with aggregate C, the dry ITS
NS

NS

NS

NS

values were found to be higher than for mixtures made

with aggregate A and B. From Table 6, it was observed
NS

NS

NS

that for all other mixtures, no significant difference was

S

reported for the dry ITS values using different binder and
Dry ITS

aggregate types. There were significant differences

NS

NS

NS

observed for dry ITS values between virgin mixtures and

S

mixtures containing Sasobitw using binders with 10 and

15% CR content. Significant differences were also
NS

NS

NS

NS

observed for mixtures containing Sasobitw when com-

pared with mixtures containing Asphaminw using 15%
PG 64-22 þ 10%

PG 64-22 þ 15%

PG 64-22 þ 20%

PG 76-22 þ fibres

CR content. Mixtures with Evothermw additive using

15% rubber content also were significantly different from
a ¼ 0.05

mixtures with virgin binder and Asphamin with respect to

Table 6.

dry ITS values (with aggregates A and B). From Figure

CR

CR

CR

1(a),(b), it is observed that virgin mixtures showed

 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 157

(a) 1000 (b) 1000

Dry Wet Dry Wet
800 800
ITS (kPa)

ITS (kPa)
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22+20% PG 76-22+ PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22+20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers CR CR CR Fibers
Binder type Binder type

(c) 1000
Dry Wet
800
ITS (kPa)

600
400
200
0
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22+20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers
Binder type

Figure 1. ITS values of specimens made with aggregate sources (a) A, (b) B and (c) C.

comparatively improved dry ITS values for aggregates A SCDOT requirements. From Figure 1(a),(c), it can be seen
and B, when compared with mixtures with Asphaminw that wet ITS values for mixtures made from aggregate C
and Evothermw additive. Mixtures with Asphaminw and were significantly higher than those of mixtures with
Evothermw additives showed an increase in the dry ITS aggregate A. As per Table 6, no significant difference in
values compared with virgin mixtures using 15% CR wet ITS values were observed between any two mixtures
content. Dry ITS values of mixtures with Asphaminw from aggregates A and B or between aggregates B and
were found to be higher than virgin mixtures when PG 76- C. From Figure 1(a), for the aggregate source A, the
22 binder was used with aggregate B or with aggregate mixtures with Asphaminw show the lowest wet ITS values
C. The dry ITS values for all the SMA mixtures were out of all the mixtures. For aggregate B, mixtures with
greater than 500 kPa. The lowest dry ITS value was Evothermw additive showed lower wet ITS values than all
observed for mixtures with aggregate B using Evothermw other mixtures. For aggregate C, higher wet ITS values
additive with 10% CR content. The highest dry ITS value were observed for virgin mixtures using 20% CR content
came from a mixture using aggregate B with PG 76-22 and and for mixtures using PG 76-22 binder containing
containing Sasobitw. In general, lower dry ITS values Sasobitw additive as shown in Figure 1(c). The mixtures
were observed for mixtures with Asphaminw or with PG 76-22 binder showed the highest wet ITS value
Evothermw additives for aggregate A and B, respect- than other mixtures in this study. For mixtures with 15%
ively. The dry ITS values of specimens made from CR content, wet ITS values were found to be significantly
aggregate C showed no significant change due to higher higher for mixtures containing Sasobitw than mixtures
OBCs compared with those of mixtures with and without with Asphaminw. From Figure 1, it is observed that virgin
WMA using aggregate sources A and B, thereby mixture and mixtures with Sasobitw showed improved
increasing the durability of the mixtures. With respect to wet ITS values than mixtures containing Asphaminw.
the WMA additive effects, based on the statistical analysis, From Table 7, it can be seen that no significant difference
6 of 24 combinations showed significant difference in the was observed for wet ITS values for mixtures between
dry ITS values. Sasobitw, Asphaminw and Evothermw. With respect to
the WMA additive effects, based on the statistical analysis,
only 2 of 24 mixtures showed significant difference in wet
3.4 Wet ITS analysis ITS values amongst all the three types of WMA additives
From Figure 1, it is observed that all the mixtures met the (control, Asphaminw, Sasobitw and Evothermw), show-
minimum wet ITS requirement of 448 kPa (65 psi) as per ing that the addition of WMA additives while working at
 158

Table 7. Statistical analysis for virgin and mixtures with WMA additives.

Aggregate source (A, B, and C)

Dry ITS Dry toughness Dry deformation
WMA Type (1-Virgin; 2-Sasobit; 3-Asphmin; 4-Evotherm)
a ¼ 0.05 1,2 2,3 1,3 2,4 1,4 3,4 1,2 2,3 1,3 2,4 1,4 3,4 1,2 2,3 1,3 2,4 1,4 3,4
PG 64-22 þ 10% S NS NS NS NS NS NS S NS NS NS NS NS S NS NS NS NS
CR
PG 64-22 þ 15% S S NS NS S S NS NS S NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
CR
PG 64-22 þ 20% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS S NS S NS NS NS
CR
PG 76-22 þ fibres NS NS S NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS S NS
a ¼ 0.05 Wet ITS Wet toughness Wet deformation

PG 64-22 þ 10% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

CR
PG 64-22 þ 15% NS S NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS S NS S NS S NS
CR
PG 64-22 þ 20% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS S NS NS S
CR
PG 76-22 þ fibres NS NS S NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS

Note: S, P-value , a ¼ 0.05 (significant difference) and NS, P-value . a ¼ 0.05 (no significant difference).
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 159

TSR (%) Aggregate A TSR (%) Aggregate B TSR (%) Aggregate C

140 PTL (%) Aggregate A PTL (%) Aggregate B PTL (%) Aggregate C
120
Min. TSR-85%

TSR (%) and PTL (%)

100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
–40

PG 64-22+10% CR PG 64-22+15% CR PG 64-22+20% CR PG 76-22+Fibers

Binder type

Figure 2. TSR and PTL values for mixtures made from aggregate sources A, B and C.

lower temperatures does not negatively affect the wet ITS mixtures using aggregate B failed to meet the TSR
values for the mixtures studied. Many studies in the past requirement of 85%, thereby indicating significant
have shown that the chemical and physical properties of reduction in the TSR values observed for mixtures using
aggregates play an important role in determining the anti- aggregate B as compared with mixtures using aggregates
stripping resistance of the mixtures (Bahia and Davis A and C. It can be concluded that aggregate plays an
1994, Gandhi 2008, Xiao and Amirkhanian 2008). On the important role in understanding the resistance to moisture
other hand, the addition of anti-stripping additives (e.g. susceptibility of the SMA mixtures using different WMA
hydrated lime) used in the present study plays an additives.
extremely important role in improving the resistance to In Figure 2, some TSR values are extremely high (i.e.
moisture susceptibility of the mixtures. higher than 120%). These mixtures were conditioned and
contained 2% hydrated lime. Again, due to the aggregate
properties, it seems that the bond between aggregate and
3.5 TSR analysis binder becomes stronger when the specimens were
The TSR results are presented in Figure 2. Test results conditioned in a 608C water bath even though the air
indicated that 13 out of 48 mixtures failed to meet the TSR voids of two type specimens were almost identical. Results
requirement of 85% as per SCDOT specifications. For showed that three out of four mixtures failed to meet the
mixtures with aggregate B alone, six mixtures failed to TSR requirement for mixtures with 10% CR content. In
meet the TSR requirement. One of the probable reasons order to improve the TSR values, it is recommended to
might be due to lower asphalt binder contents for mixtures increase the anti-stripping additive percentage for
from aggregate B as compared with other mixtures using mixtures using 10% CR content.
aggregate sources A and C. Also, lower TSRs may be
attributed to the reduction in binder ageing at the lower
production temperatures. 3.6 Aggregate chemical composition on moisture
Test results revealed that 7 of 13 mixtures which failed damage of mixtures
to meet the minimum TSR requirement contained The chemistry of the aggregate surface affects the degree
Asphaminw. It seems that Asphaminw may have a of the water sensitivity of the asphalt –aggregate bond. As
negative effect in resisting moisture damage for the per Table 1, the chemical composition of aggregate B
materials tested in this study. Two virgin mixtures and two (marble schist) indicates presence of higher CaO content
Evothermw mixtures (with 10% CR content and with PG in the aggregate than the other two aggregates (A and C).
76-22 binder) failed to meet the TSR requirement. All the The presence of higher CaO (%) and lower SiO2 (%)
mixtures containing Sasobitw additive met the minimum should improve better resistance to moisture susceptibility
TSR requirement. of mixtures. Marble schist aggregate is considered to bear
Test results indicated that 6 out of 16 mixtures using a positive charge and usually stronger bonds are associated
aggregate B failed to meet the TSR requirement of 85% as with more electro-positive charge. On the contrary to this
shown in Figure 2. Results show that even though by using point, TSR test results showed that even though by adding
2% hydrated lime as antistripping agent, 37% of the SMA 2% hydrated lime as antistripping agent, 37% of the
160 P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

6 6
Deformation (mm)
(b)

Deformation (mm)
(a)
5 Dry Wet 5 Dry Wet
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+ PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers CR CR CR Fibers

Binder type Binder type

(c) Deformation (mm) 6

5 Dry Wet
4
3
2
1
0
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers

Binder type

Figure 3. Deformation values of ITS specimens made with aggregate sources (a) A, (b) B and (c) C.

mixtures using aggregate B failed to meet the TSR moisture in the aggregate resulted in an increase in the
requirement. It can be concluded that adding more lime deformation (flow) value. From Figure 3(a),(b), test results
content (2%) was found to be detrimental to aggregate indicate that the specimens made with PG 76-22 using
type B in improving resistance to moisture damage of aggregate source B showed significantly higher wet
mixtures while considering the chemical composition of deformation values than specimens with aggregate A. The
this aggregate. As mentioned before, one other possible specimens made with aggregate sources A and C showed
reason might be due to lower asphalt binder contents for relatively consistent wet deformation values in the range of
mixtures from aggregate B than other mixtures using 2.4 –3.8 mm, whereas for mixtures with aggregate B, the
aggregate sources A and C. The other two sources of wet deformation values varied from 2 to 5.4 mm, indicating
aggregates, A and C, belonged to granite type and these
that distorting and shoving may be easier to occur in the
aggregates consisted of higher contents of Al2O3 (%) and
mixtures using aggregate B. Another contributing factor for
SiO2 (%). Silica usually causes a reduction in the bond
higher deformation in mixtures with aggregate B may be
between asphalt and aggregate. This makes the granite
that the aggregates are smoother with very few irregula-
aggregate fall under the hydrophilic category. TSR test
results indicated that 25% of the mixtures failed using rities, leading to more distortion of aggregates in the
aggregate A containing micaceous granite, whereas 12.5% mixture.
of the mixtures failed using aggregate C containing With respect to the WMA additive effects, 5 of 24
crushed granite. Overall, the study indicated that combinations showed significant difference in the wet
considering the aggregate chemical composition and deformation values (Table 7). The wet deformation values
TSR results, it seems like mixtures with aggregate C are observed for mixtures with Sasobitw, Asphaminw and
found to be less prone to moisture-induced damage than Evothermw were found to be significantly higher than the
other two selected aggregate types. virgin mixtures using PG 64-22 with 15% CR content.
Similarly, mixtures with Asphaminw had higher defor-
mation values than virgin mixtures, indicating that
3.7 Wet deformation analysis mixtures with Asphaminw had greater potential to wet
The deformation (flow) resistance of wet ITS specimens, a deformation than virgin mixtures. Also, mixtures contain-
measure of the material’s resistance to permanent ing Asphaminw had higher wet deformation values than
deformation in service (Xiao and Amirkhanian 2008), mixtures with Evothermw additive for all the binder types
was used for moisture susceptibility analysis of the mixture. that were tested. From Figure 3, it is concluded that,
The wet deformation results indicated that, in general, the considering WMA additives, SMA mixtures with Saso-
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 161

Toughness (N/mm)
(a) (b)

Toughness (N/mm)
6 6
Dry Wet Dry Wet
4 4

2 2

0 0

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+ PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers CR CR CR Fibers

Binder type Binder type

Toughness (N/mm)
(c) 6
Dry Wet
4
2
0 Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm

Virgin

Sasobit

Asphamin

Evotherm
PG 64-22+10% PG 64-22+15% PG 64-22 +20% PG 76-22+
CR CR CR Fibers

Binder type

Figure 4. Toughness values for mixtures made with aggregate sources (a) A, (b) B and (c) C.

bitw showed lower wet deformation values than mixtures sources (A, B and C). With respect to effect of WMA
containing Evothermw and Asphaminw. additives on wet toughness, no significant difference was
observed for any of the mixtures investigated.

3.8 Dry deformation analysis

Based on the statistical analysis, it was observed that there 3.10 Dry toughness analysis
was no significant difference in dry deformation values From Figure 4, it is observed that the dry toughness values
with respect to the aggregates A, B and C with all types of of the virgin (HMA) mixtures showed lower dry toughness
binders (Table 6). Mixtures with Sasobitw showed lower values than for mixtures containing WMA additives
dry deformation values than mixtures containing Aspha- regardless of the aggregate source. From Figure 4, it is
minw with asphalt binder with 10% CR content. From observed that the dry toughness values for aggregate C were
Figure 3, it is observed that the dry deformation values for found to be higher than mixtures made from aggregates A
virgin mixtures were found to be lower than mixtures with and B using asphalt binder with 20% CR content. Apart
Sasobitw and Asphaminw using asphalt binder with 20% from this, all other mixtures showed no significant
CR content. The mixtures containing Evothermw also difference in dry toughness values with respect to aggregate
showed higher dry deformation values than virgin sources A, B and C and selected binder types (Table 6). The
mixtures using PG 76-22 binder. dry toughness values for mixtures containing Asphaminw
were found to be higher than toughness values for mixtures
containing Sasobitw using asphalt binder with 10% CR
3.9 Wet toughness analysis content. Similarly mixtures with Asphaminw had higher
Toughness was defined as the area under the tensile stress – toughness values than virgin mixtures using asphalt binder
deformation curve up to a deformation of twice that with 15% CR content. Apart from this, all other mixtures
incurred at maximum tensile stress (Xiao and Amirkhanian showed no significant difference in the dry toughness
2008). The toughness results of wet ITS specimens are values with respect to WMA additives.
shown in Figure 4, and statistical analysis is presented in
Table 3. From Figure 4(a),(c), it is observed that the wet
toughness values for mixtures made from aggregate C were 3.11 PTL analysis
relatively higher than for mixtures made with aggregate A As shown in Equation 1, the PTL values were positive due
using asphalt binder with 20% CR content. No significant to dry toughness values being greater than wet toughness
difference was observed with respect to wet toughness values. Figure 2 shows that, in most cases, the PTL values
values for all the mixtures studied for all three aggregates were found to be positive. However, 13 of 48 mixtures
162 P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

(a) 50 Aggregate A (b) 50 Aggregate A

Aggregate B Aggregate B
Frequency (%)

Frequency (%)
40 40 Aggregate C
Aggregate C
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS rangefor wet sample (kPa)

(c) PG 64-22+10% CR (d) PG 64-22+10% CR PG 64-22+15% CR

60 60
PG 64-22+15% CR PG 64-22+20% CR PG 76-22+Fibers
50 50
Frequency (%)

Frequency (%)
PG 64-22+20% CR
40 PG 76-22+Fibers 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS rangefor wet sample (kPa)

(e) Virgin (f) 50 Virgin

50
Sasobit Sasobit
Frequency (%)

40 40
Frequency (%)

Asphamin As phamin
30 Evotherm 30 Evotherm
20 20
10 10
0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS rangefor wet sample (kPa)

Figure 5. Frequency distribution curves for indirect tensile strength tests for mixtures (a, b) aggregate effect (b, c) binder effect and (c,
d) WMA effect.

showed negative PTL values, indicating that the wet
toughness values from these specimens were higher than
the dry toughness values. Mixtures with Sasobitw showed
maximum number of specimens showing negative PTL
values, indicating that these mixtures showed better
resistance to toughness loss than other mixtures tested.
Virgin and mixtures with Evothermw showed a similar
number of samples showing negative PTL values, whereas
mixtures with Asphaminw showed the least number of
samples showing negative PTL values, indicating that
these mixtures were prone to moisture damage. In general,
the mixtures made from aggregate B showed lower PTL
values than mixtures made from aggregates A and C.
4. Frequency distribution analysis of its test results
To further study the effects of aggregate source, binder
type and WMA additive on resistance to moisture
susceptibility, frequency distribution analysis was done
in terms of ITS for the mixtures studied. The distribution
analysis of the mixtures was categorised into dry and wet
groups. Figure 5(a),(b) show the influence of three
different aggregate sources studied. From Figure 5(a), it
can be seen that the peak dry ITS distribution was
observed for aggregate A and the range of the dry ITS
observed was between 700 and 800 kPa, followed by
aggregates B and C, showing a range between 800 and
900 kPa and between 600 and 700 kPa, respectively. For
the wet specimens (Figure 5(b)), the peak distribution was
observed for aggregate B having a range between 600 and
700 kPa, followed by aggregate C having a range between
500 and 600 kPa. Lowest peak ITS values were observed
for the wet specimens for mixtures using aggregate
A. From the present analysis, it can be concluded that in
general, for the wet specimens irrespective of the
aggregate source studied, the wet ITS values observed
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering
for SMA mixtures were in the range between 500 and
900 kPa. Figure 5(c),(d) show the influence of binder type
used in the present investigation. Figure 5(c) shows that
the peak distribution values were observed for dry
specimens with PG 64-22 þ 10% CR binder (between
700 and 800 kPa), followed by specimens with PG 64-
22 þ 20% CR in the same ITS range level. For the
mixtures with PG 64-22 þ 15% CR, the peak ITS range
observed was between 700 and 800 kPa, whereas for
mixtures with PG 76-22 þ fibres showed the lowest peak
frequency distribution (between 900 and 1000 kPa).
Figure 5(d) shows that the peak ITS distribution for wet
specimens was observed for mixtures with PG 64-
22 þ 10% CR ranging between 500 and 600 kPa, followed
by specimens with PG 64-22 þ 15% CR ranging between
600 and 700 kPa. All the mixtures met the minimum wet
ITS requirement of SCDOT specifications of 448 kPa
(65 psi). Based on the wet ITS peak distribution, the
mixtures with PG 64-22 þ 10% CR binder showed the
least resistance to moisture susceptibility than all other
mixtures studied. The mixtures with PG 64-22 þ 20% CR
showed improved peak wet ITS distribution ranging
between 700 and 800 kPa. The range of the wet ITS values
observed for mixtures with PG 76-22 þ fibres was in the
range of 800 –900 kPa, indicating better resistance to
moisture-induced damage than all other mixtures inves-
tigated in the present study. Figure 5(e),(f) show that the
influence of WMA additive on the moisture susceptibility
properties of the mixtures. Figure 5(e) shows that mixtures
with Evothermw showed the highest peak dry ITS
frequency distribution compared with all other mixtures
studied. The dry peak ITS value observed for mixtures
with Evothermw was between 700 and 800 kPa followed
by virgin mixtures having values in the same ITS range.
The peak dry ITS range observed for mixtures with
Asphaminw and Sasobitw were between 800 and 900 kPa
and between 700 and 800 kPa, respectively. Mixtures with
Sasobitw showed the least peak dry ITS value compared
with all other mixtures studied. In general, the dry peak
ITS values observed for WMA mixtures ranged between
400 and 1000 kPa with respect to the WMA type, binder
type and the aggregate used in this investigation.
Figure 5(f) shows that peak wet ITS range observed for
mixtures with Evothermw was between 600 and 700 kPa,
indicating the possibility of lower resistance to moisture
susceptibility than all other mixtures studied. The peak wet
ITS range for virgin and for mixtures with Asphaminw
was observed to be in the range between 700 and 800 kPa.
The mixtures with Sasobitw showed the lowest peak wet
ITS values (between 500 and 1000 kPa).
Considering the effect of WMA type, it can be
concluded that based on the frequency distribution
analysis, mixtures with Sasobitw showed the least dry
and wet ITS range, thereby indicating better resistance
to moisture-induced damage than all other mixtures
163
investigated. Furthermore, cumulative frequency distri-
bution (CFD) analysis was carried out for mixtures (Figure
6), to study the effect of different types of aggregate,
binder and WMA additive on moisture susceptibility of
mixtures. To study the effect of aggregate, Figure 6(b)
shows that for mixtures containing aggregate A, 3% of
CFD showed wet ITS values ranging between 400 and
500 kPa. In addition, to study the effect of binder type,
Figure 6(d) shows that for mixtures with PG 64-22 þ 20%
CR, 4% of CFD showed wet ITS values ranging between
400 and 500 kPa. Furthermore, to study the effect of
WMA, Figure 6(f) shows that for mixtures with Evotherm,
4% of CFD showed wet ITS values ranging between 400
and 500 kPa.
5. Findings
The following findings were drawn based on the
experimental test results obtained from the laboratory
investigation on various SMA mixtures containing WMA
additives:
. No significant difference in the draindown proper-
ties were observed for virgin and mixtures with
WMA additives. Considering the effect of WMA
additives, 25% of mixtures investigated showed
significant difference in the dry ITS values. The
lowest dry ITS value was observed for mixtures
made from aggregate B containing Evothermw and
asphalt binder with 10% CR content. Mixtures made
from aggregate B using PG 76-22 þ fibres and
Sasobitw showed the highest dry ITS value as
compared with all other selected mixtures.
. No significant difference in the wet ITS values was
observed between the mixtures using aggregates A
and B or between aggregates B and C. Mixtures with
PG 76-22 þ fibres showed higher wet ITS value
than all other mixtures. The lowest wet ITS values
were observed for mixtures made from aggregate-
source A containing Asphamin (R), and aggregate
source B containing Evotherm (R) additive,
respectively. No significant difference was observed
in wet ITS values between mixtures with Sasobitw
and Asphaminw or between mixtures with Aspha-
minw and Evothermw.
. Test results showed that 53% of mixtures which
failed to meet the minimum TSR requirement were
the mixtures containing Asphaminw additive. All
the mixtures using Sasobitw additive met the
minimum TSR requirement of 85%. Majority of
the mixtures investigated showed an increase in
TSR values indicating that these mixtures do not
cause a decrease in strength due to the intrusion of
water into the mixture. Results show that even
though by using 2% hydrated lime as antistripping
164 P.V. Shivaprasad et al.

(a) 100 (b) 100

80 A B C 80 A B C
frequency (%)

frequency (%)
Cummulative

Cummulative
60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS range for wet sample (kPa)

(c) 100 PG 64-22+10% CR (d) 100 PG 64-22+10% CR

PG 64-22+15% CR
PG 64-22+15% CR
80 80 PG 64-22+20% CR
frequency (%)
Cummulative

frequency (%)
PG 64-22+20% CR

Cummulative
PG 76-22+Fibers
60 PG 76-22+Fibers 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS range for wet sample (kPa)

(e) 100 Virgin (f) 100 Virgin

Sasobit Sasobit
80 80
frequency (%)

frequency (%)

Asphamin
Cummulative

Cummulative

As phamin
60 Evotherm 60 Evotherm

40 40

20 20

0 0
300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000- 300- 400- 500- 600- 700- 800- 900- 1000-
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
ITS range for dry sample (kPa) ITS range for wet sample (kPa)

Figure 6. CFD curves for indirect tensile strength tests for mixtures (a, b) aggregate effect (b, c) binder effect and (c, d) WMA effect.

agent, 37% of the mixtures using aggregate B failed
to meet the TSR requirement of 85%.
. With respect to WMA additives, mixtures with
Sasobitw showed lower wet deformation values than
mixtures containing Evothermw and Asphaminw. No
significant difference was observed with respect to
wet toughness values for all the mixtures made from
the aggregate sources A, B and C and considering all
the selected types of binders. With respect to effect of
WMA additives on wet toughness, no significant
difference was observed for any mixture.
. Frequency distribution analysis showed that the
lowest wet ITS range was observed for mixtures
with PG 76-22 þ fibres ranging between 700 and
800 kPa, indicating better resistance to moisture
damage. In addition, the cummulative distribution
curve of mixtures with Sasobitw showed the least dry
and wet ITS value range (400 to 1000 kPa), thereby
indicating better resistance to moisture susceptibility
than all other selected mixtures.
6. Conclusions
The test results indicated that, in general, the use of WMA
additives in SMA mixtures containing 2% hydrated lime
(by weight of the aggregate) improved the resistance of the
mixtures to moisture susceptibility. However, as sus-
pected, aggregate source plays an important role in
understanding the resistance to moisture susceptibility of
the SMA mixtures using different WMA additives. In
general, the mixtures made with PG 76-22 plus fibres
produced better resistance to moisture damage. The
mixtures containing over 15% rubber (by weight of virgin
binder) produced similar resistance to moisture suscepti-
bility compared with mixtures made with PG 76-
22 þ Fibres. Thus enabling asphalt industry to use
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering
rubberised SMA with WMA additives containing over
15% CR with no fibres instead of using PG 76-22 þ fibres
resulting in major cost savings. Field evaluation of SMA
test sections using different warm mix technologies is
necessary to better understand the long-term performance
of such pavements for the varying climatic and traffic
conditions.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr E. Ray Brown for giving his
valuable inputs and suggestions for this research project.
Financial support was possible through a grant from South
Carolina Department of Health and Environment Control
(DHEC) and the Asphalt Rubber Technology Service (ARTS)
of Clemson University.
Notes
1. Email: feipenx@clemson.edu
2. Email: serji.amirkhanian@gmail.com
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