Q. No. 2.

(a) On 7th April 2012 an Avalanche hit a Pakistan military base in Gayari sector trapping 140
soldiers and civilians under deep snow. What is Avalanche; describe its four types with focus on most
dangerous type?

 What is An Avalanche?
o The word avalanche is derived from the French word avalance meaning descent.
o An avalanche is a mass of snow, often mixed with ice and debris which travels down
mountainsides, destroying all in its path.
o On any slope, the snow is piled up and supported by a snow-pack.
o It keeps the snow from tumbling down all the time.
o Avalanches occur when the snow-pack starts to weaken and allows the buildup of
snow to be released.
o Small avalanches are generally made up of ice, snow and air.
o The larger ones comprise of rocks, trees, debris and even mud that is resting on the
lower slopes.
o Contrary to belief, these snow slides are not random events that occur without any
warning signs.
o Winter season is when they are most common, often brought on after a large storm in
the area.
o Rainfall and sleet also tend to be responsible for avalanches in the summer and
monsoon season.
 The Avalanche Triangle
 The Avalanche Triangle depicts the interdependence between Terrain, Snowpack, Weather and
You.
 All precipitation, Rain, Snow or Hail is required by gravity to return to a state of balance by
flowing to the sea. Snow, Hail and ice interacts with the terrain and is prevented from doing so
due to friction in its solid form.
 When snowpack covers the hills the system is not in balance and gravity is constantly straining
to move the snowpack downwards.
 These movements will occur when the snow melts and runs downhill as water or when in its
solid form as avalanches.
 In the case of avalanche the trigger can be natural through changes to the snowpack driven by
weather or the avalanche can be triggered by human interaction.

 Terrain
 Slope aspect, angle and composition all affect it's likelihood to avalanche when covered with
snow pack and aggravated with a suitable trigger.
 Snowpack
 Volume and distribution of snow on the terrain in combination with the various layers, their
thickness and composition define the snow pack and all influence it's involvement in an
avalanche.
 Weather
 Wind, temperature and precipitation, whether snow, rain or hail all influence the stability of the
snow pack when created or later through metamorphosis.
 You
 The ultimate variable is you the mountaineer, skier or snowboarder. Difficult to predict, but
hopefully armed with the necessary avalanche avoidance skills.

 Types of Avalanches: To help in understanding of avalanches, they have been classified into four
types.

o Loose Snow Avalanches

 First of these are the Loose Snow Avalanches (also called point release
avalanche.) They are common on steep slopes and are seen after a fresh
snowfall. Since the snow does not have time to settle down fully or has been
made loose by sunlight, the snow-pack is not very solid.
  Such avalanches have a single point of origin, from where they widen as they
travel down the slope.
o 2) Slab Avalanches (Most dangerous)
 Loose Snow Avalanches in turn could cause a Slab Avalanche, which are
characterized by the fall of a large block of ice down the slopes.
 Thin slabs cause fairly small amounts of damage, while the thick ones are
responsible for many fatalities.
 Slab avalanches are the most dangerous type and responsible for more
than 90% of the deaths that occur in avalanches.
 Slab avalanches can be dangerous even if they are not large. They reach a
high speed quickly.
 A person who releases a slab is often within its perimeter and caught in
the avalanche.
 Slab avalanches have a distinct, broad fracture line.
 They can occur only when a bonded layer of snow (the slab) is lying on top
of a weak layer over a sufficiently large area.
 Triggering requires the application of an additional load and a slope angle
of at least 30°.
 The avalanche is released by a small fracture that initially occurs in the
weak layer (initial failure) and then rapidly propagates across it.
 The extent to which the fracture propagates depends on the properties of
the weak layer and on the slab that is lying on top.
 Once released, the slab slides down the slope.
 The typical size of a slab avalanche released by winter sport participants is
50 metres wide and 150 to 200 metres long.
 Slab avalanches can occur in dry or wet snow, even a long time after any
snowfall.
 They can release naturally (without human assistance) or be triggered at
any point within or even outside (in case of remote triggering) the
perimeter of the slab.
 Below is the diagram explaining slab avalanches:
 o 3) Powder Snow Avalanches
 Powder Snow Avalanches are a mix of the other forms, Loose Snow and
Slab.
 The bottom half of this avalanche consists of a slab or a dense
concentration of snow, ice and air.
 Above this is a cloud of powdered snow, which can snowball into a larger
avalanche as it progresses down the slope.
 The speed attained by this avalanche can cross 190 miles per hour and
they can cross large distances.
o 4) Wet Snow Avalanches:
 These avalanches travel slowly due to friction, which collects debris from
the path fairly easily.
 The avalanche comprises of water and snow at the beginning, but
understanding of avalanches has showed us that it can pick up speed with
ease.

 Other related information (random)

o Snowstorm and Wind Direction
 Heavy snowstorms are more likely to cause Avalanches. The 24 hours after a
storm are considered to be the most critical. Wind normally blows from one side
of the slope of mountain to another side. While blowing up, it will scour snow
off the surface which can overhang a mountain.
o Heavy snowfall
 Heavy snowfall is the first, since it deposits snow in unstable areas and puts
pressure on the snow-pack. Precipitation during the summer months is the
leading cause of wet snow avalanches.
o Human Activity
 Humans have contributed to the start of many avalanches in recent years.
Winter sports that require steep slopes often put pressure on the snow-pack
 which it cannot deal. Combined with the heavy deforestation and soil erosion in
mountain regions, it gives the snow little stability in the winter months. Further
natural causes include earthquakes and tremors, since they can often create
cracks in the snow-pack.
o Vibration or Movement
 The use of All Terrain Vehicles and Snowmobiles creates vibrations within the
snow that it cannot withstand. Coupled with the gravitational pull, it is one of
the quickest ways to causean avalanche. The other is construction work done
with explosives, which tend to weaken the entire surrounding area.
o Layers of Snow
 There are conditions where snow is already on the mountains and has turned
into ice. Then, fresh snow falls on top which can easily slide down.
o Steep Slopes
 Layers of snow build up and slide down the mountain at a faster rate as steep
slopes can increase the speed of snow. A rock or piece of huge ice can shake the
snow and cause it to come down.
o Warm Temperature
 Warm temperatures that can last several hours a day can weaken some of the
upper layers of snow and cause it to slide down.
 Effects of Avalanches
o As such, there is little damage to the overall ecological system due to avalanches. They
are apart of nature and have been happening for thousands of years. However, they are
a major natural hazard for the local human population.
o 1) Damage to Life and Property
 A large number of casualties takes place after avalanches hit heavily populated
areas. Infrastructure is damaged and the blockage caused, impacts the
livelihood of many. People who enjoy skiing, snowboarding and snowmobiling
are at a greater risk of losing their lives. A powerful avalanche can even destroy
buildings and power supplies can be cut off.
o 2) Flash floods
 When an avalanche occurs, it brings down all the debris with it and can cause
havoc in low lying areas. Flash floods are seen to happen after avalanches,
which is a long term problem many villagers and townspeople have to deal with.
They can also change weather pattern sand cause crop failure in farms present
on the lower fields.
o 3) Economic Impact
 An avalanche can block anything in its path and even restrict the normal
movement of traffic. Various ski resorts depend on tourists to run their business
successfully. Ski resorts and other businesses are forced to close until the
avalanche decreases and weather conditions become suitable.

 History of Recent Avalanches

o Cascade range, Washington (1910)
  The Cascade Range, Washington is the worst avalanche disaster in the USA to
date. Three snow-bound trains were swept into a canyon which killed 118
people.
o Gayari Military Base, Ghanche, Pakistan, April 2012 (138 deaths)
 On April 7, 2012, an avalanche, occurring in the disputed Siachen region of Indo-
Pakistan, claimed 138 victims. These included soldiers and civilian employees
alike of the Northern Light Battalion at the Gayatri Military Base, Ghanche,
Pakistan. This incident drew the attention of the governments of both India and
Pakistan to resolve the Siachen dispute, which, since 1984, had led to the
deaths of a large number of soldiers from both sides. These deaths were also
primarily due to the harsh climatic conditions prevailing in the region.
o 1970 Huascaran-Ancash, Peru, May/June 1970 (20,000 deaths)
 The worst natural disaster in the history of Peru occurred on May 31, 1970, and
is known as the Ancash Earthquake, or the Great Peruvian Earthquake. The
earthquake triggered an avalanche that alone claimed the lives of almost 20,000
people, making it the deadliest avalanche in the recorded history of humankind.
The epicenter of the earthquake was located 21 miles off the coast of Peru in
the Pacific Ocean, and the Peruvian regions of Ancash and La Libertad were the
worst affected in this disaster. A massive avalanche struck the towns of Yungay
and Ranrahirca when the earthquake destabilized the northern walls of Mount
Huascaran. A large chunk of ice and snow, 910 meters wide and 1.6 kilometers
long, sped down the mountain at speeds of 280 to 335 kilometers per hour. As it
moved, it completely devastated all that came in its path, with its massive
volumes of ice, water, mud and rock alike.
o Montroc, France (1999)
 This avalanche occurred when 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid down a 30
degree slope which reached a speed of 60 miles an hour. Chalets were covered
in 100,000 tons of snow, killing 12 people.
o Alps (World War I)
 During World War I approximately 50,000 soldiers died due to avalanches at the
Austrian-Italian front in the Alps. It is thought the avalanches were caused by
the artillery fire.
Q. No. 2. (b) What do you understand by Global Wind and Pressure patterns? Also explain wind and
pressure features at higher altitude.

 Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun. It does not
have much substance—you cannot see it or hold it—but you can feel its force. It can dry your
clothes in summer and chill you to the bone in winter. It is strong enough to carry sailing ships
across the ocean and rip huge trees from the ground. It is the great equalizer of the atmosphere,
transporting heat, moisture, pollutants, and dust great distances around the globe. Landforms,
processes, and impacts of wind are called Aeolian landforms, processes, and impacts.
 Differences in atmospheric pressure generate winds. At the Equator, the sun warms the water
and land more than it does the rest of the globe. Warm equatorial air rises higher into the
atmosphere and migrates toward the poles. This is a low-pressure system. At the same time,
cooler, denser air moves over Earth’s surface toward the Equator to replace the heated air. This
is a high-pressure system. Winds generally blow from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
 The boundary between these two areas is called a front. The complex relationships between
fronts cause different types of wind and weather patterns.
 Prevailing winds are winds that blow from a single direction over a specific area of the Earth.
Areas where prevailing winds meet are called convergence zones. Generally, prevailing winds
blow east-west rather than north-south.
 This happens because Earth’s rotation generates what is known as the Coriolis effect. The
Coriolis effect makes wind systems twist counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 The Coriolis effect causes some winds to travel along the edges of the high-pressure and low-
pressure systems. These are called geostrophic winds. In 1857, Dutch meteorologist Christoph
Buys Ballot formulated a law about geostrophic winds: When you stand with your back to the
wind in the Northern Hemisphere, low pressure is always to your left. (In the Southern
Hemisphere, low-pressure systems will be on your right.)

Wind Zones

The Earth contains five major wind zones: polar easterlies, westerlies, horse latitudes, trade
winds, and the doldrums.

Polar Easterlies
Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the east. They emanate from the
polar highs, areas of high pressure around the North and South Poles. Polar easterlies flow to
low-pressure areas in sub-polar regions.

Westerlies
Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west at midlatitudes. They are fed by polar
easterlies and winds from the high-pressure horse latitudes, which sandwich them on either
side. Westerlies are strongest in the winter, when pressure over the pole is low, and weakest in
summer, when the polar high creates stronger polar easterlies.

The strongest westerlies blow through the “Roaring Forties,” a wind zone between 40 and 50
degrees latitude in the Southern Hemisphere. Throughout the Roaring Forties, there are few
landmasses to slow winds. The tip of South America and Australia, as well as the islands of New
Zealand, are the only large landmasses to penetrate the Roaring Forties. The westerlies of the
Roaring Forties were very important to sailors during the Age of Exploration, when explorers
and traders from Europe and western Asia used the strong winds to reach the spice markets of
Southeast Asia and Australia.

Westerlies have an enormous impact on ocean currents, especially in the Southern Hemisphere.
Driven by westerlies, the powerful Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) rushes around the
continent (from west to east) at about 4 kilometers per hour (2.5 miles per hour). In fact,
another name for the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is the West Wind Drift. The ACC is the
largest ocean current in the world, and is responsible for transporting enormous volumes of
cold, nutrient-rich water to the ocean, creating healthy marine ecosystems and food webs.

Horse Latitudes
The horse latitudes are a narrow zone of warm, dry climates between westerlies and the trade
winds. Horse latitudes are about 30 and 35 degrees north and south. Many deserts, from the
rainless Atacama of South America to the arid Kalahari of Africa, are part of the horse latitudes.

The prevailing winds at the horse latitudes vary, but are usually light. Even strong winds are
often short in duration.

Trade Winds
Trade winds are the powerful prevailing winds that blow from the east across the tropics. Trade
winds are generally very predictable. They have been instrumental in the history of exploration,
communication, and trade. Ships relied on trade winds to establish quick, reliable routes across
the vast Atlantic and, later, Pacific Oceans. Even today, shipping depends on trade winds and the
ocean currents they drive.

In 1947, Norwegian explorer Thor Hyerdahl and a small crew used trade winds to travel from the
coast of Peru to the coral reefs of French Polynesia, more than 6,920 kilometers (4,300 miles), in
a sail-powered raft. The expedition, named after the raft (Kon-Tiki) aimed to prove that ancient
mariners could have used predictable trade winds to explore wide stretches of the Pacific.

Trade winds that form over land (called continental trade winds) are warmer and drier than
those that form over the ocean (maritime trade winds). The relationship between continental
and maritime trade winds can be violent.

Most tropical storms, including hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons, develop as trade winds.
Differences in air pressure over the ocean cause these storms to develop. As the dense, moist
winds of the storm encounter the drier winds of the coast, the storm can increase in intensity.

Strong trade winds are associated with a lack of precipitation, while weak trade winds carry
rainfall far inland. The most famous rain pattern in the world, the Southeast Asian monsoon, is a
 seasonal, moisture-laden trade wind.

Besides ships and rainfall, trade winds can also carry particles of dust and sand for thousands of
kilometers. Particles from Saharan sand and dust storms can blow across islands in the
Caribbean Sea and the U.S. state of Florida, more than 8,047 kilometers (5,000 miles) away.

Dust storms in the tropics can be devastating for the local community. Valuable topsoil is blown
away and visibility can drop to almost zero. Across the ocean, dust makes the sky hazy. These
dust storms are often associated with dry, low-pressure areas and a lack of tropical storms.

Doldrums
The place where trade winds of the two hemispheres meet is called the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ). The area around the ITCZ is called the doldrums. Prevailing winds in
the doldrums are very weak, and the weather is unusually calm.

The ITCZ straddles the Equator. In fact, the low-pressure doldrums are created as the sun heats
the equatorial region and causes air masses to rise and travel north and south. (This warm, low-
pressure equatorial wind descends again around the horse latitudes. Some equatorial air masses
return to the doldrums as trade winds, while others circulate in the other direction as
westerlies.)

Although monsoons impact tropical as well as equatorial regions, the wind itself is created as
the ITCZ moves slightly away from the Equator each season. This change in the doldrums
disturbs the usual air pressure, creating the moisture-laden Southeast Asian monsoon.

(Different article below)

 Global Wind Patterns

Large global wind systems are created by the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface. These global
wind systems, in turn, drive the oceans’ surface currents. To understand how global winds form
and drive the major ocean currents, you need to know that wind is the basically the movement
of air from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. Pressure is force per unit area,
and air pressure is simply the weight (force) of the column of air above a particular location, per
unit area. Air pressure therefore depends on elevation or altitude (higher up means less air
above), the average temperature of the air above the particular location (hot air is lighter than
cold air), and what the air's composition is. For example, air with a large amount of water vapor
is less dense than dry air because the water molecule has less mass than either an individual
nitrogen or oxygen molecule. Also as elevation or altitude increases, air becomes less dense.

Unequal heating of the Earth’s surface also forms large global wind patterns. In area near the
equator, the sun is almost directly overhead for most of the year. Warm air rises at the equator
and moves toward the poles. At the poles, the cooler air sinks and moves back toward the
equator. However, it is not this simple. Global winds do not move directly from north to south or
south to north because the Earth rotates. All winds in the Northern Hemisphere appear to curve
to right as they move. In the southern hemisphere, winds appear to curve to the left. This is
 known as the Coriolis Effect, which is the apparent shift in the path of any fluid or object moving
about the surface of the Earth due to the rotation of the Earth.

Near the equator, the trade winds converge into a broad east to west area of light winds. The
area is known as the doldrums because there are light winds. This belt of air around the equator
receives much of the sun’s radiant energy. This area is known as the intertropical convergence
zone (ITCZ), and is the area with the most active weather. The latitude where Earth’s mean
annual surface temperature is highest is located at 10°N. As you learned the Northern
Hemisphere has more landmass and is relatively warmer than the Southern Hemisphere. Also at
the equator, warmer, moist air rises and produces a low-pressure area extending many
kilometers north and south of the equator.

Trade Winds – About 30° north and south of the equator, the warm, moist air that rose
vertically cools and begins to sink. Here the sky is clear. There are few clouds and little rainfall.
Winds are calm. These are called the horse latitudes, because when food ran out, sailors had to
throw horses overboard. Deserts, such as the Sahara in Africa, are also common at 30°N and
30°S. At the horse latitudes some of the sinking air travels back toward the equator. The air
moving back toward the equator forms warm, steady winds, known as the trade winds.

The rising air at the equatorial regions and the sinking air at about 30°N and 30°S form huge
convection current, known as a Hadley cell for the English meteorologist who first proposed
their existence to explain the trade winds.

Prevailing Westerlies – Some of the cool, sinking air continues to move toward the North and
South. These winds are called the westerlies and are located between 40°to 60° latitude in both
hemispheres.

Polar Easterlies – In both hemispheres, the westerlies start rising and cooling between 50° and
60° latitude as they approach the poles. They meet extremely cold air flowing toward the
equator from the poles and form the polar easterlies.

(Another article)
 Wind at higher altitude features (part 2 of the question)
o Wind speed increases with height from the surface to the upper troposphere.
o There are several reasons that explain this tendency.
 First reason for the wind speed increasing with height, especially near the
ground, is due to surface friction.
 Surface objects such as trees, rocks, houses, etc. slow the air as it
collides into them. The influence of this friction is less with height above
the ground, thus the wind speed increases with height.
 Second reason is due to air density. The density of the air is highest at the surface
and decreases with height.
o A force imparted on air will cause the air to move more easily when the
mass of the air is less.
 o Dense air requires a greater force to move it the same speed as less dense
air.
o With air density decreasing with height, it is easier to move the less dense
air at a higher wind speed.
o The speed of high altitude winds is proportional to height.
o The greatest speed is reached at the limit of the troposphere.
o These winds are slower at the Equator, they grow in speed at the middle latitudes and
slow down again closer to the Poles.
o It is not clear as yet that which is the mechanism that brings about this type of
circulation at high altitudes, but, whichever the origin, the role of high altitude winds is
fundamental in the distribution of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic areas in the world.
 Pressure at higher altitude features (part 2 of the question)
o Because gas (which includes air as well) particles in the air—like particles of all fluids—
are constantly moving and bumping into things, they exert pressure.
o The pressure exerted by the air in the atmosphere is greater close to Earth’s surface and
decreases as you go higher above the surface.
o There are two reasons why air pressure decreases as altitude increases: density and
depth of the atmosphere.
 Density: Most gas molecules in the atmosphere are pulled close to Earth’s
surface by gravity, so gas particles are denser near the surface. With more gas
particles in a given volume, there are more collisions of particles and therefore
greater pressure.
 Depth: The depth (distance from top to bottom) of the atmosphere is greatest
at sea level and decreases at higher altitudes. With greater depth of the
atmosphere, more air is pressing down from above. Therefore, air pressure is
greatest at sea level and falls with increasing altitude.
 On top of Mount Everest, which is the tallest mountain on Earth, air pressure is
only about one-third of the pressure at sea level.

o Atmospheric pressure reduces with altitude for two reasons, both of which are related
to gravity.
 While not taking into account the Earth’s spin, the gravitational attraction
between the earth and air molecules is greater for those molecules nearer to
earth than those further away
 They have more weight so dragging them closer together and increasing the
pressure (force per unit area) between them.
 Molecules further away from the earth have less weight (because gravitational
attraction is less) but they are also ‘standing’ on the molecules below them,
causing compression.
 Those lower down have to support more molecules above them and are
further compressed (pressurized) in the process.

 Global Wind and Pressure:

o In this explanation, tilt of the axis and the influence of land/water distribution is not
being taken into account.
o Equator divides the globe into Southern Hemisphere and Northern Hemisphere.

o Equatorial belt extend up to 5 degrees north and 5 degrees south.

o Equatorial region receives nearly vertical rays of the sun and this heats up the air near
the equator.
o When temperature increases pressure decreases.

o So along the equator we have low pressure and we call this region as equatorial low
pressure belt.

o The warm air starts rising up in the troposphere and as the warm air is rising, the
temperature drops.
o After rising up to a certain point, it stops rising upwards because it becomes cooler and
it is obstructed by tropopause.
o So the air spreads out and the air starts moving in the Southern and Northern direction.

o As the air is moving, it becomes denser and after a certain point it sinks down to the
surface.
o So at around 30 degrees north and south, we have sinking air.

o This sinking air is cool air, so it forms high pressure systems.

o These regions are called as Subtropical High-pressure belts.
o Because these regions lie outside the tropical region and at the same time adjoining the
tropical region.

o The sinking air now moves towards North and South.

o So, in short, along the equator the warm air rises, spreads out and cools and then sinks
down.
o In this way it develops Convection currents.

o At the poles the sun rays are very much inclined so we have cold air that sinks.
o These regions are known as polar highs.

o In the Northern hemisphere, the air moves towards the South and in the Southern
hemisphere the air moves towards north.
o At this point we have air coming from North and South so at this point the air converges
and rises up.
o These regions are known as sub polar lows.

o So at 60-degree latitudes, we have low pressure system because we have rising air.

o Along the equator the air is rising because of convection.

o At sub polar lows we have rising air because of convergence.

o This rising air also spreads out cools and sinks.

o Same things happen in the Southern hemisphere.

o On the surface of the Earth along the equator, the winds move from high pressure
regions to low pressure regions.
o That is from subtropical highs to the equatorial low in the Northern and Southern
hemisphere.

o These winds bend to the right in the Northern hemisphere and in the Southern
hemisphere the winds bend to the left.
o This is described as Coriolis Effect.

o The winds bend to the right and left in the Northern and Southern hemisphere
respectively because the Earth is spherical in shape and the Earth rotates from West to
east.
o In the same way in between 30 and 60 degrees North and South, the winds bends
towards right and left in the Northern and Southern hemispheres respectively.

o Even at the polar region the same phenomena can be seen

(Another article)

 Global Atmospheric Circulations

o Global Atmospheric Pressure
 Because more solar energy hits the equator, the air warms and forms a low
pressure zone. At the top of the troposphere, half moves toward the North Pole
and half toward the South Pole.
 As it moves along the top of the troposphere it cools.
 The cool air is dense and when it reaches a high pressure zone it sinks towards
the ground.
 The air is sucked back toward the low pressure at the equator.
 This describes the convection cells north and south of the equator.

 If the Earth did not rotate, there would be one convection cell in the northern
hemisphere and one in the southern with the rising air at the equator and the
sinking air at each pole.

 But because the planet does rotate, the situation is more complicated. The
planet’s rotation means that the Coriolis Effect must be taken into account.

 Let’s look at atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere as a result of

the Coriolis Effect.

 Air rises at the equator, but as it moves toward the pole at the top of the
troposphere, it deflects to the right. (Remember that it just appears to deflect
to the right because the ground beneath it moves.)
  At about 30oN latitude, the air from the equator meets air flowing towards the
equator from the higher latitudes.

 This air is cool because it has come from higher latitudes. Both batches of air
descend, creating a high pressure zone.

 Once on the ground, the air returns to the equator.

 This convection cell is called the Hadley Cell and is found between 0 degrees
and 30 degrees N.

 There are two more convection cells in the Northern Hemisphere.

 The Ferrell cell is between 30oN and 50o to 60oN. This cell shares its southern,
descending side with the Hadley cell to its south.

 Its northern rising limb is shared with the Polar cell located between 50 degrees
N to 60 degrees N and the North Pole, where cold air descends.

 There are three mirror image circulation cells in the Southern Hemisphere.

 In that hemisphere, the Coriolis Effect makes objects appear to deflect to the
left. Ultimately, because there are three large-scale convection cells in the
Northern Hemisphere and are repeated in the Southern Hemisphere, the model
to understand these patterns is called the three-cell model.

 Global Wind Patterns

 Global winds blow in belts encircling the planet.

 The global wind belts are enormous and the winds are relatively steady.
 These winds are the result of air movement at the bottom of the major
atmospheric circulation cells, where the air moves horizontally from high to low
pressure.
 Technology today allows anyone to see global wind patterns in real-time, such
as Earth Wind Map.
 Take a look at the Earth Wind Map and determine what patterns you can see
occurring in the atmosphere in real-time. Are low pressure systems rotating
counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? Are high pressure systems
rotating clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? Can you see the global wind
 patterns over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans? Also notice how the winds flow
faster over water than over continents because of land friction.

 Let’s look at the global wind belts in the Northern Hemisphere:

 In the Hadley cell air should move north to south, but it is deflected to the right
by Coriolis. So the air blows from northeast to the southwest. This belt is the
trade winds, so called because at the time of sailing ships they were good for
trade.

 In the Ferrel cell air should move south to north, but the winds actually blow
from the southwest. This belt is the westerly winds or westerlies.

 (Why do you think a flight across the United States from San Francisco to New
York City takes less time than the reverse trip?.. wink wink .. wind ..)

 Finally, in the Polar cell, the winds travel from the northeast and are called the
polar easterlies.

 The wind belts are named for the directions from which the winds come. The
westerly winds, for example, blow from west to east. These names hold for the
winds in the wind belts of the Southern Hemisphere as well.

(Article summarizing the concept with headings)

 The Four Major Wind Systems and Wind Belts:

o Major wind systems:
 Polar Easterlies
 Tropical Easterlies
 Prevailing Westerlies
 Intertropical Convergence Zone.
o Wind Belts:
  Trade Winds
 Doldrums
 Horse Latitudes.

Wind Systems

 Polar Easterlies
o Polar Easterlies can be found at the north and south poles and they are cold and dry
because of where it is located, which is at high latitudes. This type of wind system forms
when cool air, at the poles, and then transfers to the equator. Polar Easterlies are located
60-90 degrees latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres.
 Tropical Easterlies
o Tropical Easterlies take direction in an east to west flow because of the rotation of the
Earth. As air from the equator rises, it gets warmer and when it cools down, it comes
back down to the equator. Tropical easterlies are located 0-30 degrees latitude in both
hemispheres.
 Prevailing Westerlies
o Prevailing Westerlies are located in the 30-60 degrees latitude in the northern and
southern hemispheres. They blow from west to east and occur in the clement part of the
Earth.

(Different notes below)

 Horse Latitudes
o Horse latitudes, also known as the subtropical high, are about 30-35 degrees north and
south of the equator. Horse latitudes is a region where there is weak winds because of
high pressure and decreasing dry air. The origin of the name Horse latitudes is uncertain
but it is said that ships that needed wind power couldn't move on the water and the
sailors threw the horses and cattle over the ship to save on provisions.

 Trade Winds
o Trade winds blow from the horse latitudes to the low pressure of the ITCZ. Trade winds
get its name from its capability of blowing trade ships across the ocean, very quickly. In
the northern hemisphere, the winds blow from the northeast, which is called the
Northeast Trade winds. In the Southern hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the
southeast, and surprisingly, they're called the Southeast Trade Winds.

 Doldrums
o Doldrums is the same thing as the Intertropical Convergence Zone, it's just a different
name for it. This name originated from some sailor who noticed the stillness in the rising
air and called it the "doldrums", which means depression or despondency. Like I've
stated earlier, it takes place 5 degrees north and south of the equator the equator and
between the two belts of trade winds. When the trade winds converge, it produces
convectional storms.
 Pressure Belts

 Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

o The equatorial low pressure belt is located around the equator, and has a low pressure
because when the warm rising air of the equator creates a low pressure, it is called an
equatorial low. Clouds and rain form as the air rises.
 Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt
o The sub-tropical high pressure belt is associated with the horse latitudes and has a high
pressure because the air cools at the subtropics. And instead of increasing like the low
pressure, is descends and causes no clouds or rain, which of course, is called the sub-
tropic high.
 Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
o The sub-polar belt has low pressure and is associated with the polar fronts.
 Polar High
o The polar high has high pressure and is associated with polar regions, which are dense
and cold.