Spondylus in Prehistory

New data and approaches

Contributions to the archaeology of shell technologies

Edited by

Fotis Ifantidis
Marianna Nikolaidou

BAR International Series 2216

2011
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Spondylus in Prehistory: New data and approaches. Contributions to the archaeology of shell
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 F. Ifantidis & M. Nikolaidou (eds.), Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

C hapter 8

The Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece:

Evidence from the Spondylus gaederopus artifacts

Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou

This paper discusses the Spondylus gaederopus artifacts from the Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos in Northern Greece, a site situated
2km from the coast. The Spondylus artifacts recovered at Makriyalos include annulets, beads, buckles, buttons and pendants, forms
well known to the Greek Neolithic, but in a considerably larger scale than any other thus far excavated assemblage. The unique amount
of Spondylus artifacts from Makriyalos has provided plausible evidence for on-site procurement, manufacture, consumption and dis-
carding at Makriyalos. The analysis of temporal and spatial distribution of the material suggests fruitful avenues for investigation as
regards the context of Spondylus consumption at the site.

Introduction discarding and/or distribution of Spondylus gaederopus at

Among the most prestigious aspects of Neolithic material
culture are the artifacts of Spondylus gaederopus (Clark
1986), as they represent one of the earliest evidence of long-
distance exchange (Renfrew 1973; Séfériadès 1995a) from the
coasts of the Mediterranean across central Europe (Shackleton
& Elderfield 1990). Although Spondylus artifacts appear by
the Early Neolithic in the Greek peninsula (Miller 1997: app.
C: 96-102), it is during the later phases of the Late Neolithic
that a boost in ornament manufacture and consumption is
reported (Chiraldi et al. 2005; Ifantidis 2006, this volume;
Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997, 1992, 1991-2; Kyparissi-
Apostolika 2001; Miller 1997; Nikolaidou 2003; Reese 1987;
Tsuneki 1989). The abundance of Spondylus, mainly annulets/
bracelets, in Northern Greek sites and the evidence for on-
site production are considered as indications that Spondylus
ornaments were exported from these sites to the Chalcolithic
(e.g. Vinča, Gumelniţa) groups of the Balkans and the
Linearbandkeramik agricultural communities of Central
Europe (Borrello & Micheli 2005; Comşa 1973; Müller 1995;
Séfériadès 1995b; Siklósi 2004: 12-14, 21; Todorova 2000; see
also Hladilová, John, and Siklósi & Csengeri, in this volume).
Spondylus may have been a valued item, a “prestige good” for
people in that region (Shackleton & Renfrew 1970), where
it was mainly deposited in burial contexts. It is also possible
that, although it was deposited in habitation contexts, it held
the same status in Greece, where it may have been involved
in regional-scale exchange and/or used as a transferable token
among individual domestic groups (Halstead 1993; Miller
1997; Nikolaidou 2003).
This paper presents the Spondylus artifacts recovered at the
Neolithic settlement at Makriyalos in Northern Greece. The
unique amount of the assemblage has provided plausible evi-
dence for on-site procurement, manufacture, consumption,
Makriyalos. It also suggests fruitful avenues for investigation
as regards the context of Spondylus consumption in space and
time.
The Neolithic Settlement of Makriyalos
From 1993-1998, the Greek Archaeological Service investi-
gated a flat extended Neolithic settlement, situated near the
coastal village of Makriyalos in Pieria, Northern Greece (Fig.
1) (Pappa 2007, 2008; Pappa & Besios 1999). The excava-
tion revealed part of two successive habitation phases of the
settlement (Fig. 2), which both date to the Late Neolithic pe-
riod (5500–4500 BC). The estimation of the settlement dura-
tion is based on the results of radiocarbon dates (Pappa 2008:
108-109, table 5-2). Today, the site lies almost 2km from the
coast; a setting which has not changed considerably since the
prehistoric period.
The oldest phase of the site is Makriyalos I (MKI). Phase MKI
is defined by a system of ditches, earth removals (borrow pits)
and natural boundaries. These constructions are dominant dur-
ing MKI, defining the communal space, while the participa-
tion of the inhabitants in their construction process forms the
communal identity. Furthermore, earth removals and ditches
accept the bulk of the settlement deposits. The ditch system,
according to the radiocarbon dates, is active during the second
half of the 6th millennium BC. Earth removals (borrow pits) of
considerable size are regularly situated on the route of Ditch
Alpha, forming a rough guide for its construction. As a result,
these pits form concentrations of finds and correspondingly
include a great percentage of the total number of finds during
phase MKI.
Ditch Alpha was constructed in two separate phases and sur-
rounds the settlement. Originally, it constituted a chain of pits,
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

Figure 1. Map of Greece showing the location of Makriyalos and other sites mentioned in the text

Figure 2. Plan of Makriyalos settlement indicating the location of main features mentioned in the text

but during a second phase, it was transformed into a continu-
ous V-shaped channel, reinforced by stone or mud-brick walls.
Depositions in the latter phase contain a great number of finds.
Ditch A and the earth removals, excluding Pit 212 situated in
the middle of the enclosure, are the primary locations for the
deposition of the dead (Triantaphyllou 2001: 49-50, fig. 5.3).
A smaller Ditch Beta follows Ditch Alpha, while part of a third
ditch, Ditch Gamma, is found in the center of the enclosure.
Habitation in the intrasite area during Phase MKI is sparse. It
consists of uneven groups of semi-subterranean pits, while the
intermediate space is eroded. The groups are uneven regard-
ing their number, size and context, though they seem to be
contemporary. The regularity of the MKI settlement plan sig-
nifies the existence of an organized central planning. The dis-
tribution of artifacts, in relation to the excavated bulk of earth,
points to the highest concentration of finds in Pit 212 (Pappa
2008: tables 5.1-1 – 5.1-7). According to taphonomic process-
106
es, the preliminary results of the archaeozoological study and
the study of pottery, it is obvious that a major episode of con-
sumption took place there (Pappa et al. 2004). However, the
deposits from Ditch A, the main burial place of Phase MKI,
contain an exceptionally high concentration of Spondylus ar-
tifacts in relation to other finds, indicating a close relation of
these objects to burial practices. This is further supported by
the location of a burial situated in the pits of Ditch A, which
contains a large fragment of a Spondylus bracelet (Fig. 3).
The domination of communal works, the central organiza-
tion of the settlement plan, the evidence for the existence of
communal manifestations and the burial practices stress the
communal character of the settlement during Phase MKI. The
settlement was abandoned at the end of the 6th millennium and
was re-inhabited after a short period of desertion.
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece
Figure 3. Burial with a large fragment of Spondylus annulet. White arrow indicates annulet’s position.
Phase Makriyalos II (MKII) is situated farther north and
avoids overlapping the MKI settlement area. It preserves many
characteristics of the older settlement, including ditches, earth
removals and subterranean structures, but major changes in
settlement planning and arguably in social structure are also
evident. The overall extent of the site during phase MKII is
reduced to 1/5 the size of MKI. The intrasite area is densely
inhabited, while the size of the structures becomes smaller on
average, though their number quadruples. The ditches exist
as scanty remnants of the older phase, but extended earth re-
movals are again related to the demarcation of the settlement
area. They also retain their role as deposition places. Earth
removals and certain subterranean structures deliberately
receive secondary depositions from various locations in the
settlement. Fragmentation of the settlement area into smaller
structures, which can hardly be divided into habitation units,
signifies a gradual transition to a different spatial organization
that seems to emphasize individuality rather than the commu-
nal focus of Phase MKI.
The finds in the two phases are more or less evenly distrib-
uted, with the exception of the secondary deposition of certain
categories of decorated pottery (Hitsiou 2003; Pappa 2008:
300) and stone knapped tools (Skourtopoulou 2006: 69). In
contrast to MKI, where the majority of the finds came from
the communal areas, in MKII, the habitation area seems to
hold the greatest concentration of artifacts (Pappa 2008: table
5.2-2), with the exclusion of earth removal in section Eta that
107
has provided a large number of finds which were placed there
as a result of the aforementioned secondary depositions.
The Shell Assemblage of Makriyalos
The shell material of Makriyalos composes the largest assem-
blage recovered1 thus far from a settlement in either the Greek
or European Neolithic period. This important recovery may
well be due, at least in part, to the extensive use of wet siev-
ing in the excavation, as well as to the scale of the excava-
tion itself. Its quantity can only be compared to the number
of remains found in shell middens. Shells have been studied
from zoological, archaeological, taphonomic and technologi-
cal points of view2, whilst contextual analysis of the findings
is still in process.
1 The study of the shell assemblage was initially begun in 1997 by Dr.
J. Shackleton in collaboration with Dr. Paul Halstead. During this first
stage, shells were classified into two major categories, cockles (Cerasto-
derma glaucum) and non-cockles by students from the University of
Sheffield, and each category weighed accordingly. Additionally, N. An-
dreasen (1998) studied a sample of unworked Cerastoderma glaucum
for his MA thesis at the University of Sheffield. From 2005 onwards,
R. Veropoulidou was granted permission to study and publish the shell
material as part of her doctoral dissertation.
2 Reference collections of shells from the coastal area of Makriyalos, as
well as reference books were used for identifications (Abbott 1989; Dela-
motte & Vardala-Theodorou 1994; Pfleger 1999; Poppe & Goto 1991,
1993); shell analysis followed the methodology set out by Claassen
(1998) and Veropoulidou (2002).
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
Figure 4. The shell assemblage of Makriyalos
The assemblage consists of 795,585 intact and fragmented
shells (NISp) of 55 mainly marine species (Fig. 4). The great
variety in shell species is predictable as the site is located near
the Thermaic gulf, one of the richest areas of Greek waters3
(Famellos, Krestenitis & Georgiadis 2007). 97.8% of the as-
semblage (NISp: 775,898) belongs to one species, Cerasto-
derma glaucum, which was exploited primarily for food con-
sumption and only secondarily for adornment. The focus of
shell gathering on Cerastoderma glaucum is a common prac-
tice to all coastal neolithic sites of Northern Greece (Karali
1999; Theodoropoulou 2007; Veropoulidou, in prep.). Some
of the remaining shells (2.2%, NISp: 19,687) were consumed
3 At present, the Thermaic Gulf is considered, after Maliakos Gulf and
Eleusis Bay, an area of high productivity and suitable for the cultivation
of mussels and oysters (Askew 1987).
108
as food (e.g. Ostrea edulis, Mactra corallina, Murex truncu-
lus) or as ornaments (e.g. Spondylus gaederopus, Cyclope ne-
ritea, Glycymeris sp.). There is also a small quantity of shells
of unknown usage; some may have been brought accidentally
from the coast to the site.
The contextual and spatial analysis of the material has not yet
been completed; however, some remarks regarding the role
of molluscan food in inhabitants’ diet can be made. The high
quantity of remains (in absolute and relative terms –density of
shells per 1m3 of earth) and the condition of findings (mainly
specimens gathered alive), indicate that molluscs were gath-
ered intensively for food consumption. It is not intended here
to argue that molluscs had the role of a staple food; rather
the molluscs did not serve as an opportunistic dietary supple-
ment or as a critical emergency staple, as has been proposed
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece

Figure 5. The distribution of raw material for ornament manufacture

(shell, clay, bone, stone, copper)

for farming societies (Deith & Shackleton 1988; Waselkov
1987). Probably molluscs were consumed on a regular basis
and continuously throughout the life of the settlement, as is
shown by their equal distribution in both habitation phases at
Makriyalos.
Both worked and unworked shells were used as items of
adornment. Shell is the raw material most frequently used in
ornament manufacture at Makriyalos, where of a total number
of 2,120 “ornaments”, 1,935 are made of shell (Fig. 5). Of the
shell species which were used, the largest number are from Ce-
rastoderma glaucum, 1,074 artifacts, mainly pendants, while
Spondylus artifacts are second in number (n=403), followed
by Glycymeris sp. (n=173) and Cyclope neritea (n=118). The
remaining represented species are few. The relative frequency
of unworked versus worked Cerastoderma glaucum and the
minor occurrence of species regarded as food in the artifact
inventory (e.g. O. edulis, M. corallina) indicate that some spe-
cies were primarily collected as a food source, while others
were used as a raw material for ornament manufacture.
Spondylus gaederopus at Makriyalos
served intact. 58% of the Spondylus assemblage consists of
medium sized valves (width: ~7cm, height: ~8-9cm), while
the percentage of large and small specimens is approximate.
Even though most of the shells are preserved in moderate
condition (42%), the quantity of shells with a highly eroded
outer surface remains significant (34%). The latter is related to
the original condition of the shells (gathered water- or beach-
worn), rather than to post-depositional processes. Half of the
assemblage (n=403, 47%) is worked, 19% is either partially
worked or are wastes of production; the remaining consist
mainly of intact valves.
The procurement of Spondylus shells, especially fresh, is
considered to have taken considerable effort (cf. Malinowski
1922: 366-375; Miller 2003: 370). Spondylus lives with its
right valve attached to rocky bottoms usually between 7 to
50m deep, and it is often hidden by sponges and algae (Poppe
& Goto 1993: 72-73). Therefore, one needs to dive in order
to gather fresh Spondylus, to spot the covered shell and then
to detach it from the rock either with a knife or with a stone
(Gina-Whewell 1992). Spondylus can also be collected during
beach-combing, i.e. beach- or water-worn specimens.

Spondylus gaederopus represent the sixth largest group in the At Makriyalos, the frequency of fresh versus beach-worn
Makriyalos shell assemblage (0.1%) (Table 1, Fig. 6-7). 856 Spondylus (2:1) indicates that fresh specimens were gathered
specimens were found, of which only 22% (n=196) are pre-

109
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

raw material for ornament manufacture. However, it is impos-

Spondylus Annulets MKI MKII Total sible to determine whether the succulent meat of the Spon-
NISp 205 651 858
dylus was first eaten, a practice which has been detected in
the ensuing periods of prehistory (Veropoulidou, this volume;
Intact valves 62 134 196
see also Shackleton 1988: 45). The preference for gathering
Right valves 74 209 283 fresh instead of beach-worn specimens has basically been at-
Left valves 60 285 345 tributed to the properties of the material, i.e. fresh material is
Unidentified valves 21 1 22 more suitable for processing, since beach-combed shells tend
Fragments 50 156 206 to break during manufacture (Miller 2003: 370). Neverthe-
less, there is no reason to assume that the Spondylus flesh was
Average erosion 2.4 2.3 2.35
discarded; rather, it is more probable that it was first eaten
Fresh collected 144 418 562 and then the shell was modified for ornaments. Considering
Beach-worn 61 233 294 the difficulty in procurement and the probable rarity of speci-
Size M/L S/M mens, Spondylus flesh may have been highly valued or con-
Unworked 64 228 292 sidered a luxury food, as has been suggested for the Andean
and Mesoamerican societies (Glowacki 2005; Hastorf 2003).
Partially worked 49 112 161
This hypothesis is further supported by the higher density of
Worked 92 311 403 fresh Spondylus, either worked or not, in areas related to food
Table 1. The frequency of Spondylus consumption, such as Pit 212 (Phase MKI) (Pappa et al. 2004;
in MKI and MKII Veropoulidou, in prep.).

Spondylus Ornaments
Spondylus Ornaments MKI MKII Total
“Annulets” 63 244 307 Although the quantity of Spondylus recovered at Makriyalos
is considered relatively small in contrast to the total number
Beads 12 22 34
of molluscs, it still comprises the largest assemblage of Spon-
“Buckles” / buttons 10 13 23 dylus ever recovered in Neolithic Greece.
“Earrings” 1 11 12
Other 6 21 27 The inventory of Spondylus ornaments includes types5 com-
Total 32 311 403 mon in the Neolithic period of Northern Greece (cf. Sitagroi:
Nikolaidou 2003; Dikili Tash: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992;
Table 2. The distribution of worked Spondylus Dimitra: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997; Paradeisos: Reese
between MKI and MKII 1987; Servia: Mould et al. 2000; Dispilio: Ifantidis 2006; Di-
mini: Tsuneki 1989 and Theodorpoulou, this volume). The list
more systematically than beach-worn ones4; also taking into of Spondylus ornaments includes: “annulets”, beads6, “buck-
account the size of the valves (basically medium to large), most les”/buttons, pendants, rings and “earrings” (Table 2, Fig. 6).
of the fresh Spondylus must have been collected from consid- The great majority of the ornaments are annulets; the remain-
erable depths. Therefore, Spondylus collection at Makriyalos ing 24% is distributed rather equally among beads, buckles/
may have been a laborious and risky task. If the seascape of buttons and pendants. There are only a few earrings and rings
the Makriyalos area is also considered, where muddy and san- (4%).
dy substrates prevail and rocky substrates are found farther
and deeper, Spondylus may have been rare. These suggestions The Spondylus ornaments from Makriyalos were carefully
are further supported by the relatively small quantity of Spon- manufactured, but probably with relatively uncomplicated
dylus, at least when compared to the other shell species of the techniques and rather simple tools. The ornaments are simple
assemblage. This low level of exploitation could also indicate in form, but seem to follow standardized types and styles. Re-
a controlled access to the source, if Spondylus was indeed a usage of destroyed artifacts is indicative of the high status and
valuable and highly esteemed material. value of these artifacts. The occurrence of unfinished annulets
and waste products testify to on-site production of these arti-
Another matter for investigation is the use of Spondylus at the facts.
site. Given the vast majority of worked Spondylus remains
found at Makriyalos, it is easy to infer that it was used as a

4 The identification of fresh and beach-worn shells is important in an ar-
chaeological context, as apart from ornament manufacture, it shows the
procurement strategies, discerns if shells were also consumed as food,
etc. However, it is sometimes extremely difficult to distinguish between
fresh and beach-worn specimens, especially if the latter do not bear the
usual traces of wear, such as worn surface and edges, erosion, encrus-
tation, natural perforations, abrasion or acid dissolution. This becomes
even more difficult if shells have been modified, especially when their
exterior surface has been ground down, an action that usually results in
the disappearance of wear traces.
5  The terms used to describe the different kinds of ornaments follow the
standards set out by Miller (1997); Kyparissi-Apostolika (2001) and
Nikolaidou (2003).
6  The term bead refers to any perforated object (worked) that has lost the
natural characteristics of the original shell and is small in size. The term
pendant-bead refers to any whole shell ornament with either a natural
(i.e. Dentalium sp.) or worked perforation (i.e. C. rustica, C. neritea),
which is small in size (less than 1cm in width and/or thickness). The term
pendant refers to any whole perforated shell (worked or natural) which is
large in size (e.g. Cerastoderma glaucum).

110
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece
Figure 6. Spondylus ornaments: a. beads, b. earrings, c. buttons, d. buckles, e. various, f. pendant, g. annulets
Spondylus annulets
76% of the Spondylus artifacts are annulets7 (n=307) (Table 3,
Fig. 6g & 7). The left valve of the Spondylus, which is smaller
and lighter, was preferred for annulet manufacture (n=161),
but the amount of right valves used was also high (n=105).
The remaining artifacts (n=41) consist of very fragmented an-
nulets8 that could not be ascribed either to right or left valves.
Most of the Spondylus that were used in annulet production
were fresh specimens, an additional indication that fresh spec-
imens were more suitable for manufacture. Annulets were
primarily made of medium to large sized valves; the median
7  The term annulet is used contractually referring to the artifact’s shape, not
its function. The terms bracelet or ring have not been used, because they
have functional connotations.
8  A polar system to set the location of preserved bracelet parts was used (cf.
Claassen 1998: 203; Lammers 2007: 25). This system was also used to
calculate the degree of the annulets’ preservation.
111
internal diameter (Ø) is 5cm, the median width is 0.90cm, and
the median thickness is 0.35cm.
Only one Spondylus annulet at Makriyalos is preserved intact
(Ø 4cm). The others are preserved in varying states and half
of them are highly fragmented (in most cases, only 25% of
the artifact is preserved). Fragmentation patterns (Fig. 8) were
studied according to the polar coordinates (Veropoulidou, this
volume: Fig. 5), thus giving the opportunity to check whether
the fragments belonged to the same annulet or not: half of
the assemblage (n=150) consists of annulets that cannot be
matched to others. Therefore, the possibility that the number
of fragmented annulets corresponds to the original number
of annulets is high. Microscopic study of the edges showed
that the annulets were deposited already in a fragmented state.
Many of the annulets seem significantly fragile (thin left valve,
thin profile) and their destruction could have resulted either
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

Total was used. At most Neolithic sites (e.g. Sitagroi: Miller 2003:
Spondylus Annulets MKI MKII 373; Dimitra: Karali-Yannakopoulou 1997: 209; Dikili Tash:
Median
Karali-Yannakopoulou 1992: 163; Dimini: Tsuneki 1989), the
Worked 63 244 307
left valve is preferred for annulet manufacture, while the right
Right vavles 34 71 105 has predominantly been used for the production of beads and
Left valves 23 138 161 buckles/buttons. Multiple explanations have been presented
Unidentified part 6 35 41 for this, such as maker’s skill and/or taste (Nikolaidou 2003:
Beach-worn 21 63 84 339), technological decisions during manufacture (Tsuneki
1987, 1989), as well as this preference being a key element
average ø 5.40 5.67 5.00
of standardization (Miller 2003: 373). At Makriyalos, the dif-
average width 1.81 0.54 0.90
ference between right and left valves in annulet manufacture
average thickness 0.97 0.34 0.35 is not highly significant (n=56), whilst the other Spondylus
Semi-worked 13 43 56 artifacts (cf. below) are made of both valves.
Pre-forms 14 40 54
Waste products 22 29 51 Regardless of the size and shape of the raw material, there is
Second use 9 13 22 a degree of standardization in the final forms, which can be
explained either as an indication of specialized ornament pro-
Table 3. The distribution of Spondylus annulets duction at Makriyalos or as a reflection of fashion and taste.
between MKI and MKII For example, according to N. Shackleton (2003: 363) the
thickness of the band at the area 04a-06a (see Veropoulidou,
from continuous use or by chance. Other annulets, which are this volume: Fig. 5) is “the dimension most in the control of
heavier and thicker, could not have been destroyed as easily. the maker (or least controlled by the shell itself)” and there-
fore an indication for craft specialization. Another probable
The average diameter of the Spondylus bracelets recovered at indication for standardization is the rectangular shape of the
Makriyalos reveals many common characteristics with other hinge, a choice observed at many other sites (Karali-Yannako-
Neolithic sites in Greece, such as Dikili Tash (Miller 1997: poulou 1997: 209, 1992: 163; Nikolaidou 2003: 339; Tsuneki
172), Ayia Sofia (Miller 1997: 215), Dimitra (Karali-Yanna- 1989). At Makriyalos, the thickness of this band is 0.36cm on
kopoulou 1997: 209), and Ayio Gala (Hood 1982: 652). Sev- average; some are as thin as 0.2cm and a few are as thick as
eral scholars have argued that Aegean shell annulets are too 0.6cm; there are also three pieces with bands as thick as 1cm.
small to have been worn on the wrist (e.g. Shackleton 2003: It is interesting to note that there exists a difference between
363); while others have concluded that it seems quite pos- the MKI and MKII phases: 38% of the artifacts in MKI are
sible that these annulets were worn as bangle bracelets (e.g. as thick as 0.5-0.6cm, while 57% in MKII are as thin as 0.2-
Miller 1997: 215). The estimation of an average value for the 0.3cm. The thickness of the bracelet is relatively standardized;
diameter of annulets is sometimes misleading, as the discus- however, the hinge shape varies considerably and only a few
sion involves single artifacts that have probably been used by examples with the distinctive rectangular shape occur9.
different individuals and/or in different periods throughout
their lives. Thus, upon examining the percentage of different Other aspects of annulet manufacture to be taken into ac-
diameters (Fig. 9), we conclude that only a minimal percent- count include the final finish of the surface of the artifact. At
age (n=8, 3%) could have been used as rings and a few could Makriyalos, 56% are polished and 21% are both polished and
definitely have functioned as bangle bracelets (n=55, 18%). ground; the remaining artifacts have only ground surfaces.
The overwhelming amount of the annulets share internal di- The profile of each annulet is basically related to the shape of
ameters of 5 and 6cm respectively. Therefore, people of young valve used, but it could also relate to aesthetic preferences: the
age and/or small size may have worn the annulets as bracelets. majority of the artifacts have a square profile (n=205), while
In order to confirm or reject the above hypothesis, Spondylus the others have a biconical one. The natural characteristics of
annulets were also examined for use-wear traces, even though the shell (color, incremental growth lines, part of the hinge)
it is known that the detection of wear patterns is difficult in are preserved in 156 annulets. This indicates that the original
Aegean shell bracelets (Miller 1997: 217), if they exist at all. decoration of the shell, especially the color (Campbell 1983),
In fact, only a few of the annulets seem to have an extra pol- was deliberately preserved. Apart from this natural decoration
ish, a trace of wear which probably resulted from use. The of the annulets, there are also two examples with incisions, as
lack of a visible wear pattern could be interpreted multifold: well as 11 burnt annulets. Whether the purpose of this burning
a) annulets were not worn on the wrist, but rather suspended was just a change in color or a deliberate action to remove the
as pendants, b) annulets were worn on the wrist only for small artifacts out of circulation, as proposed for the site of Dimini
periods of time, thus bearing no wear traces, c) annulets were (Halstead 1993), is unknown. However, the number is too low
not worn at all; they were just unused possessions or manufac- to definitively suggest a conscious destruction of these arti-
tured solely for export trade (cf. Miller 1997: 217). facts.

The dimensions of the annulets are primarily related to the
original dimensions of the unmodified shell, whilst the form
or the profile of the annulets is related to which of the valves 9  At Makriyalos, Glycymeris annulets preserve this distinctive rectangular
shape of the hinge.

112
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece

Figure 7. Spondylus annulets

a. raw material, b. steps of annulet manufacture, c. waste products, d. annulets, e. second use of annulets

Figure 8. The degree of preservation of Spondylus annulets

113
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
A few annulet fragments (n=22) have one or more perforations
usually near their broken edges (n=19), while others have inci-
sions (n=1) or polished edges (n=2). It has been suggested that
drillings have been used to tie together two or more destroyed
annulets (Miller 1997: 217); at Makriyalos, there is only one
example with drillings at both edges of the fragment. The re-
maining, perforated only at one edge, must have been reused
as pendants (either strung singly, in multiples, or sewn onto
clothing) after the destruction of the annulet. “Repairs” or “re-
modification” of some of the artifacts for re-usage rather than
simply discarding them are actions that, at least, indicate the
strong links between the people and these artifacts and also
that these artifacts accumulated and/or transformed meanings
and values throughout their use (Chapman 2000; Gosden &
Kopytoff 1986; Marshall 1999).
All the steps of the chaîne opératoire of annulet manufac-
ture (Miller 1997: 115; Tsuneki 1987, 1989) are present at
Makriyalos (Fig. 7b). As previously mentioned, a consider-
able amount of raw material (n=292) was found, consisting
of both right and left valves, as well as fragments, both fresh
and beach-worn. The amount of unfinished products (n=54)
and of partially worked artifacts or waste products (n=107)
are adequate enough to suggest that, at Makriyalos, Spondylus
ornaments were manufactured on site. There are at least 12
artifact examples that match specific steps of annulet manu-
facture and at least 21 pre-forms that were probably destroyed
during the working process. The exterior surface of some of
the examples has been ground down on a grinding stone (di-
agonal striations resulting from a transverse motion have been
observed); some specimens have been considerably reduced
in thickness, while other examples bear chipping on the edges
of the hole in the center of the valve. Additionally, there are at
least 51 waste products that represent the final stage of annu-
let manufacture; these have been probably broken during the
enlargement of the hole and the overall thinning of the shell.
The distribution of finished artifacts reflects the discovery lo-
cation of consumption and/or discarding, while the recovery
of unworked and especially partially worked and/or waste
material indicates the loci of production. According to the
density of findings per 1m3 of earth, both finished objects and
manufacturing waste seem to be widely and evenly dispersed.
However, a more detailed analysis shows that there are some
notable differences. For example, waste products are evenly
distributed in both the MKI and MKII phases, but unfinished
products and pre-forms are mainly concentrated in MKII. Ad-
ditionally, during MKI phase most of the finished products
were found inside Pit 212, while most of the partially worked
and a high quantity of the unworked material were concen-
trated in Pit 214.
Spondylus beads
A small amount of Spondylus beads (n=34, 8.4% of worked
Spondylus artifacts, 24% of shell beads) (Fig. 6a) were re-
covered at Makriyalos. These include a variety of sizes and
shapes: cylindrical, spherical, tabular, discoid, barreled and ir-
114
regular10, but the largest concentrations are formed from two
of these types: narrow cylinder and short barrel. Since all of
the beads are intact (apart from two examples), measurement
of their dimensions was easily performed. The median diam-
eter of perforation is 0.29cm, the median width is 0.50cm and
the median thickness is 0.32cm. Most of the beads share a
diameter of perforation between 0.2-0.3cm; there is only one
bead with 1.75cm (shape: disc) and one with 0.1cm (shape:
long barrel). All beads have been perforated by drilling, while
the outer surface has been ground down and in many cases
finely polished. In only a few cases, the natural characteristics
of the shell have been left (growth lines and color), probably
as a decoration.
The identification of right or left valves was complicated by
the small size of the beads. However, there are three examples
of valves that have been identified with certainty (2 right, 1
left); in addition, judging from the thickness of the bead and
other natural characteristics, there are at least 12 beads made
from right valves and 15 beads made from left valves. How-
ever, this observation contrasts with the widely accepted view
that right valves were mainly used for the manufacture of
beads and other artifacts (Miller 2003; Tsuneki 1989). Evi-
dence relevant to the on-site manufacture of beads is actually
missing; there is only one partially worked bead, whilst other
waste of production or unfinished beads, as in the case of an-
nulets, are absent from the inventory of the findings.
Even though a degree of standardization is apparent in the
Spondylus beads at Makriyalos (control of size, shape and di-
ameter of perforation), there are examples which exhibit vari-
ation in their dimensions and form, though these variations
occur only in Phase MKII.
Spondylus buckles, buttons, pendants, rings
There is considerable variation in the sizes and shapes under
this category of ornaments, but the common characteristic of
these artifacts is that they each have at least one hole, which
in the case of Spondylus shell, has always been made by drill-
ing. The exact use of these artifacts is unknown, but they were
probably suspended as pendants or used for fastening/decorat-
ing garments, as is suggested by ornamental motifs found on
figurines (Fig. 10).
One type that exhibits a degree of morphological standardiza-
tion is a discoid/oval artifact with a pair of perforations at each
side, which were conventionally registered as “buckles” (Fig.
6d). The second type, “buttons”, has a circular or oval body
that becomes nearly conical at the upper part, where a V-shape
hole is drilled (Fig. 6c). The third type, “pendants”, has one
perforation (there is only three examples of these with two
perforations, one next to the other) at the narrow side of the
object (Fig. 6f).
10  In this typology, the terms referring to shape were adopted by Miller
(1997); Moholy-Nagy (1989) and Nikolaidou (2003). Even though each
bead has been registered according to size, shape, width and thickness,
and diameter of perforation, each bead type will not be discussed sepa-
rately, since most of the beads share common characteristics. Addition-
ally, it is the opinion of the authors that the minor differences between the
beads are not necessarily meaningful.
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece
Figure 9. The distribution of Spondylus annulets’ internal diameter
Figure 10. Figurine with ornamental motifs from Makriyalos
[drawing by M. Kargoglou]
“Buckles” (n=23) are usually moderately thick (1-2cm) and of
medium size (3-5cm width). They are perforated at the narrow
side of the objects, usually with a pair or triple of biconical
holes made by drilling. There is only one example with per-
forations around the entirety of the object’s edge. One hole
out of each pair or triple is broken in 50% of the examples,
probably due to constant use. Almost half of the “buckles”
were identified at the level of valve; as has been previously
noted, right and left valves were used indiscriminately. “But-
115
tons” (n=4) are usually moderately thick and small, with the
exception of one example (width: 6cm, thickness: 3cm).
A few “pendants” (n=11) were also recovered in various
shapes and modifications. All bear at least one drilled hole,
usually near or at the hinge of the valve. Both left and right
valves of all sizes have been used for “pendant” manufacture.
Apart from drilling, the exterior surfaces of the artifacts have
been ground down and in most cases, have been finely pol-
ished. Only one artifact is thought to have represented a “ring”
(Fig. 6e, middle), primarily due to its small diameter (2.5cm).
Aside from its small size though, it is distinctively thick.
Spondylus earrings
“Earrings” are artifacts defined by a particularly small size
and extreme standardization in form (n=12) (Fig. 6b). They
have a cylindrical shape (0.6cm diameter, 0.6cm width and
0.4cm thickness) with a line incised in the middle of the long
side. None is pierced, while all bear a fine polish on their sur-
face. These artifacts are known from the Neolithic findings
inventory throughout Greece, but their usage is still a matter
of controversy (Kyparissi-Apostolika 2001).
Distribution of Spondylus Artifacts
The uneven distribution of Spondylus artifacts between the
two habitation phases of Makriyalos is particularly notewor-
thy. This inequality is not observed in the other categories of
artifacts (Pappa 2008: tables 5.1-40, 41, 46). Of a total of 856
objects –worked, partially worked and raw material– 205 de-
rive from Phase MKI and 651 from Phase MKII. Furthermore,
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies

Figure 11. The distribution of Spondylus material in MKI & MKII

Figure 12. The distribution of Spondylus artifacts in MKI & MKII

92 worked objects belong to MKI and 311 to MKII, mainly
annulets (Table 1-2, Fig. 11). The ratio of worked and par-
tially worked objects remains more or less steady between the
two phases, showing that the larger number of artifacts during
phase MKII is not due to the presence of particular archaeo-
logical contexts.
nulets are dominant; their number increases markedly in Phase
MKII (Table 2, Fig. 12), reaching 244 objects, in comparison
to 63 during Phase MKI. Therefore, throughout the duration
of habitation at Makriyalos, annulets are the principal artifact
constructed of Spondylus, while their presence multiplies in
Phase MKII.

Spondylus artifacts of small size, such as beads, buckles and During Phase MKI, Spondylus artifacts are unevenly
buttons, are found in small quantities during both phases. An- distributed spatially. They accumulate in various communal

116
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece
Figure 13. The spatial distribution of Spondylus artifacts in MKI & MKII
places, corresponding to the ditches and earth removals (Pits
212 and 214), in contrast to their small presence in habitation
areas (Fig. 13). The distribution in communal places is more
or less even (Pappa 2008: 204). However, notably Pit 212
provides a high percentage of finished products, while Pit
214 provides a high percentage of remains of products from
before or after the manufacture of the artifact. Therefore, there
is possibly a local variation in the manufacture and use of the
artifacts.
The rather high presence of Spondylus artifacts in Ditch Alpha
is in sharp contradiction to the distribution of other finds, as
pottery, tools and bioarchaeological finds are few in Ditch Al-
pha, while they are concentrated in large quantities in commu-
nal structures such as Pits 212 and 214. Ditch A is also marked
by a high percentage of human bones consisting of primary
and secondary burials, which makes it the main burial place
of Phase MKI, at the edge of the settlement area (Triantaphyl-
lou 2001). The presence of a remarkable number of Spondylus
artifacts in the Ditch Alpha depositions is probably related to
this specific role. Correlation of Spondylus artifacts to burial
117
practices becomes obvious in an infant’s burial in one of the
pits in Ditch Alpha, where part of a bracelet was found as a
grave good (Fig. 3).
Distribution of Spondylus artifacts is diverse during Phase
MKII. Most of these objects are found interspersed in the
habitation area, while a very small number is found in Earth
removals Eta and Xi (Pit 174). The quadruple number of an-
nulets recovered during Phase MKII (Fig. 13) comes from the
habitation units of that phase, in contrast to the very low pres-
ence of these objects in the habitation units of Phase MKI. No
specific uneven distribution is noticed that would show a par-
ticular relation of certain habitation units to production or han-
dling of these objects (Pappa 2008: 307). However, it should
be mentioned that 14 artifacts were recovered in Pit A among
a context that was also rich in other finds (Pappa 2008: table
5.2-33). Up to six artifacts were recovered in a small number
of other pits, while the remaining do not comprise more than
two artifacts each. The results of the study of all types of ar-
tifacts (such as ground stone tools) and their distribution will
Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data & Approaches – Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies
verify whether this irregularity is indicative for tracking pos-
sible workshops inside the MKII community.
Fragmentation of human skeleton remains during Phase MKII
is considerably higher than Phase MKI; the bulk of the mate-
rial was found in the habitation area and Earth removal Eta,
while only a small percentage was encountered in Pit 174. This
suggests that, apart from the places of primary burials and the
taphonomic processes, the context containing the sparse rem-
nants of human bones derives from the above areas, which
are the same areas that provide high percentages of Spondylus
artifacts. This analogy could be claimed for the MKI distribu-
tion of human remains and Spondylus artifacts, still keeping in
mind that there is no differentiation in the distribution of the
rest of the categories of artifacts during Phase MKII.
Concluding Remarks
The scale of the Makriyalos excavation and the sufficient de-
marcation of the settlement area during each phase, besides
the specification of communal and individual structures, pro-
vide an ideal background for analyzing the rich depositional
context. Among other artifacts, the large group of Spondylus
gaederopus objects, worked, partially worked and unworked,
can outline characteristics of this Neolithic manufacturing
process. These characteristics may only refer to that specific
settlement, but they can also set the frame for a new discus-
sion. Although other specific studies of the Makriyalos context
is still progressing, the following remarks can be concluded
concerning the presence of Spondylus:
• While the total number of Spondylus is low
in relation to the rest of the shell species, it is
the second choice of the Neolithic inhabitants
as a raw material for the manufacture of orna-
ments.
• They were primarily collected fresh, though a
remarkable number of beach-worn shells were
also recovered. Collecting Spondylus was a
rather difficult task and it was therefore, prob-
ably regarded as a luxurious food and valuable
raw material.
• Spondylus ornaments were manufactured
on site, as evidence of all of the steps of the
chaîne opératoire of annulet manufacture are
present during both phases.
• The use of both valves (ratio 1.5 left: 1 right)
for the manufacture of annulets might suggest
a particular local feature.
• The number of Spondylus finds increases re-
markably during Phase MKII, due to a dramat-
ic rise in the number of annulets.
• Spondylus annulet manufacture during the
MKI phase, found mainly in communal plac-
es, indicates a non-standardized production in
respect the shape and dimensions of objects.
Remarkable differences have been noticed
between specific contexts in the matter of the
118
stages of manufacture that might indicate local
variations inside the MKI settlement.
• A significant change is noticed during Phase
MKII, when the production becomes more
standardized. Though waste products are pres-
ent during both phases, it is only in Phase MKII
that the presence of a considerable number of
pre-forms and unfinished objects indicates a
possible annulet manufacture center. It seems
that production may have been restricted to an-
nulets, as there is no evidence of on-site manu-
facture of beads or other objects.
• Changes in the production of Spondylus an-
nulets during Phase MKII are related to the
changes in the social structure of the settle-
ment. Transfer of the finds from communal
places to habitation area corresponds to the
claimed emphasis on the individual during that
phase.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the editors for including this paper in the
present volume. We would also like to thank Professor Kostas
Kotsakis for critical comments on a preliminary version of the
manuscript, as well as Professor Paul Halstead for valuable
comments and useful suggestions. We are grateful to Teresa
Hancock Vitale for making the final revision of the English
text. We are indebted to Nikos Valasiadis for taking the pho-
tographs and for processing all the figures. The shell assem-
blage of Makriyalos forms part of Veropoulidou’s PhD thesis
(Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, under the supervision of
Professor K. Kotsakis and with a scholarship from the Greek
State Scholarships Foundation). This is a preliminary presen-
tation of the results of the shell assemblage analysis, which is
still in progress. Rena Veropoulidou would like to thank An-
astasia Vasileiadou for valuable help during the study of the
shell assemblage. The study of the Makriyalos excavation has
been generously sponsored in various stages by INSTAP.
 Maria Pappa & Rena Veropoulidou – The Neolithic Settlement at Makriyalos, Northern Greece
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