HISTORY OF WESTERN ARCHITECTURE

EG 528 AR

Lecture : 4 Year : 2
Part : A

COURSE OBJECTIVES : To achieve an understanding of the

development of architecture as related to
society, culture, religion, technology, economy,
climate and geography; To become familiar with
the means of examination of historical evidence
and to develop the ability to gather knowledge
and experience for judgment and criticism; To
understand the relationship between the old and
the new buildings, between building and
environment and to develop ability for
conservation, adaptation and transformation;
Relationship of building to its environment.

TOPICS:

1. Different Stages of Development (16 hours)

1.1. Chronological study
1.2. Comparison of different stages of development
1.3. Factors influencing these developments
1.3.1. Social
1.3.2. Cultural
1.3.3. Religious
1.3.4. Technological
1.3.5. Climatic
1.3.6. Material
1.3.7. Economic
2. Form, function and symbolism (12 hours)
3. The following major periods (12 hours)
3.1. Egyptian
3.2. Greek
3.3. Roman
3.4. Gothic
3.5. Renaissance
4. Brief coverage of (20 hours)
4.1 Byzantine
4.2 Romanesque
4.3 Baroque
4.4 Early industrial period

Recommended Methods:
• Students should prepare illustrated notebooks on at least three of the above
topics with analytical notes.
• Students should prepare a through analytical illustrated report on at least
two structures of choice.
PREFACE

Architecture is an expression of human experience in the creation of usable

space. It cannot fail to express the experience and aspirations of the people who
make it. It expresses them through what it is - the spaces used by people, living
or dead. It arises not only from the wishes and ideas and visions of its designers,
but from the wishes and needs of the people who are going to use it. The
people's ambition grew. It was no longer enough to have a house to live in - now
he began to turn his mind towards a tomb in which to be buried, a monument by
which to be remembered, a palace from which to be governed, a shrine where he
and his fellows could worship their gods, such buildings must be built to last and
to impress. And so, mud gave way to wood - wood to brick - brick to stone -
stone to marble.

In every case the story of monumental architecture has to do with the impulse of
people with power to perpetuate of glorify themselves or seek the favor of a deity
greater and more permanent than themselves. Expressive architecture moves
from the tomb to the temple, from man to the gods and stays there for a long
time.

Next to the architecture of the gods is the architecture of power - of fortresses,

defenses, palaces and castles. They include the pagodas of China, castles of
Japan and Europe, mosques and palaces of Arabia and Europe, temples of India
and Cambodia, great cathedrals of Europe, huge complexes enshrining
government and administration, and most extraordinarily of all in our time -
housing.

Almost anything can be used in building from sticks, stones to tin sheets. But it is
the readily available materials that have the most profound effect upon
architecture all over the world. The basic materials are relatively simple - stone,
clay, wood, skins, grass, leaves, sand and water. Until about two hundred years
ago such materials and their ready availability dictated to a large extent the local
vernacular architecture of any region. However with the development of
communications and transportation, vernacular architecture died - a victim of
industrial revolution as new materials are now manufactured then shipped and
brought to the building site.

The turning points in architectural history are caused by the exercise of ingenuity
of a very high degree after a lot of experiment has transformed a material into a
process and ultimately into a style. Such turning points were the invention of the
arch, the groin vault, the pendentive and the stained glass. All of these were
based on materials found in nature; what have transformed the recent world have
been manmade materials - iron, steel, concrete, plastics and glass - on different
scales and with characteristics due to their differing industrial processes and
inventions.

To appreciate these factors we have to look not only at the building itself but at
the social, economic, political and ideological context in which it was placed and
which helped to shape it. There is seldom time for most of us to do that properly;
we need guidance of the sort offered in this course.
IMPORTANCE:

The influence of western architecture in the building of today throughout the

world is very significant. Therefore the study of western architecture is very
important for all the architectural students of even the non western countries.

The goal of the introduction of history of western architecture is to show the

importance and relevance of this course in the over all study of architecture and
professional practice. The best way to see future is to look at the past. He who
fails to learn from the past is bound to repeat its mistake.

INTRODUCTION:

Architecture does not take place in vacuum. It is the results of the culture/history
of a time and a place and of other times/places that have influenced it. The actual
structures/forms of architecture were almost always the products of time/space of
circumstances more than will.

Man’s thought and actions - his religion, politics, art, technology and aspiration,
as well as landscape, geology and climate are the things from which architecture
is born. During the course, we shall be covering the history of western
architecture and parallel will also cover the history of western world - 4000 B.C. -
1900 A.D.

Architecture has been defined in many ways:

Some people have defined architecture a static & creative art. It may be regarded
as the procedure associated with the conception of an idea and its realization in
terms of building materials/building construction. There is a difference between
building and architecture. Architecture is represented by a building which meets
all the logical functions satisfactorily, which maintenance soundness in
construction/beautiful composition.

Architecture is a civilized conversation across time, continents across culture. It

is an art with its own culture. It is a social art with forms and is a reality and a
dream.

The principal of architecture are nothing but the deductions from the past to
guide the present and future. The study of the architecture from the old period to
date reveals certain ideas of architectural composition and treatments. The study
also helps in clear understanding of the various terms which have been
associated with various orders of architecture. The old orders of architecture and
some other buildings of the part are the movements of the different historic
periods.

Various periods of historical developments have left certain buildings made as

Temples, Cathedral, Palaces, Tombs and Cottages. These structures are given
the name of architecture.
These buildings reveal many things:

• Nature of construction, way of life, liking of people

• Building materials which were known to them and effect of outsiders who
have been invading and ruling the region.

In ancient times, human sought shelters in caves to protect themselves from wild
animals and also from the vigorous of weather and these rock caves are the
earliest form of human dwelling. As the civilization advanced from the ancient
caveman - to the present modern gentleman, so did the architecture from earliest
form of cave dwelling to the present day skyscrapers.

BASIS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

FEAR, DEATH, LOVE and HOPE are the basis of development of architecture.

FEAR - From the primitive period used to protect themselves from

the attacks of wild animals and the very vigorous weather
and thus created dwelling (shelter), which kept on changing
with time and need. With advance of intelligences, design for
safety, comfort, luxury resulted in varied structures for
various purposes.

DEATH - Death also has been responsible for many architecture

constructions. Examples are: Historical Tomb, Mosques are
of this category monument.

HOPE - Pyramids, Temples, Churches - worship places have come

up out of shear false, hopes of man.

LOVE - Instinct of love gave birth to many monumental works. e. g.

Taj Mahal at Agra

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE

It is a record of man's effort to build beautifully. It traces the origin, growth and
decline of architectural styles which have prevailed lands and ages.

HISTORIC STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE

It is the particular method, the characteristics, manner of design which prevails at

a certain place and time.
INFLUENCING FACTORS

The particular design of a building, from planning to walling, columns, openings

as in doors and windows, roofing, mouldings and ornaments, all of these designs
are influenced by the following factors:

a. Geographical – pinpoints the location of a particular country. It describes

whether it is near the sea, an island, on the mountains, deserts and
others.

b. Geological – describes the materials found in the Locality. The character

and composition of the earth and the contour of the ground. Materials like
stones, trees, reeds, bamboo, and clay for bricks, marble, metals, all
influence the character of the buildings.

c. Climatic – the prevailing weather in the country. If there is much sunshine

or little rain, if there are winters with much snow, these affect the character
like for example the roofing of a country with snow should be steep to
ward off the snow while the windows in cold climates should be wide to
permit light to enter and warm the rooms.

d. Religion – this is the emotional temperament and spiritual tendencies of

the peoples in a particular country. If they are pagans they build temples
for numerous gods if they are Christians they build churches with altars.
Muslims build mosques.

e. Historical – the background of the people as a whole. Were there wars in

the past? If so, buildings would have been ruined and new structures built.

f. Social and Political – how the people lived and governed. Whether they
are hostile, friendly, ruled by a king or under democratic rule.
PREHISTORIC PERIOD

PREHISTORIC PERIOD: Periods without a historical record, no written language

and medium to keep records (Some places prehistoric till 20th century).

STONE AGE:

• Paleolithic - (Paleo means Ancient) and the Lithic means stone) - 9000 BC
and above period
• Pleistocene - 9000-8000 BC
• Mesolithic - (Meso means middle) - 8000-6000-4000 BC
• Neolithic - (Neo means new) period - 4000-2500-2000 BC

BRONZE AGE:

• Early period - 2200-750 BC

• Late period - 750-50 BC

IRON AGE:

• Start from 50 BC - till date (Steel Age, Atomic Age and Silicon Age)

PREHISTORICALLY PERIOD IN STONE AGE EUROPE

Human beings inhabited the earth from more than one million years ago. During
these periods, Architecture may be said to have been there from the beginning in
raw forms as it were with very arrangement of nature. People were living in small
groups in the natural caves in good harmony. The main livelihood was hunting.
They were conscious about ritual action. In seeking to bring about places for
ritual ceremonies they have defined to set out boundary, that is, space limit
without necessary by enclosing in all three directions. They did it in two specific
ways:

1. Circumscription - It arrest and pattern the flow of ground (In Architecture

- Boundary), plots of land or walled towns.
2. Accent - Involving in setting free structure with mass and height, this
stretches of open space - Architecture of Monuments.

Boundary and monuments both imply a determined marking of nature.

The first generation lacked such confidence in their own-standing with nature.
They moved about in search of tolerable climate (very cold ice sheet covering the
nature), food and the special environment. Architecture of shelter developed in
the pleats of the earth. They made of it the stages of their progressively
organized life. They turned a spot of earth into a hearth (special place). With the
invention of fire, it proved to be a great place-marker. Earliest heart - great cave
at Escale (France) 500,000 years ago. The first documented piece of
Architecture - daily ritual of Homo erectus.
OLD STONE AGE

This was the age of development of human technology with the introduction of
the first stone tools and introduction of agriculture. In general, people were
hunters and food gatherers. During the life span of the Neanderthals between
400,000 and 100,000 years ago and of their successes the Cro-Magnon people,
stone tools noticeably improved (cutting knives sharp and easy to grab). Both
building technology and the ritual use of Architecture became very sophisticate in
the later stage.
Hunters became concerned with religious observance and their related destiny.
Death was mysterious frightening to them and this anxious thought- implicated
the concept of Architecture. The role of shelter was pushed beyond mere
housing and the cave becomes the sanctuary. Example - a cave at Monte Circeo
- a lime stone hill (South of Rome) - contained a unique chamber where a single
battered skull was stood in a trench along the farthest wall, with stones arranged
around it in an oval ring.

During the search of eternal belief the hunter started using art as "A Tool of
Expression." Art now made tangible a range of meaning in these hidden
sanctuaries of the earth. Example - Elaborated details are seen in the cave at
Lascaux, France (10,000 years old).

Lascaux Cave

NEW STONE AGE

When Old Stone Age hunters were working in the sanctuaries at Lascaux,
Europe was going through violent change in climate - mild weather, a period of
warmth that melted the great ice sheets and transformed the European scene of
grass - shrubs, covered into stretches of forest. Warmth that melted the great ice
sheets and transformed the European scene of grass- shrubs, covered into
stretches of forest. The hunters slowed down in places on the planet from Europe
to near East and settled and turned to farming and animal husbandry. There was
demographic pressure demanding more food that could be secured through
hunting and gathering and food productions began on a systematic basis. This
new pillar of existence - termed as New Stone Age.
PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS

Society in this early village of farmers had developed a class structure. Social
distinctions seem implied in the fact that monumental tombs honored the remains
of more mortals only and not the others. Common body disposed by burning or
leaving them on the ground to rot. The buried might have taken place in shallow
graves in natural caves. Example - Hall of Saflieni - at the top of a hill has tombs
- 7000 dead.

Upended stones or Menhirs - simplest form of monuments -

Menhirs were not intended to enclose shape. These object
in mid space with their mass and height-made them visual
from a long distance. They can be characterized as
Directions Foci represents - the first instance of a principle
organizing space.

Example - The stone avenue at near town of Carnac (North

of France) is the conceptual of classical colonnade - 2000
megalith of local granite lined up for 4 km north of the village
in 10-13 rows towards a circle.

Carnac, stone alignments

PREHISTORIC TOMBS

In contrast to the Menhirs & their

grouping, Neolithic stone tombs were
designed as closed space. Simplest
form box like chamber made up of
several up right slabs for walling and
less flat slab for roof. Dolmen is name
given for such tombs.

Dolmens are a type of single - chamber

megalithic tomb, usually consisting of
three or more upright stones (megaliths) supporting a large flat horizontal
capstone (table). Most date from the early Neolithic period in Britain (4000 BC to
3000 BC). Dolmens were usually covered with earth or smaller stones to form a
barrow. Example: Locmariaquer at France - 3rd millennium BC.
COLLECTIVE TOMBS

A striking architectural feature of Neolithic settlement patterns in Western

Europe was the widespread construction of collective tombs. There are
between 40,000 and 50,000 large, elaborate megalithic tombs. They fall into
two classes, passage graves and gallery graves, but a great deal of regional
variation has been found in the plans and in the methods of construction. The
practice of building such tombs seems to have originated between 4500 and
1500 BC.

Megalithic Passage - Graves

Passage grave (Tumuli) was the dominant Megathilic tomb type, which has a
corridor lined with large stone slabs leading to a circular chamber often having a
corbelled vault. Examples: Maes Howe (Orkawey Islands), Newgrange (Ireland)
- 3rd millennium BC, Los Millares (Spain)

At Maes Howe, Orkney Islands, a covering mound 38m x 32m (126 ft x 107 ft)
was surrounded by a wide space, beyond which was a wide ditch. An
entrance passage 1 m (3 ft) in width and 1.5 m (5 ft) high, consisting first of
coursed masonry and then of stone slabs, led to the burial chamber, which
was about 15 m (49 ft) into the mound. The burial chamber was 5 m (16 ft)
square, with buttressed corners. Inclined walls supported a stone corbelled
vault originally some 5 m (16 ft) or so high. The walls were smooth, built with
rectangular blocks with fine joints. Opening from three sides of the chamber
were cells, raised about 1 m (3 ft) above the floor of the main chamber, and
entered through window-like openings which could be sealed by stone slabs.

A similar example with dry-stone walls and a corbelled roof has been found at
Los Millares, Spain. There are other fine passage-graves at New Grange, in
Ireland (2500-1700 BC); these contained murals, which were produced by
pecking, pounding and incising the surfaces of the stone to make geometric,
curvilinear, and zigzag and lozenge patterns.

Maes Howe Los Millares

Megalithic Gallery Graves

There is a fine gallery-grave at Mid Howe, Shetland Islands. It consisted of a

stalled chamber with twelve sections some 23 m (76 ft) long overall, and was
covered by a rectangular mound approximately 33 m x 13 m (110ft x 43 ft) in
plan. A more typical example was found at Esse, Brittany, where the 6 m (19
ft) long grave was divided into an entrance porch, and a gallery with three
transverse slabs as at Mid Howe.

Esse Mid Howe

PREHISTORIC TEMPLES / RITUAL STRUCTURE

• Stonehenge - 3100-1500 BC
• Ggantija - 2700 BC
• Hal Tarxien - 2000 BC

Ġgantija is a megalithic temple

complex on the Mediterranean
island of Gozo (Malta). The two
temples of Ġgantija on the island of
Gozo are notable for their gigantic
Neolithic structures, which were
erected during the Neolithic Age
(3600-2500 BC). At more than
5500 years old, the Ġgantija
temples are the world's oldest free-
standing structures, and the
world's oldest religious structures.

The temples are cloverleaf-shaped;

built up with cyclopean facing
stones and filled in with rubble.
Each was constructed as a series
of semi-circular apses connected
with a hall in the center. The
structures are all the more impressive for having been constructed at a time
when no metal tools were available to the natives of the Maltese islands, and
when the wheel had not yet been introduced. Small, spherical stones have been
discovered; it is believed that these were used as ball bearings to transport the
enormous stone blocks required for the temples' construction.
The southern temple is the older and more extensive of the two. It dates back to
approximately 3600 BC. The temple faces southeast. The southern temple rises
to a height of six meters. At the entrance sits a large stone block with a recess.
The five apses contain various altars.

The trefoil-plan Hal Tarxien (2000 BC) in Malta was constructed from
megalithic elements backed by stone-faced earthen walls. The temples were
formally planned, had concave monumental facades, trilithion entrance
passages, and pairs of lateral and terminal chambers built of tooled orthostatic
and megalithic blocks. The inner chambers could be closed off by doors.
Successive courses were corbelled, allowing the roof-openings to be
narrowed, before being closed with beams and thatch, the earliest known use
of this method of construction; it has been suggested that contemporary
terracotta models and engravings of facades were prepared in advance of
buildings to show what was required. Some of the stones were decorated with
spiral relief carvings, and the temples were probably plastered internally and
then painted.

STONEHENGE

Stonehenge is the most famous Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument
located near Salisbury. It is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular
setting of large standing stones and is one of the most famous prehistoric sites in
the world. Early Britons built and rebuilt Stonehenge over a span of 1000 years.
Stonehenge was built between 3100 - 1550 BC at Salisbury (England).
This monumental block of stone was assumed constructed in three phases:

The first monument consisted of a circular bank and ditch enclosure measuring
around 110 m (360 ft) in diameter with a large entrance to the north east and a
smaller one to the south. It stood in open grassland on a slightly sloping but not
especially remarkable spot. This first stage is dated to around 3100 BC after
which the ditch began to silt up naturally and was not cleared out by the builders.
Within the outer edge of the enclosed area was dug a circle of 56 pits, each
around 1 m in diameter, known as the Aubrey holes.

Second: In about 2100 BC - huge pillars of rocks were erected in concentric

circle around the centre of site. The double circle was nearly completed and
dismantled during the following period.

The monument (temple) was remodeled in the third period (1500 BC). 30
enormous sarsen stones were brought from a quarry around 24 miles (40 km)
north to the site. The stones were dressed and fashioned with mortise and tenon
joints before 30 were erected as a 33 m (108 ft) diameter circle of standing
stones with a 'lintel' of 30 stones resting on top. Each standing stone was around
4.1 m (13.5 ft) high, 2.1 m (7.5 ft) wide and weighed around 25 tons. The
average thickness of these stones is 1.1 m (3.75 ft) and the average distance
between them is 1 m (3.5 ft). Of the lintel stones, they are each around 3.2 m
long (10.5 ft), 1 m (3.5 ft) wide and 0.8 m (2.75 ft) thick. The tops of the lintels are
4.9 m (16 ft) above the ground.

Within this circle stood five trilithons of sarsen stone arranged in a horseshoe
shape 13.7 m (45 ft) across with its open end facing north east. These huge
stones, ten uprights and five lintels, weigh up to 50 tons each and were again
linked using complex
jointings. They are
arranged symmetrically;
the smallest pair of
trilithons were around 6
m (20 ft) tall, the next
pair a little higher and
the largest, single
trilithon in the south west
corner would have been
7.3 m (24 ft) tall.

Bluestones were placed

in a circle between the
two settings of sarsens
and in an oval in the very
centre. All the stones
were well spaced
uprights without any of
the linking lintels. Altar
Stone may have been
moved within the oval
and stood vertically.
Construction Technology

Some of the stones used in building Stonehenge were apparently hauled

laboriously across Salisbury plain on sledges and rollers by several hundred
people. Sarsen stones were lowered into deep pits with one sloping side.
Primitive hauling apparatus then raised them upright. The lintel stone was raised
on a cradle of timber scaffolding and holes cut into it fitted projections on the
waiting uprights - mortise and tenon joint.

Solar Observatory

Scientist (Archeologist) believes that early people were able to forecast eclipse of
the sun & moon by the positioning of these celestial bodies in relation to the
stone movements. It is said to have extra terrestrial intentions (Astronomical
clock or calendar for predicting seasons). These sites may have served as an
observatory where early ritual/religious ceremony took place on specific day of
year.

DWELLINGS

PALEOLITHIC PERIOD

No clear examples of special purpose buildings are found. Four constructional

types - huts / the lean to / the tent / pit house

A. HUTS

1. TERRA AMATA

Terra Amata (near Nice,

a Southern French city)
date back 300,000-
400,000 years ago, is
the oldest artificial man
made structure (huts).

The huts were oval in

shape and measured
about 8 to 15 m (25 to 50 ft) in length and 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) in width. Small
bands of about 15 persons built and occupied them for limited hunting forays.
The huts were left to collapse and rebuilt annually on the same site by nomadic
hunters who habitually visited Terra Amata.

The huts were made of branches or saplings set close together in the sand as a
palisade, then braced on the outside by a ring of large stones. Hearth was placed
in the middle, protected from the prevailing northwest wind by a screen of
pebbles. The immediate area was must for sleeping. There were work space -
kitchen and toilet area.

2. MOLODOVA I

Molodova I - (44,000 years ago) was much later and

sophisticated hut found in Ukraine. This measured
about 8 m (26 ft) by 5 m (16 ft) internally. The shelter
consisted of a wood framework covered with animal
skin, held in place by a rough oval of mammoth bones.

B. LEAN TO

LE LAZARET

Le Lazaret Nice (France) - 150,000 years ago - was an early example of a lean-
to, about 12 m x 14 m (39 ft x 13 ft), erected against one wall of a cave and
defined at the base of rows of stones, and possibly post supports. A skin curtain
and roof may have been draped over the posts, and the lean-to may have had
two compartments separated by an internal partition, each with an entrance on
the long side. The larger of the two compartments contained two hearths.

C. TENTS

PLATEAU - PARRAIN

Plateau - Parrain (France) - 15,000 years ago - tent

with a floor area about 3 m x 3 m (10ft x 10ft). The
skits of the tent were weighed down with pebbles;
inside was a small paved area, and outside a number
of tool-manufacturing workshops.

D. PIT HOUSE

BARCA

Barca - (37,000 - 30, 000 years ago) in Czech Republic, oval, trapezoidal and
pear-shaped examples found, varying in size from 2.5 m to 3.5 m in length.
Central post-holes indicated the existence of roofs.
MESOLITHIC PERIOD

They are very similar to Paleolithic period specially the types of dwelling - with
Hut / Pit house.

A. HUT

LEPENSKI VIR

The most substantial Mesolithic

dwellings have been found at the
site of Lepenski Vir (5410-4610
BC) on the Danube. The houses
were built on terraces, in rows of
about twenty. They were
trapezoidal in plan, and ranged
in size from about 5.5 m to 30m
(18 ft to 100 ft) square. All had
uniform proportions and internal
arrangements, and were
oriented with the wide end containing the entrance facing the river. The floors
were of hard limestone plaster covered by a thin red or white burnished
surface, and were surrounded by posts reinforced with stones which
supported a solid wooden superstructure. The long pit hearths were lined with
limestone, often surrounded by a pattern of thin red sandstone. In nearly all
the houses, a carved block of river-worn limestone was placed near the hearth
opposite the entrance. The carvings are thought to represent humans or fish.

B. PIT HOUSE

SOROKI

At Soroki (5500-5400 BC) in the Dniester valley in the Ukraine, shallow oval
pits 6 m to 9 m (19 ft to 30 ft) long and 2 m to 5 m (7 ft to 16 ft) wide, possibly
roofed with a light timber structure, contained hearths and stone-working
areas.

NEOLITHIC:

Neolithic communities begin with the search of land suitable for farming and
substance of domesticated herds (animals). The settlers normally lived in small
individual houses made of timber and mud. Timber-framed houses were small,
square or rectangular single-family dwellings, or longhouses lived in by
expanded or multiple families. Elsewhere, small, single or multi-cellular dry-
stone family houses were built.
TIMBER FRAMED

NEA NIKOMEDEIA

Nea Nikomedeia (6220

BC) in Macedonia,
northern Greece, was
one of the oldest
Neolithic settlements in
Europe. It contained a
number of square
houses, about 7.5 m x
7.5 m (25 ft x 25 ft) in
plan, with mud walls
supported by a
framework of oak
saplings set into 1 m (3
ft) deep footings about
1 m (3 ft) apart and
infilled with bundles of
reeds set on end. These were plastered internally with a mixture of mud and
chaff, and externally with white clay. The houses are thought to have had
pitched and thatched roofs with overhanging eaves. The interiors had a raised
plaster platform at one end into which was sunk a small hearth and storage
bin.

LONGHOUSE

BYLANY

Middle Neolithic houses

(c. 4200 BC) from the
settlement of Bylany
(Czech Republic) were
of the longhouse type,
grouped together and
oriented in a north-west,
south-east direction.
They were rectangular
in plan, with a constant
width of about 6 m (20
ft) and lengths which
varied from 8 m (26 ft)
to 45 m (150 ft). Heavy oak posts supported a framework of wattle walls
covered with clay. Three types of plan were found: a tripartite plan with
entrance section facing south-east, a central living bay and a deeper storage
area; a bipartite plan in which the entrance and living areas were combined;
and a single-bay houses with a living area only.
DRY STONE

SKARE BRAE

Some of the most striking evidence of dry-stone Neolithic dwellings has come
from the settlement of Skara Brae (c. 2500-1700 BC) in Orkney Islands, off
the north-east coast of Scotland. Here, the major group consisted of sub-
stantial stone-built houses with double-skin walls about 3m (10 ft) thick
overall. The inner and outer leaves were of dry-stone walling over a meter
thick. The cavity was filled with domestic refuse. The houses were rectangular
in plan, with rounded corners, and were up to 7 m (23 ft) in diameter. Access
was by a tunnel-like passageway, enclosed by doors which could be locked in
position with horizontal bars. The dwellings appear to have been roofed with
turf or thatch, with a smoke-hole positioned over the central hearth which was
about 1 m (3 ft) square and edged with low kerb-stones. The interiors were
remarkable for their stone furniture.

Ten small houses linked up by stone alley form a compact organism. Each house
has a single room with rounded corners, roof made of probably-animal skins laid
on whale bone rafters.

In Sittard (Netherlands) 5000 BC - 80 meter long house accommodated number of

families or extended family inside one roof.

Sittard
Skara Brae
PREHISTORIC PERIOD - EGYPT AND NEAR EAST

Archeological sites from Late Paleolithic 20,000 - 16,000 BC prove that few no.
hunters inhabited these regions. Only during 9000 BC, little of Architectural
interest noticed during the beginning of Agriculture.

During the Naturian culture (Mesolithic Period), early houses appeared with more
settled communities. It stretched from southern Turkey to Nile Delta. Permanent
Agriculture villages with mud brick Architecture took place between 7500 - 6000
BC. The development of mounded bricks encouraged precision of construction.

Architecture character during the Neolithic period in East derives from houses of
similar size superimposed one above the other. Early houses/shelter was simply
organized with no places, rich houses or no residential buildings. The Neolithic
period in Anatolia & Levant laid the most impressive towns. The period 6000 -
3500 BC is formative time market by succession of cultures in various regions.

Middle East - Hosanna culture - 6000 - 4500 BC

(Mesopotamia) - Samarran culture - 5500 BC
- Halafian culture - 5000 BC
- Erido culture - 5400 BC
- Ubaid culture - 4500 - 3500 BC
By the end of this period, there were beginning of small, independent City-states
rule by councils & assemblies in Mesopotamia.

The ancient near east and Egypt provide much of the background of Western
Architecture.

Near East - used to describe the present day - Arab State, Israel, Cyprus,
Turkey, Iran and USSR countries- Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Egypt along
with Aegean region.

In the Nile Valley, Proto-agricultural economy developed in some area as early

as 12000 BC. But for most parts hunting and gathering were the basis of human
Existence.

In Lower Egypt - until 6000 BC Falum culture 5000 BC

Menmida 4000 BC
In Upper Egypt - until 4000 BC Baderian 4000 BC
Armenian 3800 BC
Gerzean 3600 BC

Around 3200 BC the two parts of Egypt unified under the god king beginning of
Historical Dynastic period began (Lion of kings of same family).

Technology:

• Building materials - mud, wood, stick & stone

• Building technology - post & beam
• Building with massive stone
• Development of plow allowed increased, Agricultural production.

Organizing & Planning:

• Clear organization early on - Grid street pattern.

Environmental - Climate:

Early cities civilizations were along 200 isotherms (line of same temperature).
During the Briton's of Salisbury construction the mute testing of their
Stonehenge, in the near East, city had developed near the rivers with serviced
channels for irrigation's. While Neolithic Europe still on Stone Age, with Peasant's
Economy around 2000 BC in near East and Egypt, the culture were already
liberate. They had developed their skill working with metal, organized food
productions as an industry and kept written records of their transactions and
beliefs and great development in technology.
With these two liberate culture (near East & Egypt) history is said to have begun
with the knowledge of writing. So the near East/Egypt can be called as the
Cradle of Civilization - Civilization (civic in Latin mean cities).
To be civilized - to be urban
Civilization - the art of living in towns
The city presents - new set of Environmental ideas with streets, Public
Square & defensive walls etc.

Examples of development of settled down during the prehistorically period

at near East

JERICHO

It is believed by some to be
the oldest continuously
occupied settlement in the
world. The civilization took
place about 9000 BC near
Israel. It had well organized
communities. City form of
Jericho was without any
streets. The house and
shrines were linked with
courtyards (limited city).

Many round and oval houses

spreading over 4 ha (10
acres) were found in the
lowest Neolithic levels of
Jericho (8350-7350 BC).
Each was about 5 m (16 ft) in
diameter. They were built of
loaf-shaped mud-bricks with
indentations on the convex
face to give a key to the clay mortar. The bricks supported domed
superstructures of branches covered with clay.

The round houses at Jericho lay under a pre-pottery Neolithic township (7350
BC) encircled by a stone wall 3 m (10 ft) thick, 4 m (13 ft) high and over 700 m
(2300ft) in circumference. The fortifications underwent a complex sequence of
rebuilding, including the erection of cisterns and storage chambers with roof
entry set against the base of an apsidal watch-tower. The houses were of
cigar-shaped mud bricks with thumb-print keys on the upper surface. They
had solid walls and wide doorways with rounded jambs; some had stone
foundations and some may have had upper floors made of timber. The houses
were closely packed, but seem to have intercommunicated through screen
walls and courtyards. They had highly burnished lime plaster floors laid on
gravel and stained red, pink or orange, and plastered walls with red-painted
dados. Some of the walls were also decorated with geometric designs.

A number of shrine-like buildings were found at Jericho. A small room, with a

niche in which was placed a standing stone, may have been a cult room.
Another had a portico, which led to a vestibule and inner chamber containing
a pair of stone pillars symmetrically disposed about the axis of entry.
KHIROKITIA

The Khirokitia culture, Neolithic period in Cyprus (5650 BC), was a closed
village, cut off from the outside world, apart from by the river, by a strong wall of
stones 2.5 m thick and 3 m at its highest preserved level. Access into the village
was probably via several entry points through the wall.

The buildings within this wall consist of round structures huddled close together.
The lower parts of these buildings are often of stone and attain massive
proportions by constant additions of further skins of stones. Their external
diameter varies between 2.3 m and 9.20 m while the internal diameter is only
between 1.4 m and 4.80 m. A collapsed flat roof of one building indicates that not
all roofs were dome shaped as was originally believed.

The internal divisions of each hut were according to the purpose of its usage.
Low walls, platforms designated work, rest or storage areas. They had hearths
presumably used for cooking and heating, benches and windows and in many
cases there is evidence of piers to support an upper floor. The huts were like
rooms several of which were grouped around an open courtyard and together
formed the home.

CATAL HUYUK

Some of the most remarkable high complex society developed from Neolithic
period in Anatolia. The civilization developed from 6250 - 5400 BC south
Anatolia (Turkey). The dwellings displayed an unusual degree of
standardization, and the inhabitants seem to have taken part in highly
organized rituals. Late in the period, many settlements were heavily fortified.

The city extended over 13 ha (32 acres) and supported a population of 4000-
6000 people. Buildings were mainly rectangular single-roomed houses, each
about 25 m2 (270 ft2), with plastered walls and floors. They were densely
packed and contiguous, with occasional open courtyards, but each house had
its own walls. The floors were covered with straw mats and the walls were
decorated with simple geometric designs. No footpaths or streets were used
between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze. Access
was by ladder from the roof. The city was known for the work with metals for
making ornaments/ tools.

Shrines were richly furnished and decorated buildings which seem to have
been shrines. They were laid out in the same way as the residences, and
were intermingled with them, but differed in that they were decorated with
paintings, relief and engravings on themes connected with fertility and death.

Construction Technique

• A timber framed work of post/beams divided the walls into a series of

vertical/horizontal panels - filled in with mud bricks (half-timber
construction).
• This settlement - a telescoped view of Human History from Stone Age
Hunters - City Dwellers.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
HISTORY OF EGYPT

Egypt was the home of one of the oldest civilization in the world. Ages ago the
land of Egypt was different from what is today. There was rain and no delta and
Red Sea on the east side and Mediterranean Sea on the west, extended up to
the Nile Valley. The plateau on each side of river was grassland.

Very gradually the rain decreased and grassland dried up. The Nile River began
to deposit silt in the valley and build up Delta. Sometimes later the animals from
the plateau went down to be valley and hunter followed then and settled at the
edge of jungle that liked the river Nile.

In the late Paleolithic period (20000-16000 BC), a few number of hunters

inhabited this region. Only during 9000 BC, little of architecture interests were
noticed during the period of agriculture.

The early Egyptian raised wheat, barely and few vegetables and fax. From the
grain they prepared bread and beer. They spun and wove the flux for linen
garments. The first houses were round or oval built over a hole in the ground.
The walls were lump of mud and roofs were matting. Later the houses were
rectangular made of shaped mud burnt brick (copied from Mesopotamia) with
wooden frame for door/shutter. They worked with timber using stone axes head
and flint saws.

Beautiful pottery was created and they fashioned ornaments from ivory. They
made baskets and carved in stone with the figure of people and animals. They
built ship from timber and carried trade with near by countries.

The ships had signs indicating the Homeport. These signs were pictographs (art
of picture writing) in the late staged developed in the invention of writing (copied
from neighboring countries but made their own script). Good farmland were
scarce and for getting more land, people started rooting out the tress from the
jungles and built mud retaining walls to keep out flood water. They started
digging canals and engaged in large-scale irrigation work. They required
cooperation from people for such works from different areas, therefore to control,
a leader became necessary to plan and look and direct the workers. Because of
this need, orderly government arose.

Population and wealth grew with the increase in farmland. There was enough
food to support provincial classes who worked at crafts instead of farming.
Village grew into towns/cities and large town spread their rules over the near by
villages and become state.

At the end of the prehistoric period there were only two political units - Lower
Egypt, the delta with Buto (capital) and Upper Egypt, the valley with Nekher
(Hieramakonopolis) as their capital. Before the prehistoric period ended, the
Egyptian had contact with neighboring countries (Mesopotamia River Valley in
Asia) and learned to work with metal and developed their pictographs into writing.
This great invention in history brought Egypt abruptly to the threshold of History -
"History began with written record".
The beginning of writing in Egypt dates back to about 3100 BC, when the two
lands (lower and upper) became united in a single kingdom by Menes, King of
upper land. He stands first in the long line of Kings who ruled Egypt for 3000
years. About 280 BC, priest Manetto - grouped Pharaoh's into 30 dynasties. But
modern historians grouped the dynasties into periods. This was beginning of
Historical Dynasties Period (Dynasty means lines of King of same families). This
ruler was named Pharaoh, which means Great House and the household of the
pharaoh was the government of the country. The household consisted of priests
and scribes (men who could write).

Egyptian Architecture was influenced by:

• Geology (Building Materials)

• Climate
• Social
• Religion
• Historical

Building Materials (Geology):

Limestone, sand stone, granite and basalt that were considered very strong and
durable were widely available in Egypt and had been used for
construction/decoration purposes. Timber was also available, used only during I-
II dynasties for construction purpose, but were widely used for making boats,
coffins and roof constructions.

Climate:

Egypt falls in Tropic of Cancer and has only two seasons - spring and summer.
Snow and frost are unknown to them. Rain is very rare in the islands. Such
conditions have contributed to the preservation of buildings. Brilliant sunshine
made the design simple in form. There is no need of windows as sufficient light
and ventilation reached the interior through door and slits. This resulted in the
construction of unbroken massive wall, which provided an interior surface for
decoration. In absence of rain, stone slabs were used to cover the roof of
buildings.

Social:

Social and industrial conditions in dynasties period were centralized and ruled by
the Pharaohs. They involved armies of unpaid laborers, and prisoner of war for
the construction of massive structure. Egyptians were very skilled in craftsman
and their knowledge of Astronomy, Mathematics and Chemistry was quite
advanced. The ornaments/carving and furniture in pyramids exhibit their skills
and crafts and preservation of mummies indicates their knowledge of chemistry.
Pictographs (art of picture writing) in early stage well developed and is the basis
of writing in late stage in Egypt.
Religion:

There is very close connection between religion and architecture. In Egypt

priesthood was very powerful with unlimited authority. Their religious rites were
very traditional, unchangeable and very mysterious, which were reflected in
Tomb and Temples Architecture. Egyptian strongly belief in future state (Life after
Death) and hence constructed everlasting massive pyramids for the preservation
of death bodies.

Historical:

With the developments of writing skills, the historical events were recorded in
temples and social matters in Tombs. Military contact and commercial contact
with other countries gave birth to Historical influences.

Chronological Table

Period Dynasty/Rulers Historical Important Structure

Prehistoric period - before the
Pre Dynastic Period (3200 BC)
3100-2700 BC Ancient period Upper Egypt: Royal Tumular Tomb
Union of Upper and Lower Egypt Lower Egypt: Mortuary
(3100 BC) Saqqara Complex
Archiac Period Queen Hermeith (1310-2890)
I-II Dynasty (Menes)
2700-2200 BC Old kingdom Stepped Pyramid of Zoser Complex
III-VI Dynasty at Saqqara (2778-2770 BC)
III Zoser Pyramid of Giza
IV Cheops (or Khufu) -Cheops (or Khufu)
Chephren (Khafra) -Chephren (Khafra)
Mykerinos (Menkaura) -Mykerinos (Menkaura)
V
VI Pepl I and II
2200-2050 BC First Intermediate period Period of Decline
VII-XI Dynasty
2050-1800 BC Middle kingdom Rock Hewn Tomb
XII Dynasty -Beni Hasen (2130-1785 BC)
Mentuhotep I -The Tombs of King Thebes
Amenemet II Temple of Mentuhetep, Thebes
Seostris III (2065 BC)
Amenehet III Mortuary temple related to corridor
temple
1800-1575 BC Second Intermediate period Period of Decline
XIII - XVII Dynasty
Huku Ruler
(Barbarian Tribes)
1575-1090 BC New kingdom Funerary Temple
XVIII-XX Dynasty Queen Hatshepsut (1520 BC)
Amasis Temple of Khons, Karnak (1198 BC)
Amenopsis I Bronze introduced
Temple of Luxor (1408-1300 BC)
Failure to impose monothesion
Funerary Temple of Rameses III
(1175 BC)
XVIII Thutmose III
Amenopsis IV (Akhnatoo)
Tutankhamen
XIX Seti I Temple Seti I (1312 BC)
XX Rameses I Gigantic Hall at Karnak
Rameses II (1304-1237 BC) Great Temple at Abu-Simbel
Rock Hewn (1301 BC)
The rock cut temple at Gerf Hosein
(1301 BC)
1090-332 BC Late period
XXI - XXX Dynasty
Saitic Period 950 BC Sheskonki I Temple of Isis
525 BC Persian King Temple of Horus (237-57 BC)
332 BC Alexander the Great Mammisi Temple (237-46 BC)
332-32 BC Plotemia
32 BC-395 AD Rome Province
345-645 AD Byzantine Empire
640 AD Fall to Arabs

OLD KINGDOM (2770- 2200 BC)

Little is known about Menes, until the rule of King Zoser at the end of III dynasty
(capital was at Memphi). Imhotep - Architect of King Zoser erected Zoser Tomb -
the Step Pyramid at Saqqare, made entirely from stone. This period was the
most creative period in Egypt. Later King's built their tombs in true Pyramidical
forms. Each Pyramid guarded by the body of King housed in a chamber deeper
within the pile. The climax of Pyramid were the Three Gigantic tombs erected by
- King (Cheops), King Khefre and King Menkure at Giza (Lower Egypt). The
entrance is safeguard by a great Sphinx - a stone statue with body of Lion and
head of King/Queen. The Pharaoh kept a splendid court. People worship them as
a god on earth (son of Ra -sun god)" Pro" (in Bible mean House). Old kingdom
lasted for 500 years. These years were:
• active/optimistic age
• an age of piece and splendor
• Art reached brilliant flowering
• Sculpture achieved a grand scale.
• Monumental buildings flourished on a grand scale

About 2200 BC Old Kingdom came to an end. Novels become independent and
ruled as if they were kings. Country split into small states. Desert spread through
out the land. Security system, robber/thieves robbed the treasures buried inside
Pyramid. First Intermediate period began and lasted for 150 years (2200 - 2050
BC) - first decline period.
MIDDLE KINGDOM

This began about 2050 BC when the ruler of Thebes (a small town in Upper
Egypt) struggled and won over enemies and Egypt again united into a single
state. The Pharaoh of middle kingdom built much irrigation, canals in the Faiyum
and developed a system to use Nile water very wisely. They send Trading ships
to Nubian (Ethiopia) and across Mediterranean lands to transport goods. Copper
were imported from Sinai (Zurich). This period was the construction of most
colossal temples - temples of Amen (Amon) at Karnak was begun.

Again Egypt entered into Dark Age. About 1800 BC it falls under the hand of
foreign invaders - Hukus tribes. They were Barbarian tribe having superior Bows
- Second intermediate period began.

NEW KINGDOM

The ruler Rames liberated the Hukus tribe and new kingdom started. This period
is also called the age of Empire. Peaceful Egyptian learned new techniques of
warfare and conquered a large no of countries. The empire reached its peaks
under Thutmose III - 1st general in the history of Egypt and extended the country
and ruled up to Euphrates. Egyptian became richer and the new wealth and
slaves were used to repair old temples & built new one. For example, Hatsheput
- Egypt first Queen - enlarged the temple of Amon at El Karnak and built her own
temple at Deir-el-Bahari.

LATE PERIOD

This is also called the final decline period of Egypt. The central government
weakened and all the treasury were spent for army and extensive building
projects. The country split into small states. In 730 BC, Ethiopian (Nubia) invaded
Egypt and established a strong new dynasty. Assyrians over powered and a new
Egyptian dynasty recognized the country. In 525 BC, Persia conquered and
ruled until 404 BC. It fell to second Persian conquest in 341 BC.

POST DYNASTY PERIOD

Persia ruled lasted until Alexander the great (from Greece) invaded Egypt in 332
BC. After his death, Ptolemy, one of his generals, seized the throne in Greek
manner and ideas into Egypt. The city of Alexander was formed by Alexander the
Great, in Lower Egypt (The country of Greek civilization in the near East). Queen
Cleopatra over took the country of Egypt and ruled and son of Cleopatra from
Julius Cesar took over the rule from her mother in 30 BC. Egypt was proclaimed
province of Rome. After the Roman Empire, Egypt was divided into half at 4th
century AD. The Byzantine Empires ruled Egypt from Constantinople. Egypt was
converted into Christianity and finally in the 7th century AD, Arabs took over
Egypt.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

• Post lintel construction for permanent structure.

• Closed space columns structures - to reduce the size of beams and lintels.
• Exterior thick walls as load bearing having least openings.
• Clay/sun dried bricks (from Mesopotamia) for dwelling of common people
(temporary types).
• Bricks made of Nile mud and mixed with chopped straws or sand and are
maturated by exposing to the sun and were very durable & long lasting.
• Size of brick - 356 mm (14") × 178 mm (7") × 102mm (4")
• Too much length & height of the temples halls gave birth to clearstorey
(sky light) for ventilation.
• Columns made in wood/stone were made to look like the technology they
replaced. Columns were very sturdy in proposition. Rarely diameters were
less than 1/6th of the height. Base grew to the shaft and then tapering
towards the top. The shaft indicates bundles of plant stained together.
• Buildings were decorated by motifs in form of reads, lotus, papyrus and
palm at the head of columns capitals (Vegetable origin).
• Their masonry walls were constructed in trapezoidal form with exterior
front work left rough.
• For stability walls were diminished course by course towards the top-
mainly because of the alternate shrinkage and expansion of the soil. For
convenience their inner walls were inclined, which remained one of the
principal characteristic of Egypt Monumental Architecture in brick or stone.
• Slopping walls were needed structurally in building with mud bricks and
continued even in stone (although not structurally needed) but a fashion.
• True arch never used in monumental stonework, but the principal has
known to them.
• Surface decoration by practicing of scratching pictures in the early mud
plastered walls. No projecting ornaments.
• Inside walls with less windows used for making relief for teaching
'Hieroglyphs'.
• Egyptian Monumental Architecture is a column and trabaeted style are
expressed in pyramids, temple &
tomb in contrast to their eastern,
where tombs are insignificant
and spacious palaces assures an
importance rivaling that of temple
structure.
• Egyptian temples were
approached by impressive
avenues of Sphinx, posses in
their massive Pylons, Great
Courts, Hypostyle hall, Inner
Sanctuaries and dim, secret
rooms are the special characters
(temples grew by accretion or
replacement according to the
increasing requirement of a Pylon
powerful priesthood or to satisfy the pious ambition of successful kings.
• Greek temples were each planned as one Homogeneous whole and the
component parts were all essential to the complete design, while some of
the greatest Egyptian temples were but a string of successive building
dimension in height behind the impressive pylons.

Capital
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE (5000 BC-100 AD)

Because its geographical situations and blessing of river Nile, that flows for a
thousand miles through desert sand, the place has converted desert into green
fertile field and most of the development took along the banks of the river. Due to
this river, Egypt has been outlet and inlet for most foreign trades during those
days contributing a lot in the development of most parts of this country.

During the rules of Dynasties, great achievements in Architecture took place

along this river. Most of the development was Historical importance
building/structures and the basis of development in Architecture was Hope.

Chief Examples of Egyptian Architecture (Ritual & Funerary)

1. TOMBS - includes Private Tombs or Mastaba, Royal

(Pyramids) and rock Hewn Tombs (developed
in old kingdom). The prestigious tombs were
religious in origin and are the outcome of the
Belief in Future Life (after Death), which is the
governing idea of the religion of the Egyptians
(Basis of Hope). This is given the name of
FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE.

2. TEMPLES - The temples were sanctuaries (Religious

Ceremonial places). Kings and Priests were
allowed, not used for common people.
Priesthood was very strong during Dynastic
rulers, not only for mysteries rites but priestly
procession. This is given as RITUAL
ARCHITECTURE.

3. The Great Sphinx - Mysterious imaginary objects having body of

lion and head of men/women (King or Queen).
The great sphinx at Giza - 22 m high × 54 long.
The face is about - 4 m wide. Mouth is 2.7 m. it
was most probably indented to guard the spirit
of dead Pharaoh.

4. Obelisk - The monumental pillar normally seen near the

entrance of temples. They were huge
monolithic stone, square in plan & tapering with
a pyramidal summit. Here, height is ten times
the size of base. The largest obelisk is 35 m
high, weighing 450 ton.
1. Tombs: They were developed in three types.

o Mastaba
o Royal Pyramids
o Rock Hewn Tombs

MASTABA

An ancient Egyptian rectangular flat topped Funerary with bBattered sides

covering the burial chamber below the ground. Since the ancient Egypt's
believed strongly in afterlife, they did their utmost to build lasting tombs to
preserve the body and burry with its finest commodities for the eternal enjoyment
of the deceased. Initially the dead were covered with linen to wrap around the
tombs of the body to aid its preservation, which later developed in full scale.

The Mastaba was seen in the mortuary

complex of Queen Herneith in I
Dynasty at Saqqara. There were a
number of subsidiary rooms for holding
owner's valuable possessions. Royal
Tomb of I Dynasty (3100-2890 BC) of
Abydos consisted of chamber roofed
in timber and topped with a heap of
sand within a brick shell. During I & II
Dynasty, more elaborate graves came
in houses plans for several rooms, with
a central containing sarcophagus, richly carried coffin and surroundings to
receive funeral offerings. This was constructed in a broad pit below ground with
rectangular flat-topped mounds of left over soil held by very thick brick walls that
were battered at 75o. Mastaba's design developed and began to change for
security reason.

By the II & III Dynasty,

the Mastaba had
developed a stairway
and a tomb chamber and
attending rooms sunk
deeper cut into the rock
below. After burials,
heavy stone dropped
across the approach.
Example - Mastaba at
Beit Khallaf
By the end of IV Dynasty, a small offering chapel developed and annexed to the
Mastaba itself. In the later stages, Tomb chamber was sunken deeper and
approached by a short horizontal passage for vertical shaft like the shaft Mastaba
at Gizeh.

During V & VI dynasties, offering chapel became more elaborate with pillared
court connected to offering. Example - Mastaba of Thi Saqqara
ROYAL PYRAMIDS

A pyramid is a tomb; a four-sided stone structure that symbolizes the sacred

mountain, humanity’s universal striving to reach the heavens. The ancient belief
in raising the human spirit towards the gods is the quintessential purpose behind
the construction of pyramids.

The Egyptians believed their pharaoh was living god. He led the army in battle,
passed judgments on criminals and controlled the treasury. He also represented
the unity of Egypt. In early times, most people lived in the north or the south,
called lower and Upper Egypt. It was the Pharaoh's role to keep the two regions
together. The centralized government meant he had all the resources of Egypt at
his disposal for building his pyramid. The finest sculptors, masons, engineers,
and countless workers spent years building the tomb. The laborers who dragged
the stones were not slaves. They were farmers who believed that if they helped
their king get to heaven, he would look after them in the next world. Thus, the
great respect and affection of ancient Egyptians towards their king results in
building a massive stone structure, which is now a wonder for us. There are more
than 80 pyramids in Egypt. They are all on the west on the bank of Nile where
the sun sets. In the Old Kingdom, pyramids were grouped around Memphis, the
capital. In the Middle Kingdom, the capital was moved up river to Lisht. So, most
Pharaohs built their pyramid further south.

Even today, pyramids are metaphors for humanity’s search for higher
consciousness. Several theories attempt to explain the construction of the
pyramids, but no one knows for sure how they were built. This is one of the great
mysteries of ancient Egypt. Why the pharaohs chose a pyramid for their tombs is
still a mystery. Perhaps the shape originated from the creation story, in which the
world is conceived as a flat plane with four corners representing the north, east,
south and west. When the sky rose up, forming an invisible central axis like a
pole or tree in the centre, the world took on the shape of a pyramid. The pyramid
may also represent the primeval mound that rose out of chaos and provided a
resting place for the sun god, Ra. Its peak may symbolize the point where sacred
energy from the sky world enters the human world. Another theory suggests that
when Re became more important in the Egyptian religion, the pyramid (like the
obelisk) represented a ray of the sun.

The First Pyramid - THE STEPPED PYRAMID

During I and II Dynasty, Egyptian kings were buried in Mastaba. The deceased
were laid to rest in an underground chamber at the bottom of a shaft, and a flat-
topped tomb was placed over them.

The first pyramid, probable the first large stone structure in human history, was
built for the Pharaoh Zoser at Saqqara around 2778 BC, in the beginning of III
Dynasty. It was designed by the architect Imhotep, who became more famous
than the pharaoh he worked for. The Step Pyramid is really a series of six
rectangular structures set one on the top of the other. Beneath it, cut deep into
the underground rock, lie the burial chambers of Zoser and five members of his
family. The king's vault was built of pink granite and sealed with a three-ton plug.
The Step Pyramid was built around a core of desert stones. Imhotep changed his
mind five times as the building progressed. He enlarged the original Mastaba
form 83 × 75 m plan twice before building a four-tiered pyramid structure on top
of 125 × 109 m plan and 60 m in height. Then two more tiers were added by
expanding the entire structure, making six steps. The surrounding was a vast
rectangular enclosure 547 m north/south and 278 m east/west. It was finally
faced with polished limestone to give a smooth finish.
PYRAMID AT MEIDUM

This is attributed to Huni,

last king of III Dynasty. It
was a seven stepped
structure with six thick
layers of brick masonry,
faced with limestone-angle
of inclination 510. It was
completed by Senefru, son
of Huni.

BENT PYRAMID

In the IV Dynasty, the Pharaoh Senefru built the first geometrically true pyramids
at Dahshur, south of Saqqara in 2723 BC. It was typical pyramid with change in
the angle of inclination (54o15" lower part and 43o in upper part). The plan was a
square of 187 m length and height 102 m.
THE PYRAMIDS AT GIZA

The most famous pyramids are found at Giza. They were built by three pharaohs
- Cheops (or Khufu), Chephren (Khafra) and Mykerinos (Menkaura) - during the
2nd half of the 3rd millennium BC. This site is one of the seven classic wonders of
the ancient world, the only one that has survived the passage of time.

The largest of the

three, the Great
Pyramid of King Khufu,
was built around 2550
BC. At its peak it was
147 m (481 ft) tall, with
square sides 230 m
(756 ft) long. It is made
of about 2.5 million
blocks of solid
limestone, weighing 2.5
tons each on average.
The angle of inclination
is 51o30". It contains
King’s and Queen’s
Chambers. The entire
structure was encased
in a fine white polished
limestone brought from
the hills at Tura, on the
opposite side of the
Nile. Its neighbor, was
built 70 years later for
King Khafra, is only 3
m shorter and has a
square base of 216 m.
The angle of inclination
is 52 o30". The third
great pyramid was
made for the Pharaoh
Menkaura. It is the
smallest of the three,
only standing 66m (218
ft) high with base of
109 m. The angle of
inclination is 57o. Like
all the major tombs of
ancient Egypt, the Giza
Pyramids were built on the west bank of the River Nile. The Egyptians believed
that this was the land of the dead. When the sun set in the west each day, they
thought it traveled into another world where the spirits of dead king lived.
Inside the pyramid

The King's Chamber in Khufu's pyramid is made of granite. The roof includes
nine slabs that weigh 50 tones each. It also contains five compartments, probably
to reduce the pressure from the colossal weight of the stone above. The internal
layout of the Great Pyramid was changed several times during construction. The
entrance leads to a corridor which runs underground to an unfinished chamber. A
second, ascending corridor leads through the Grand Gallery to the King's
Chamber. Thin passage called "ventilation shafts" run from both main chambers
towards the surface.
Pyramid Construction

Pyramids were constructed by large work gangs over a period of many years.
The Pyramid Age spans over a thousand years, starting in the third dynasty and
ending in the Second Intermediate Period. It is said that that it took 20,000 men
20 years to build the Great Pyramid at Giza.

Pyramids were built with immense labor and materials during the life of the
Pharaoh. It was built to secure the preservation of body after death (Soul would
return to the body for immortality). Great pains were used to conceal and protect
the Tomb chamber, its contents and approach. Entrance to the pyramid was
North orientated with the cardinal point. Pyramids were built in a serious of
concentric slopping layers around a steep pyramidal core. Steps like tiers were
used (steps filled in with packing block) and finally finished to their ultimate
shape. Pulleys were not known but lever used. Wooden sledge was used for
transportation of stone blocks

A pyramid's large square base creates a very stable structure. A number of

astronomical observations were used to precisely align its corners with the four
cardinal points. Approximately 80% of the building materials are found in the
lower half. This means that relatively few stone blocks were hauled to the upper
levels. Since pyramids are solid, no walls or pillars were required to support the
structure. Despite its simple design, a pyramid is an incredible engineering feat.
Several theories attempt to explain how pyramids were constructed, but for now,
the mystery has yet to be solved.

The pyramids were probably not built by slaves because slave labor was not
widely used in Egypt at the time. Peasant farmers, however, were required to
spend a number of weeks working on construction projects. This provided the
paid labor needed to build these gigantic structures. Since the fields were under
water during the summer, wages earned in building the gigantic pyramids
supplemented the family's income.
It took hundreds of thousands of pieces of stone to build a pyramid. The Great
Pyramid is made of about 2300000 blocks, weighing an average of 2.5 tons. The
largest slabs, in the roof of the King's chamber, weigh 50 tones. Quarrying all this
stone and moving it to the site was an awesome task. The core of the pyramid
was made from local limestone, a fairly soft rock. But the high quality limestone
used for the outer casing came from Tura, across the Nile. Some internal
chambers and passages were making of granite, a harder stone that came from
Aswan, 800 km upriver. All year round, gangs of workers at the quarries cut
rough stone blocks out of the ground. When the river flooded and rose closer to
the quarries, the stone blocks were loaded onto boats and carried to the pyramid
site. The team even wrote their names on the stone. To seal the gap between the
stone blocks, clay mortar was used.

The Egyptians used different types of tools for building great temples, tombs and
pyramids. Some common tools they used are as follows. Chisels: Masons work
stone with chisels. These bronze and copper chisels were used to create fine
details. The tips could be heated to make them cut better. Mason's Mallet: For
thousands of years, masons all over the world have hit their chisels with mallets
(wooden hammers). This one is made of very hard wood. Axe: Axes were used
as weapons of war all over the ancient world. They were also good for chopping
wood or to show the owner's power. Copper and Bronze chisels.

The Egyptians believed that a sacred building as a temple or pyramid had a spirit
that would have to be repaired in the next world. So the workers left tools for their
spirits to use after they died. The design of these tools has barely changed over
the centuries. It is amazing what wonder the builder created with such simple
implements.
Pyramids did not stand alone; they were primary part of a funerary complex of
buildings. They were surrounded by a walled enclosure and had the followings:

• An offering chapel, with a stele (an upright slab carrying an inscription)

usually on the east side of the pyramid, but occasionally on the north
• A mortuary temple for the worship of the dead and deified Pharaoh
• A raised and enclosed causeway leading to the nearer, western edge of
the cultivation links a funerary temple to the pyramid
• Valley building in which embalmment was carried out and interment rites
performed.
• Mastaba and smaller pyramids were also present, where the family of the
king and nobles were buried.
• A canal was built to connect the valley building with the Nile, by which the
funeral cortege magnificently arrived
THE GIZA SPHINX

The Great Sphinx at Giza, near Cairo, is probably the most famous sculpture in
the world. With a lion’s body and a human head, it represents Ra-Horakhty, a
form of the powerful sun god, and is the incarnation of royal power and the
protector of the temple doors.

The Sphinx is the oldest and longest stone sculpture from the Old Kingdom.
During the Eighteenth Dynasty, it was called "Horus of the Horizon" and "Horus
of the Necropolis", the sun god that stands above the horizon. In later times,
many sphinx images were carved in smaller sizes or in cameos with the faces of
the reigning monarchs. The face of the Great Sphinx is believed to be that of
Chephren, the fourth-dynasty pharaoh who built the second-largest pyramid in
the Giza triad. In the image of the Sphinx, the pharaoh was seen as a powerful
god. Carved out of a natural limestone outcrop, the Sphinx is 19.8 m (65 ft) high
and 73.2 m (240 ft) long. It is located a short distance from the Great Pyramid.

Sphinxes are sometimes represented with a

female face. For example, a sphinx of Queen
Hatshepsut was sculpted with her face and a
pharaoh's beard. Queen Tiy, wife of
Amenhotep III, was the first to have a truly
female sphinx sculpted in her likeness.
Besides a female face without a beard, her
sphinx had breasts and wings.

The Sphinx differs from other deities in that it has an animal body and a human
head, whereas most other deities have human bodies and animal heads. One
explanation for this anomaly is that the Sphinx is the earthly representation of the
constellation Leo, which has a lion’s body.
ROCK HEWN TOMBS

The Tombs, Beni Hasan, numbering thirty-nine, are of the Eleventh and Twelfth
Dynasties (2130-1785 BC) and belonged to a provincial great family. They are
wholly rock-hewn; each consists of a chamber behind a porticoed facade plainly
imitating wooden construction in the character of the eight- or sixteen-sided,
slightly fluted and tapered columns, their trabeation and the rafter ends above.

The Tombs of the Kings, Thebes are in the arid mountains on the west side of
the Nile. They witness a complete abandonment of the royal pyramid tomb during
the New Kingdom in favor of a corridor type, in which stairs, passages and
chambers extend as much as 210 m (690 ft) into the mountain side and up to 96
m (315 ft) below the valley floor. The sarcophagus usually lay in a concluding
rock-columned hall, and the walls were elaborately painted with ceremonial
funerary scenes and religious texts. The most important tombs are those of Seti I
and Rameses III, IV and IX. The tombs served only for the sarcophagus and
funerary deposits; the mortuary temples stood completely detached (for example,
the Ramesseum, that at Medinet-Habu and Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Der
el-Bahari), sited in the necropolis adjacent to the western, cultivated land, where
there were similar but smaller tombs of high-ranking persons. The temple of
Mentuhetep II at Der el-Bahari (Middle Kingdom) is transitional, being conjoined
with the rock-cut tomb, while also having a small pyramid in its confines.

The tombs were cut into the limestone rock in a remote dried-up river valley on
the west side of the Nile, opposite the present day city of Karnak. Their walls
were painted and sculpted with magnificent murals depicting scenes of daily life
and the land of the gods. The chambers were filled with treasures, everything
from furniture to food, statues, boats and jewels, which a person needed to,
sustain life into eternity. The royals and their courtiers hoped to find refuge from
robbers and their enemies, who caused such havoc in the pyramid tombs of their
predecessors. The Theban Peak, shaped like a pyramid, can be seen high above
the burial grounds. This is perhaps one of the reasons the pharaohs chose this
remote location.
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Egyptian architecture was designed to blend into the setting of the Nile Valley;
this is as level as a floor and is walled in on both sides by sheer limestone cliffs.
The temples erected by the Egyptians are gigantic; their surfaces, flat. The form
is rectangular, like that of the flat-topped cliffs. The only decorations are relief
and inscriptions that do not break the straight lines of the stone surfaces on
which they are carved. Private tombs were decorated and inscribed in the same
way.

Temples were built on a grand scale. The front wall consisted of two massive
sloping towers, together called a pylon, with a door between them. The door
gave entrance to a huge unroofed court, bordered on two or three sides by
colonnades. Here the public assembled for worship. Beyond the court rose the
hypostyle hall a forest of huge pillars holding up a roof. Past the hall was the
sanctuary of the temple god. Only priests and the pharaoh were allowed to enter
the sanctuary. There were many variation of this plan. Large temples particularly
the great temple at Al Karnak had a series of courts, each faced by a pylon. An
avenue of sphinxes led from Al Karnak to the temple at Luxor.

Basically two types of temples were constructed in the Dynasty period in Egypt.
They were:

• Mortuary temples for worship of defied Pharaoh

• Cult temple for popular worship of the ancient and mysterious gods

Special features of Temple Architecture:

o LOGGIA - A gallery behind an open arcade or colonnade

o PARAPET - Portion of wall above the roof gutter, also on
balconies, platform.
o PYLON - Term applied to the mass of masonry with
central openings, forming a monumental
entrance to Egyptian temples.
o HYPOSTYLE HALL A pillared hall in which the roofs on columns.
Applied to the many columned halls with stone
slab/beam on Egyptian temples.
o CLEARSTORY - An upper stage in a building with windows
above adjacent roofs, specially applied to
these features in church.
o TREBEATED - a style of architecture in which post and beam
from the main construction features (framed
structure) in which the roof rests on columns -
applied to the many halls of Egyptian temples

MORTUARY TEMPLES

The mortuary temple - developed from the offering chapel of the royal Mastaba
and pyramids, assuming performance of ever-great importance. In middle
kingdom, when royal buries began to be made in hillside, they became
architecturally the most important of the two elements (Tomb + Worship). In new
kingdom they stood quite detached from the then customary corridor tomb.
Examples of Mortuary Temple

• Temple of Mentuhetep, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes (2065 BC)

• Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes (1520 BC)

TEMPLE OF MENTUHETEP, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes (2065 BC)

Mortuary temple of Neb-hepet-ra Mentuhotep (Mentuhotep II) is seen from the

second terrace of the temple of Hatshepsut. The temple is southwest side of the
temple of Hatshepsut. King Mentuhotep II, founder of the Middle Kingdom, chose
for his mortuary temple and burial place the edge of a valley leading into these
western cliffs and ending in a sheer wall of solid rock. The mortuary temple of
Mentuhotep is the first known monumental building in Upper Egypt and in
Thebes. The design of the mortuary temple of King Mentuhotep is one of the
most independent in Egyptian architecture. A valley temple gave access to a
walled causeway that ascended to a broad walled court, terminating in the
temple area abutting the western cliff. This deep basin was probably already
sacred to Hathor, goddess of the dead. The temple itself stood on a raised
terrace carved from the living rock accessed by the massive central ramp in the
court. The base of the terrace was fronted with do u b l e porticoes on either side
of the ramp. On the terrace was a broad freestanding building, square in plan,
and upon it an elongated structure that extended west into the cliff side. The
square structure had a massive central core with sloping walls, once believed
pyramid had been topped, pillared galleries or ambulatories on all four sides and
an outer ring of thick battered enclosing walls. Like the east face of the terrace,
porticos on east, north and south fronted these walls. The openness of this
architecture probably goes back to the earlier Theban princely tombs. The
western part of the temple was primarily dedicated to the worship of the dead
ruler. Here was the entrance to the tomb chamber, in the floor of a small
columned court that separated the fore-temple from the mortuary temple proper.
The latter consisted of a wide hall, whose flat roof was supported by ten rows of
eight columns, the oldest known hypostyle hall of any size in Egyptian
architectural history. The holy of holies was a rock-cut chamber opening off the
west side of this hall. Beneath the core structure on the terrace lays the dummy
tomb of the king reached from the forecourt.

TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes (1520 BC)

For Thebes, the early Eighteenth Dynasty was a genuinely creative period in
architecture. The most important building of this period, surpassing all others in
originality and boldness of conception, is the terraced temple of Queen
Hatshepsut on the cliff valley at Deir El Bahri. This complex of the mortuary
temple of Hatshepsut is a remarkable example of the aesthetic adaptation of a
building to its natural setting. It is the work of the architect Senmut - the queen's
favorite. Its terraces are clinging to the cliffs; however the burial place for the
queen was deep inside the mountain. The temple at Deir el Bahari served not
only her burial purpose and that of her father Tuthmosis l and of her husband
Tuthmosis II but was also dedicated to the cult of Amon, her divine begetter, and
other gods. The design of the temple of Hatshepsut, called Djeser Djeseru or "the
most magnificent of the magnificent" by the ancient Egyptians. An avenue of
Sphinx provided access to the first terrace (forecourt). The first terrace is
enclosed on the far side by a portico consisting of 22 pillars and flanked by two
Osiris pillars. In front of the main structure ponds fringed with papyrus were laid
out on either side of the center axis. Central ramps lead to the second terrace, 8
m high from first terrace, and buttressing walls are faced with colonnades of
square pillars, the second ramp leads to the uppermost terrace. A long solemn
row of identical Osiris statues of the queen forms the facade fronting the square
pillars of the main hall.

Tuthmosis II had changed the Osiris statues to the square pillars after Queen
Hatshepsut had died to erase her from his mind. In the center of the facade a
granite portal leads into a narrow open courtyard that is ringed by deep
colonnaded halls. Immediately to the north of this courtyard area is a small open
court where the sun god was worshiped at a great open-air altar that faced the
rising sun. Across from this sun sanctuary, to the south, is a group of vaulted
chambers for the funerary cult of the queen and her ancestors. The holy of
holies, dedicated to the god Amon, was carved out of the western cliff, exactly on
the main axis of the temple and reached from the central court. The chapel of
goddess Hathor is Upper Egyptian shrine. Inside of the Hathor chapel which is
independent building, round columns with Hathor-head capitals divide the
anteroom of the chapel into several aisles and through the aisle between the
central row of columns was accessible the holy of holies, carved out of the rock
at the end Anubis is a god of the dead. The Anubis chapel is also treated as
independent building. The 16-coner pillars on low round bases stand out from the
square pillars of the main colonnade. In this chapel the holy of holies is carved
out of the same cliffs too.
CULT TEMPLES

Cult Temple began in the worship of many local deities. The original essential
were a rectangular palisade (vertical elements) court, entered through a narrow
and flanked by poles and having centrally within them an emblem of deity. Most
of the early building (temple) was in sun dried mud bricks except the sanctuary
until XVII dynasty - when with increased wealth they used stone (instead of brick)
for Cult Temple construction.

Examples of Mortuary Temple

• The Temple of Khons, Karnak (1198 BC)

• The Great Temple at Amun, Karnak, Thebes (1530-323 BC)
• The Temple at Luxor, Thebes (1408-1300 BC)
• The Temple of Seti - I, Abydus (1312 BC)
• The Ramesseum, Thebes (1301 BC)
• The Great Temple, Abu - Simbel (1301 BC) - Rock Hewn Temple
• The Temples Isis, on Island of Philae (380 BC)
• The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (110 BC - 68 AD)

THE TEMPLE OF KHONS, Karnak (1198 BC)

It is a cult temple, may be taken as the usual type, characterized by entrance

pylons, court, hypostyle hall, sanctuary, and various chapels, all enclosed by a
high girdle wall. The entrance pylons, fronted by obelisks, were approached
through an imposing avenue of sphinxes.

The portal gave on to the open court, surrounded on three sides by a double
colonnade and leading to the hypostyle hall, to which light was admitted by a
clear-storey, formed by the increased height of the columns of the central aisle.
Beyond was the sanctuary, with openings front and rear' and circulating passage
around, and beyond this again was a four-columned hall.

The smaller rooms flanking the sanctuary and at its rear mostly were chapels or
served for purposes of the ritual. The temple was protected by a great wall of the
same height as the halls themselves and decreased in height towards the
sanctuary end.
THE GREAT TEMPLE AT AMUN, Karnak, Thebes (1530-323 BC)

It is the grandest of all Egyptian temples, not built upon one complete plan. It was
added by successive kings. Originally, it was a very modest shrine in the middle
kingdom. First enlargement was done by Thothmes I (1530 BC). The site is 1200
x 360 ft connected by Avenue of Sphinx with temple at Luxor. There are 6
numbers of pylons. It consists of various courts, halls leading to the sanctuary. A
great court lead to vast Hypostyle Hall added by Seti I & Ramsel I. Stone slab
roof laid on 134 columns with papyrus capitals. Clearstory was provided for
admitting the light in hall. Inscription/relief in color was later copied by Christian
church.
THE TEMPLE AT LUXOR, Thebes (1408-1300 BC)

The temple stands on the site of a New Kingdom building commissioned by

Amenhotep III in approximately 1380 BC, which was founded on an older
sanctuary. A hundred years later, Rameses II added a great pylon gateway
and an open courtyard. Unlike Karnak Temple, this temple was not
enhanced by later pharaohs. It was dedicated to the Theban Triad - Amun,
Mut and Khons. It contained papyrus - bud capitals and a seated colossus of
Ramesses. Twin colonnades of bell - capital columns 12.8m high, were the
only part ever built of grand hypostyle hall.

THE TEMPLE OF SETI - I, Abydus (1312 BC)

It has two pylons, two fore courts and two hypostyle halls, and is unique in
having seven sanctuaries side by side each roofed with stone. The unusual
feature of temple is a wing of chambers projecting at right angles to main
structure. The relief on the walls of close grained limestone is among the
finest in Egypt.
THE RAMESSEUM, Thebes (1301 BC)

Built by Ramesses II, this is as typical of new kingdom mortuary temples as

that of Karnak. In this temple the Pharaoh was worshiped and offerings were
made, while his tomb lay far in the mountain behind. Pylons were 67 m wide.
The temple has Osiris pillars on the front and rear walls and a grand
hypostyle hall. This was then succeeded by three smaller columned halls. No
arrangement of processional circulation is made around the sanctuaries of
mortuary temples.

Plan Osiris Pillar

THE GREAT TEMPLE, Abu - Simbel (1301 BC) - Rock Hewn Temple

Facing the Nile, there are the Great Temple and the Small Temple by Ramesses
II, both are the rock-cut temple and also called inner sanctuary temple. The
temple was dedicated to the god Amon-Ra (sun god), Harrnakes, Ptah and
Ramesses II. This temple has remarkable entrance, without which there would
be any noticeable feature on the external look. There are four colossal seated
statues of Ramesses II in place of the columns that even support the structures.
The statues are 20 m high and more than 4rn from ear to ear. There are small
statues of his family sculptured between the legs of each colossus, including the
daughters (and his wives), his mother and his son. There is a huge hall inside the
entrance called Pronaos with the eight Osiris pillars. Each Osiris pillar is 10 m
high and depicting Osiris with the features of Ramesses. There are paintings of
the battle of Kadesh; the war against the Hittites is on the north wall of the
pronaos. Inside of the Great Temple are 48 m long from entrance to the
Sanctuary. The rooms are placed along the central axis in order of Pronoas,
Hypostyle Hall, Vestibule and Sanctuary. In the sanctuary there are the four
statues of Ramesses II, Ptah, Amen Ra and Hamarkhis. Twice a year, at the
solstices, the sun penetrates the entire length of the temple and illuminates the
statues of Amon, Hamarkhis and the pharaoh with light. After about five minutes
the light disappears and it is truly remarkable that Ptah is never struck by the
rays of the sun, for Ptah is the god of darkness. The six statues, 10 m tall, with
their left legs set slightly forward, seem to break out of the living rock as they
move towards the light. Nofretari, queen of Ramesses II, is shown as Hathor
between the two statues of Ramesses II on each sides of entrance. Never in
pharaonic Egypt had the consort of a sovereign been represented on the facade
of a temple, as large as the statues of her husband right beside it.
THE TEMPLES ISIS, on Island of Philae (380 BC)

The temple of Isis is one of the best preserved Ptolemaic temples. The other two
are temple of Edfu (Temple of hours) and Dendera (temple of Hathor). The
temples of Philae were dedicated to Osiris's bride lsis. Originally Philae was the
most beautiful island in Nile and the largest of the three islands at the south end
of the group of rocks that comprise the First Catqaract. The Birth House is a
peripheral building (surrounded on four sides by columns with capitals
terminating in Hathor sistrums) with three rooms proceeded by a naos. lsis and
her son Horus, whose birth, childhood and education are narrated in the were
worshipped in the Mammisi. The rectangular kiosk has fourteen columns with
bell capitals and screen walls, two of which are decorated with scenes
representing Trajan making offerings to Isis, Osiris and Horus. The temple of
Hathor was erected by Ptolemy VI Philometer and Evergete II and decorated
later by Augustus. The irregularities of the plan of this temple are due to the
piecemeal building. In this temple we can see a progressive concentration of
effect from the outer and inner courts and pylons to the ultimate sanctuary in the
temple nucleus. Column capital is coarser and more ornate, varied in design from
column to column, and has very deep abacus blocks.
THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR, Dendera (110 BC 68 AD)

Dendera, one of the important sanctuaries of Hathor, is located 50 km north from

Luxor. Temple of Hathor at Dendera, with the temple of Horus at Edfu, is the best
preserved Ptolemaic temples. The Small Temple or the Temple of Hathor was
dedicated to Nofretari, who was the queen of Ramesses II. The Hypostyle Hall is
42 m wide, 25 m long. There are 24 Hathor pillars, which have Hath capitals,
including those of façade. Rooms along axis such as Pylon, Courtyard, Hypostyle
and Naos composed the temple. This is typical Ptolemaic style of temple. The
hypostyle hall was added to the Ptolemaic nucleus in Roman times, along with
the peripheral wall, which stands sufficiently clear of the temple to allow a
complete processional circuit. The four-sided, Hathor-headed capitals of the
hypostyle hall, carrying a conventional representation of the birth house on the
deep abaci above, are typical of the period. Many narrow chambers are
concealed in the thickness of the massive outer walls, and stairs lead to the roof,
where ceremonies took place. Hathor is a caw-head goddess.

By this time Cult & Mortuary temples were merely similar and were on strong
axis, with a walled open court and colonnades leading to a covered structure with
a columned vestibules "Hypostyle Hall". There were then sanctuaries for deities
attended by chapels and other rooms needed for priesthood. An impressive
gateway had been common and this increased until it became huge "Pylons"
sloping sides.

Temple's services were held three times a day. Only the priest admittance and
sometimes-privileged persons admit to the court for certain ceremonies. In the
Cult temples, processions were a feature particularly during the periodic festivals.
OBELISK

The obelisks, originating in the sacred symbol of the sun god Heliopolis, and
which usually stood in paris astride temple entrances, are huge monoliths square
on plan and tapering to an electrum-capped pyramidion at the summit, which was
the sacred part. They have a height of nine or ten times the diameter at the base
and the four sides are cut with hieroglyphics. The largest obelisk is 35 m high,
weighing 450 ton.

DWELLINGS

Worker's village was laid on rigidly formal lines. Originally from crude brick, one
or two stories high with flat or arched ceilings and a parapet roof partly occupied
by a Loggia. Room often looked toward a north facing court for coolness. In
towns even the better houses were on small sites and 3-4 stories high. Where
space allowed mansions stood on their own grounds laid out formally with
grooves, gardens, pools and minor structure surrounding the rectangle, crude
brick dwelling with door/windows in stone. Sometimes columns, beams, doors,
and windows were made from precious timber. Typically there was a central hall
or living room, raised sufficiently high with the help of columns to allow clearstory
light on one or more sides. First floor was only partial. Regularly these were three
fundamental parts.

• A reception suit on the cooler north side

• Service areas
• Private rooms
PRINTING AND SCULPTURE

Wall paintings took the place

of relief's in many private
tombs of the New Kingdom.
Some of the paintings and
relief's of this period rank with
the world's finest
masterpieces in art. In order to
appreciate them, it is
necessary to understand the
principles upon with Egyptian
artists worked.

Like other early peoples, the

Egyptians did not use
perspective. Figures at
different distances from the
observer were drawn in the
same size. Humble people
and servants, however, were
pictured smaller than the great
lord.

In sketching the human figure, the

artist usually followed conventions
established in early times. Since he
wanted to show all the principal
parts of the body, he combined front
and side views. The head is always
in profile, but the eye is drawn as it
appears from the front. The
shoulders and skirt are front view,
but the legs and feet are side view.

Furthermore, the artist did not limit

himself to a single point of view. He
drew what he knew, not merely what
he saw. A fisherman in a boat might
be sketched as if the artists were
looking at the scene from the shore,
but fish would be shown swimming
under the water. The same picture
might even outline the pond as if
seen from above. Nevertheless,
Egyptian paintings are beautiful and
harmonious, and they reveal more
than they would if drawn from a
single point of view.
Sculptors carved thousands of statues in all sizes, from colossal figures to
miniature. In addition to gods, kings, and nobles, their works included animals
and sphinxes. The pharaoh is always shown in a dignified pose, never in
movement. The face is often an expressive portrait. The sculptor painted the
bodies of men red and women pale yellow and set in eyeballs of colored stone or
crystal.

FORTRESSES

Most of the fortresses are on the west bank of the Nile or on islands. There was
close communication between one fortress and the next, with the headquarters
at Buhen, the largest stronghold. The main wall stood 4.8 m (15 ft) thick and 11
m (36 ft) high reinforced along its exterior by projecting rectangular towers.

At wider intervals, along the revetment of the paved rampart beneath the main
wall there were semi-circular bastions having triple loopholes with single
embrasures, through which arches could cover the ditch below them by cross-
fire.

This ditch was dry, with a scrap (a steep slope constructed as a defensive
measure in a fortification) and about 9 m (30 ft) wide by 7 m (23 ft) deep. The
great west gate facing the desert and the long roads lending to the mines and
quarries, was especially strongly fortified. The use of the scrap has been
primarily to hinder the advance of an attacking force, and also to prevent
undermining of the massive walls.
MESOPOTAMIA ARCHITECTURE

When Egyptian civilization was flourishing along the banks of River Nile, another
civilization has also arisen at Near East along and between two rivers. The
region between two rivers Tigris & Euphrates is known as Mesopotamia (means
between two rivers in Greek). This region is also regarded as the Tetronic
depression between:

• Zagoros Mountain in Northeast and East (Iran),

• Taurus Range on Northwest (Turkey),
• Calcareous Plateau on the Syria, and
• Arabic desert in the West (South Arabia)

HISTORY OF MESOPOTAMIA

The earliest settlements were at Sumer and Akkads and combined by King
Sergon I in 2350 BC. Mesopotamia consists of three regions - Assyria on the
north, Babylon on the middle and Sumer on south. In about 2000 BC, the
Amortize controlled the area under King Hammurabi, who is remembered for the
Code of Law (First in history of mankind). According to the Old Testament,
Hammurabi helped built the Babylon Empire (an ancient enemy of Israelis).
Invasion and conquest by various people such as Hittites, Kassittees and
Assyrians continued over the centuries.

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The architecture was influenced by:

Geographical

The fertile plains of twin river, Tigris and Euphrates were given the name of
Mesopotamia (Greek - Mesos = middle + potamos = river). Unlike Egypt,
Mesopotamia lacks natural defensive boundaries.

Geological

The Mesopotamian plain is mostly alluvial, and before systematic control of the
flood waters contained much marshland. Reeds and rushes could always be had
in profusion, but timber is imported. Stone too was lacking, limestone of alabaster
is transported from the uplands, also of minerals like Copper, Tin, Lead, Gold,
Silver.

The one building material universally available was the clay from the soil itself,
for making bricks. Chopped straw was mixed with the sun-dried bricks. Beyond
Mesopotamia, on the plateau of Anatolia and Iran, the Geology is completely dif-
ferent. Stone was available throughout the highland zone for building purposes;
and Anatolia Timber is available consequently distinctive architectural traditions
appeared; with the timber frame structure being the prototype of buildings in mud
brick.

Climatic

Except for the humid Black sea and Caspian Littorals, most of the Near East is
subject to extremes of temperature between winter and summer, the prevalence
of heat or cold being determined principally by altitude. In much of the highland
zone, winter is longer than summer. The "Megaron" with its entrance at the end
rather than in the long sides, was thus suited to the climate of the Anatolian
plateau; and perhaps too the dry, exhilarating air of the Iranian plateau -
Persepolis stands at an altitude of 1,800 m (6,000 ft). May account for the
frequency of light, columned halls and porticoes in the Persian royal buildings:

Historical, Social and Religious

a. Sumerians, an "Asianic" people had been occupying the land from the first
settlement of Eridu, the oldest city of Sumer before Sargon. The cities of
Mesopotamia had been ruled by individual governors. The mainspring of
growth of cities in Mesopotamia was the temple, the source of that
communal organization and authority, which each community required to
achieve the status and permanence of a city.

b. The Persian Empire from a relatively small state in south-west Iran, Cyrus,
the great founder of the Acheamenian Empire, established the basis of his
power by the defeat of his grandfather, Astyages the Mede. The rule of the
Persians was not harsh; customs and religious of the conquered people
were respected.

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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF MESOPOTAMIA

Architectural
Date Period/Dynasty Rulers
Types/Structure
3500 BC Proto-literate period Eridu/city with 1st Sumerian
(3500-3000 BC) Architecture
Temple XV-XVI-XVII
5000-4500-3800 BC
3000 BC Early Dynasty (3000-2350 BC) Warka - 1st City (2900-2340 BC)
The White Temple and Ziggurat
(3500-3000 BC)
2600 BC Kish (Mesilim) Temple Oval at Khafaje
Ur (Messanipada) (Baghdad)
2400 BC Sumerian period (2350-1600 BC) Ziggurat of Ur (2100-1900 BC)
Sargon I (2371 BC) Stonehenge (3100-1500 BC)

2200 BC Lagash (2230-2113 BC) Temple Complex at Ischali

Plan of City Ur (Iraq)
Babylon Period (1894-1795 BC)
1800 BC Babylon (1 st Dynasty)
(1894-1595 BC)
Hammburabi (1792-1750 BC) Code of Hammburabi
Progress in science, astronomy
and mathematics
Strongly influenced Greeks
1600 BC Indo European (Invaders)
1400 BC Assyrians Ziggurat of Tchoga-Zanbil
(1345-563 BC)
Kassite Rule
(1595-1155 BC)
Kurigalzu II
(1345-1324 BC)
1200 BC Assyrian Empire collapsed by
Babylonian and Medes

1000 BC Ashurnasirpal I (883-854 BC) City of Nirmud

st
Ashurnasirpal - the 1 king of restored/ e n l a r g e d
Assyria expanded empire and
introduced mail service
Shalmaneser II (858-824 BC) Fort Shalmaneser
Sargon II (721-705 BC) Palace of Sargon II - City of
Khorsabad
Temple Ezida at Nirmud
Sennacherib (705-681 BC) City of Nineveh
600 BC New Babylonian Period Hanging garden of Babylon
Chaldean Empire Ziggurats
Nebuchanezzar II (605-563 BC)
Persian Conquered (569 BC) Persepolis constructed
Cyrus II the Great (559-530 BC)
Darius (522-486 BC)

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1. PROTO-LITERATE PERIOD (3500-3000 BC)

The town evolved from agriculture village. There was battlement of ring walls.
Temples (ziggurats) began to gain architectural value. The first written document
made its appearance. The political authority resided with male citizens. Leaders
turned into kingship, then hereditary established.

2. EARLY DYNASTY (3000-2350 BC)

There was rise of monumental palaces, along with administration centre. This
employed bureaucrats, entertainers, and numbers of Armies for defence of city.

3. LATE SUMERIAN PERIOD (2350-1600 BC)

It is termed as the Rise of Empire - several states governed by sovereign king.

The first period was dominated in third dynasty of Ur. The building activity
included Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu. The second part was under King Hammurabi.
There was International balance of power. Famous Code was established by
Hammurabi, which shaded light on trade, tenure, land feudal service, taxation,
and slavery organization of labour, growth of power of the palace in relation to
temples. There was also restoration of older buildings. This period is also called
Old Babylon Period. The progress made during this period in science,
astronomy, and mathematics strongly influenced the Greeks.

4. LATE ASSYRIAN PERIOD (1350-612 BC)

Upper Mesopotamia flourished and lower declined. There was improved state
relief and palaces. There were later invasions and conquests by Hittites and
Kassittis.

MESOPOTAMIA CIVILIZATION

Mesopotamia is often called the cradle of civilization. This is the oldest of the
ancient civilization. It witnessed the development of agriculture, irrigation. The
earliest known written language started from here. It also had modified code of
laws. There were advancements in the field of commerce, science, astronomy
and mathematics. Development of the world first known calendar and cities took
place here.

It began with Sumerians (in the lowest river region) where there was
development of first complex society, including fortified walls, and temples or
Ziggurats (example - White Ziggurat/Temple at Warka in 3500-3000 BC).

From around 2400 BC, the Sumerians developed their cities into a kingship and
monumental palaces.

Southern part developed because:

• Climatic improvement
• Forest tree cover lots of high land
• Development took place around Fertile Crescent

4
There was colonization of the south Mesopotamian with need for irrigation,
increased social complexity in the region. Examples are Ur schematic plan of
city, 2000 BC during III dynasty with famous Ziggurat of Ur-Nammu (2125 BC).

ARCHITECTURE CHARACTERISTICS

• The mud of these two rivers gave the fertile alluvial land
• Its good quality of soil as raw materials for making bricks
• Burnt bricks for facing for special stress
• Bitumen used as a cementing material
• Use flat stone to protect from natural environment
• The people belonged to polytheism (many gods)
• Tower for Astrologers known by Ziggurats arranged round courts
large/small
• Symbolism and Superstitions prevailed
• Religion had not much effect on life and Architecture
• Building all around courts and room narrowed
• Walls carrying Barrel Vaults / roofs flat with palm logs packed clay
• Architecture was Arcuated (Arch with Radiating Voussoirs from 3000 BC)
• Columns not used expect in some cases in the late Assyrian/Neo-Babylon
period
• Collassial winged bulls guarded the main entryways.
• Used glazed tiles to protect the bricks from Sipage
• Polychrome glazed tiles on walls and towers for decoration purpose.
• Walls are white washed and developed Ziggurats painted in colours

SUMERIANS

The land of Sumerians on the south was called Sumer (mountainous people).
These regions were shrouded in the past. They spoke languages very different
from the others indicating that they might have come from Persia before 4000
BC. Their towns/cities - Eridu, Nippur, Lagesh, Kish & Ur were called Temple
Town. During this period the Sumerian culture reached its highest development.
Shortly after, the cities lost their independence and the Sumerians complete
disappeared. But their language lived as a language of culture. Their writing,
business organization, scientific knowledge, mythology and law were spread over
Babylon and Assyria. The biggest development in architecture is Monumental
Palaces. Cities were enclosed with walls/surrounded by suburban and urban
villages. Temples built on tower (Ziggurat) - Holly Mountain. Public
building/market area were built around these shrines. Temple town/cities
developed – basis of first civilization. Examples - schematic plan of city Ur (2000
BC) with famous Ziggurat of Ur Nammu having population 20000-50000.

SUMERIAN ARCHITECTURE

• The temple constitutes the heart of Mesopotamian City.

• The early temple had two standard features: -
o Niche/Alter (for statue of Deity)
o Table for Offerings

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• Around 3500 BC shrines became codified into monumental Temple’s form
fitted into an urban scheme.
• Ruling power as a stewardship over the divine estate.
• Town people devoted their lives to his/her service.
• Every thing belonged to the deity.
• The temple complex was the hub of an economic system called
"Theocratic Socialism".
• The temple stood on a tremendous platform (Ziggurats)
• And being free of the pressure of density in its ample precinct, the
temple's form could be regular or open.
• Standard temples /Ziggurats temples grew of an Arch type.
• Ziggurat is the best example of Mesopotamian temple architecture,
dedicated to god Anu (sky god).
• Ziggurat is conceived as a substitute of mountain (House of
mountain/mountain of storm or Bond between Heaven and Earth).
• Ziggurats had been a ladder of humble reverence - a way to come into
contact with the superhuman (in the universe) power that held the secret
of their destiny.
• The concept of Ziggurat could be seen for two separate functions -
Religions and Secular

EXAMPLES OF MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE

THE CITY OF ERIDU

It is the first example of the initial association of the Mesopotamian tradition in

Architecture. Temple XVI is very simple having a Cella (sanctuary) and many
alter in Niche (areas in wall for statue). Later the temple became much larger and
many subsidiary rooms were placed on either sides of Cella. First use of
embellishment of exterior with alternating Niches and Buttress (mass of masonry
built against a wall to strengthen). Exact orientation was important in
Mesopotamian temples. The site became holy and cities grew around temples.

THE CITY OF WARKA

It was the largest of the Sumerian city, which in the early dynastic period 2900 -
2340 BC). It had a perimeter of 9 km. About 1/ 3 of the area was occupied by
temples and public buildings. Ziggurats/Temples (built on platform) are the best
example of Architecture dedicated to god Anu (sky god). The white temples and
Ziggurat at Warka - (Archaic period 3500-3000 BC) - square plat from 13 m high.

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THE CITY OF UR

It consists of
palaces,
temples/ziggurats,
mausolea,
residential area
and commercial
area.

The residential
houses were
grouped into
congested blocks.
They were one
storey, made of
mud brick, with
several rooms
wrapped around a
central court.
There was no
outside window
and entrance was
from a door to one
side of the
vestibule.

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 Ur, residential area Ur, courtyard of residential area

The Ziggurat and precinct of Ur is a very old temple remodelled by Urnammu and
his successor in 2121 BC. The complex comprised the Ziggurat and its court a
secondary court attached to it, and three great Temples built on a great
rectangular platform at the heart on oval shaped city itself about 6.1 m (20 ft)
above the surrounding plain.

The Ziggurat was 62 m x 43 m (205 ft x 141 ft) on base, and about 21 m (70 ft)
high, carried the usual temple on its summit and had the normal orientation. The
Ziggurat at UR had a solid core of mud brick, covered with a skin of burnt brick
work 2.4 m (8 ft) thick laid in Bitumen and with layers of matting at intervals to im-
prove cohesion. The Ziggurat of UR was built in about 2100 BC for Su'en, the
moon-god. It measured 700 ft round the base, and a triple staircase climbed 80 ft
to the summit. The core of the Ziggurat, most of which still stand today, was a
solid mound of mud bricks.

8
 Ziggurat and Precinct of Ur

THE TEMPLE COMPLEX, Ischali

It was of early 2nd millennium BC and of terrace type, without a ziggurat. It was
rectangular in plan, with a large main terrace court and an upper one in which the
temple lay at right angles to the chief axis. On the corresponding side of the main
court there were two minor courts, all lined with rooms.

9
THE TEMPLE OVAL at Khafaje

Built in the first dynasty (near Baghdad), it is an unusual complex with three
ascending terrace - lower court approached through an arched gate with number
of rooms on one side (dwelling for priest). The second terraces surrounded with
rooms for worship/stores and further consisted of a temple platform, 3-6 m high
with a temple of moon god.

BABYLON

The city of Babylon now rose to power. Its brilliant dynasty lasted for 300 years
and reached it greatest glory in about 1800 BC under King Hammurabi. He
spread the rule of Babylon to the south with Sumer and west to Syria. King
Hammurabi introduced code of Law. People divided into three classes (noble,
freeman & slaves). Invader extended their kingdom towards the north, Assyria.
After Hammurabi's death, Indo-European tribes invaded from the northern
mountain. The entire civilization plunged into darkness. The Kassities overran
Babylon and ruled from 1555-1331 BC. They developed Art and Architecture.
Assyrians, in 1400 BC, freed themselves from the Kassities.

BABYLON ARCHITECTURE

ZIGGURAT OF TCHOGA - at Zanibil

It was built in 13th century BC, with 5 tiers. The lowest tier was shallower than the
rest, each mounted on a plinth. The base was 107 m (350 ft) and height of 53 m
(174 ft). Flights of stairs led to the top of the first tier on the centre of each front,
but only that on the south-west led to the second tier, while the rest of the height
had to be scaled on the south-east, the principal façade.

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ASSYRIANS

In the second millennium BC, the Assyrian state had to struggle for its existence.
Assyrian took its name from city of Ashur on the upper Tigress. Constant warfare
made the Assyrian fierce fighter. The Assyrians observed the Babylonian
culture/language. Polychrome ornamental brickwork, introduced by the Assyrian,
had its origin in these early centuries. Temples both with and without Ziggurats
were built in Assyrian. Ashurnasirpal II (839-859 BC) restored city of Nirmud and
made it the capital. The use of high plinths or dadoes of great stone slabs placed
on edge and usually carved with low relief sculpture appeared. Shalmaneser
(859-824 BC) constructed temple Ezida at Nirmud. Sargon II (722-705 BC) made
Israel an Assyrian province and built a palace at Nineveh (a Palace with 1000
rooms). His son Sennacherib (705-681 BC) built a magnificent palace in the
capital at Nineveh. Ashurbanpal (668-626 BC) was the last king of Assyria. The
Babylonians and Medes completely destroyed Nineveh in 612 BC.

ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE

• In the 2000 BC, they had to struggle for existence

• Art and Architecture were close to Sumerians.
• Development of Polychrome ornamental brickwork introduced.
• Use of high plinth, carved with low relief structure
• Construction of temples with / without Ziggurats in Assyria
• In later stage (911-612 BC) Palaces were much more numerous and
important to emphasis the central role of monarchy
• Brick Barrel vaulting on a large scale.

EXAMPLES OF ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE

THE CITY OF ASHUR

It was built in a high rocky mountain above Tigris River. The Ziggurat of Ashur,
Moon God, was restored by Tukulti-Ninurta (1244-1208 BC). This was ancient

11
and religious centre of Assyrian city which was surrounded with strong defensive
walls.

THE CITY OF NIRMUD

Ashurnasirpal II (839-859 BC) restored and enlarged the city of Nirmud and
made it the capital.

THE CITY OF KHORSABAD

The city of Khorsabad was built by Sargon II (722-705 BC) and abandoned at his
death. It was square-planned with a defensive perimeter, numbers of palaces
including palaces of king's brother, a temple and several office buildings. Palaces
covered nearly one square mile, with large and small courts, but this area was
never entirely occupied by buildings. There were two gateways in each tower-
serrated wall except where the place of one of them on the Northwest wall was
taken by an extensive citadel enclosure containing all but one of the Town's chief
buildings. The main gate to palace was flanked by two towers and guarded by
man headed winged bull (3.8 m) In the mud brick platform of the palace there
were terracotta drains and larger drain with brick covered with vaulting. Only
Ziggurat was associated with temple palace 45 m square base, seven tiered
Ziggurats 45 m height including the shrine at the top. The perimeter wall of city
was 20 m thick with dressed stone footing of 1.1 m and mud brick structure.

12
After fell of Assyria, Babylonians enjoyed 70 years of Independence and
Chaldean Empire, Sematic people, became the ruling classes of Neo-
Babylonians. The most famous king of this empire was Nebuchednizzar II, who
built New Babylonian and made great progress in science, astronomy and
mathematics. Chaldean Empire then fell to Persian Empire. Cyrus II from Persia
controlled the city in 539 BC. He ruled for 2 centuries and with the conquest of
Alexander the Great, the region was ruled subsequently by Greek, Roman,
Persian, and Turkish people. It lastly fell into the Arabs.

13
PERSIA

Babylon and Assyrians was concurred from ancient civilized world. The Persians
came from the grassland of Turkistan between the Caspian Sea and Persian
Gulf. They called themselves Irani (Aryans). During 6th century BC, King Medes
ruled the Persia to the east and Assyrian to the west. In 550 BC, King Cyrus the
Great of Persia concurred and expanded up to Assyria and to Greek Sea. In 539
BC, King Cyrus acquired Palestine and spread his empire to the border of India.
Cyrus's son, Cambysis II rules from 529-522 BC. Darius, a relative of Cambysis
seized the crown and ruled from 522-486 BC till his death in 486 BC. From 486-
465 BC, Darius's son Xerox took over the empire and expanded, but slowly the
decline period started. Darius III was under power when Alexander the Great
captured the western half of Persian Empire in 333 BC. After his death, Parthia, a
small kingdom in northern Persia ruled for 300 year. In 226 AD, the Persian
again came under Native dynasty. In 7th century AD, they fell into the Islam.

PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE:

• Architecture is columnaris, which is different from Mesopotamia

• Flat Timbered roof than vaulting allowing column slender
• Rooms are wide square proportions rather than elongated
• Used ceilings with wooden brackets and floor covered with clay on a
bedding of reed /log
• Use of double mud brick walls for stability at Persepolis
• Windows small just below the ceiling level.
• Stone are plentiful but used for plinth wall for temples and palace
platforms, doors windows surrounds and for ornament and figures relief
structure.
• Both have common traditions of clay and timber as the main materials in
their architecture.

EXAMPLES OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE

THE PALACE OF PERSEPOLIS

It was begun in 518 BC by Darius I, executed by Xerxes I and finished by

Artaxerxes I about 460 BC. The various buildings stood on a platform, partly built
up and partly excavated, faced in well-laid local stone bound with iron cramps,
about 460 m x 275 m (1500 ft x 9 0 0 f t ) in extent and rising 15 m (50 ft) above
the plain at the base of a rocky spur.

The approach on the Northwest was by a magnificent flight of steps, 6.7 m (22 ft)
wide, shallow enough for horses to ascend. A gatehouse by Xerxes had mud-
brick walls, faced with polychrome bricks, and front and rear portals guarded by
stone bulls. A third doorway on the south led towards the "Apadana", a grand
audience hall, 76.2 m (250 ft) square and with 36 columns within its 6 m (20 ft)
thick walls, begun by Darius but completed by his two successors. It stood on its
own Terrace 8 m (110 f t ) high had three porticoes each with double colonnades;
stairways on the North and East side, and minor rooms across the south side
and in the four angle towers.

14
15
INTRODUCTION

Greek is a mountainous country with a long indented coastline where

communication from one valley to the other was difficult, which consequently,
separated city states. Albania borders to the northwest, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria
to the north and Turkey to the northeast. On the west lies the Ionian Sea and
Aegean Sea on the south and east. The Ionian coast is broken by the Gulfs of
Arta, Patras and Corinth. To the south lie the Gulf of Massine, Laconia and
Nauplia.

This country during the ancient time was invaded and settled by several wave of
people such as Minions, Achaeans and Dorian. They intermarried and developed
the Greek language. By 1500 BC, there were flourishing cities inhabited by
Greek speaking people on the mainland of Asia Minor (Anatolia) and round the
shores of the Black Sea. The practice of politics is the outstanding Greek gift to
the world. The Greek word for a city is Polis ('politics' word derived from this).
Besides practice in Politics, art, architecture and descent culture is the handiwork
of Greek. Long process of fashioning it began as early as about 1700 BC. Basic
principles of Democracy became a model of Western Democracy. It states

• Citizens were equal before the law

• Individuals were free to live their lives
• Public debate held before the state took action.
The Greek speaking people, associated with this initial phase of story, the
Mycenaean, do not appear to have been a native race. They must have moved
into mainland Greece and controlled the nearby islands of Aegean around 1600
BC. They built number of independent citadels towns - Pylos, Tiryns, and
Mycenaean. It is believed that the first major civilization in Europe developed
around the Aegean Sea and the architecture of ancient Greece was the essential
origin of European/Western Architecture, through its influence on the architecture
of Roman Empire, so indirectly Mediaeval Europe.

Greek architecture did not develop in isolation and is believed to have come from
the east and north Aegean islands on the mainland and southern Aegean island
(Crete). Crete, the largest island in the Aegean, had prospered a high culture for
some time prior to the organized presence of the Mycenaean on the Greece
mainland. They influenced faith and vision before they were conquered by
Mycenaean on about 1450 BC. The settlers who altered the Neolithic structure of
the important island and produced an urban pattern, dominated by large Palaces
(in 2000 BC) may also have come from Asia Minor (Anatolia). During the end of
1200 BC, the Mycenaean collapsed and they migrated from the mainland across
the Aegean to the coastal regions of Asia minor, to Cyprus, further more towards
the North Africa, to the Black Sea and above all to Italy and Sicily. These
communities contributed to the development of classical Greek Architecture,
which spread up to Italy. Greek architecture stimulated by Egypt and the near
east (Asia Minor) had itself stimulation of Roman and later European
Architecture.

To all Art, Literature and Science, Greek brought remarkable quality of intellects
and aesthetic milestone which ancient Greece clearly certifies their highest level
of achievement.

The Greeks derived norms from nature and behaviors of man himself. The Greek
philosopher Protagorus said, "Man is the measure of all things" (Typical remark
of the Greek attitude towards the life).

Macedonian King Philip II supremacy over Aegean Greek and conquest by his
son Alexander to the Persian Empire extended the area of Greece, and Greece
Architecture stimulated by Egypt and the near east demonstrated the levels of
their achievement.

The Greek Architecture is influenced by following factor: -

Geographical/Climate

Greece is the country divided into small states by long ranges of mountains with
plains intervening. Its coastlines are very irregular and broken. Classical Greece
includes some parts of Asia Minor and colonies in the south Italy and Sicily. The
climate over most of the territory is Mediterranean with temperate climate.

Geology

The Greece world has very large sources of high quality building stone,
particularly limestone and marble. Therefore the materials used for constructions
were buildings stones which were quarried without difficulty. There were also
good sources of clay, from which burnt brick were manufactured and used as
construction materials. Timber is also available in Greece but was used limited to
construction of floors and roofs.

History

Due to series of separate plains, different communities lived in different parts of

country. There was clear understanding for unity among peoples. This aspect is
reflected in the annual meetings of Olympic Games.

There was constant internal rivalry too. A certain degree of cooperation among
different groups of people was achieved against the Persians, whose incursion
with Europe was ended by Greek Victories. It was largely to celebrate these
victories that the fine buildings of the Acropolis were built at Athens (under
Athenian leadership). After the death of Alexander the great, the country split
into separate provinces and City-state. They all came under the organized
power of Rome in the later stages.

Anatolia, the Levant and Iran - The archives of the Hittite Capital Hattusas are
the main source of knowledge of the history and civilization of the Hittite State in
the 2nd millennium BC. A major disruption occurred with the invasion of the sea
peoples, bringing the philistines to occupy part of the land which has ever since
retained their name as Palestine. The most important result of the event was the
development of iron-working.

Religion

The Greek religion was based largely on natural and god or goddess epitomized
human activities and each. There was the Goddess of victory, sea, peace and so
on. Religion belonged to the whole people and priesthood did not form separate
classes, as had been in Egypt.

Social Structure

The social life of Greeks varied from state of state. The Athenian was more
democratic, though most of their ideas were limited to the rights of freedom. Most
of the Greeks were trader and great commercial people. Their love for natural
beauty was expressed in many ways by their national game and sculpture. Their
culture activities such as music, poetry and drama were well-known.

THE AEGEAN AND ASIA MINOR

Classical culture of Greece may have being early perhaps about 1700 BC. The
Greek speaking people associated with the initial phase of History, the
Mycenaean (war like people) one that the native race, but must moved into the
mainland Greece from the near by Aegean island and western Asia minor. They
have controlled. The region was from about 1600 BC. They built a number of
Citadels towns - Pylos, Tiryns and Mycenae.
The Mycenaean were oversea power and had trading ports up to Sicily (Italy)
and military colonies along the west of Asia Minor when a great Mycenaean force
was being assembled to besiege Troy in 15th century BC. Eight black ships came
from create with hundred cities from the Aegean island.

Crete the largest island in the Aegean in the Aegean has prospered a high
culture more before the organized presence of Mycenaean in Greek mainland
and had a great influence to the Mycenaean's faith and vision before being
conquered by them in 1450 BC. The brilliant culture of create was very different
from that of Mycenaean Greece.

This island had produced around 2000 BC an urban pattern dominated large
palaces from Asia Minor. Crete became a way station of the Bronze Age linking
the Greek coastline with Egypt/Mesopotamia.

Asia Minor - Anatolia is the first homeland of European civilization. During the
Neolithic period, settlements like catal hayuk had dotted the plateau bridging
between Europe/Asia. This part of the world was first ruled by Hittites (migrated
from Indo-European tribes (3000 BC) and capital was Hattuses (Ankara) with
great imperial power from 1600-1200 BC.

Examples - General site plan - site in rocky hill Wall along the southwest side of
city - Lion gate, Underground tunnels Temple I - Weather god Open Air
sanctuary

The strength of their Architectural accepts the raw design of the land as the
better part of building.

The residential arrangement was typical -irregular house ground court. The
administrate complex of the citadels are also loosely planned consisting of
numbers of independent buildings placed along the flat roofed rocks, temple
surrounded with many store rooms, columns not known. All the structures with
mud bricks reinforced with timber beams.

BEYCESULTAN AND TROY

These are the region in west Asia Minor lies between Hittites and Cretan's
Mycenaean. The palace of Beycesultan recalls the great Palaces of Minoan
Crete. Megaron form of Building appeared here and also at Troy, which shows
up the central feature of Mycenaean citadels (later in the Greek temple).

THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF BEYCESULTAN ARCHITECTURE

• Large of religious buildings of Public scale. Most buildings were

residential/administrative, ritual overbences were accommodated within
these structures
• No monumental temples, like in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Hittite Empire
• Beycesultan Palace (1800 BC)
• Large building (86 chamber excavated), organized around a rectangular
court with surrounding of deries/balconies supported on wooden
columns/half timbered construction, stone foundation with mud brick walls
CHRONOLOGY OF GREEK HISTORY

Date Rulers/Periods Prominent Architecture

2000 BC MINOAN CIVILIZATION (2000-1300 BC) The Palace at Knossos
(2000 BC)

1000 BC MYCENAEAN ERA (2000- 1100 BC) Lion Gate (1250 BC)

800 BC THE GREEK DARK AGE (1100- 800 BC)

The Dorian invasion of Greece (1100 BC)

THE ARCHAIC PERIOD (800-500 BC)

The beginnings of the Olympic Games
(776 BC)
The beginnings of Greek Philosophy (600 BC)

Development of Athenian Democracy

(594-508 BC)
Greek city-states fall under Persian rule
(547 BC)

500 BC THE HELLENIC PERIOD (500- 300 BC)

The Persian Wars (499-479 BC)
The Ionian Revolt (499-493 BC)
The highpoint of Athenian culture
(480-404 BC) The Parthenon (448-432
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) BC)
Athens surrenders to Sparta (404 BC)
Thirty Tyrants rule Athens (404-403 BC)
Spartan War against Persia (400-387 BC)
Spartan hegemony ends and Thebes defeats
Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC)
Theban hegemony ends with its defeat at the
Battle of Mantinea (362 BC)

300 BC THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD (300-50 BC)

The Conquests of Alexander the Great
(336- 323 BC) Temple of Athena Polias,
Ptolemy becomes ruler of Egypt (Ptolemaic Priene (334 BC)
Kingdom) (323 BC)
Seleucus founds the Seleucid Kingdom
(306 BC)
Celtic invasion of Balkans and Asian Minor
(279 BC)
Antigonus founds the Antigonid (Macedonia)
Kingdom (276 BC)
THE GREEK CITY STATE DEVELOPMENT STAGES

1000-800 BC the period in which foundation was laid

800-500 BC growth of city states with boom in economy
500-404 BC the climax of city state civilization
404-338 BC decline and attacked by Alexander

MINOAN CIVILIZATION - CRETE (2000-1300 BC)

It was the power of ancient world. After King Minoan, a legendary king - King of
Knossos took over. It was significant in prepalatial-palatial architecture.
Architectural complex/administration centers were influenced by Mediterranean
political concept. There was increase in trade, wealth and economy. Large
town/palaces/administrations, as well as manufacturing and storage were
developed. There was arrangement of rooms/asymmetrical around courtyard
(copied from Egypt/near east). It was later destroyed by earthquake. Last Greek
speaking people ruled most part of island.
MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION (2000-1100BC)

The culture blended with urban civilization. There was transformation of villages
to towns with palaces at Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylus, Corininth. The palaces were
properly fortressed (home of lords). The area controlled coasts of Asia Minor,
and islands of Aegean Sea. Sea expansion increased the economy. There was
development of Peloponnesus/centre Greece. Mycenaean palace was built, from
Asia Minor and Troy. Megaron dominated palace complex and its axis. It was
commonly placed on south large hearth for ceremonial place. Later, invaders
from northwest wiped out around 1200 BC.

Palace at Pylus

It is on the south west part of Greece, the most instructive Mycenaean palace as
that Nestor-Homer's Sandy Pylus. Palace at Pylos of 1300 BC, 1st order palace,
was separate building to the southwest of the complex. Megaron was not in full
form.

Palace at Tiryns

The construction of this Mycenaean palace was with rubble masonry

strengthened by a massive framework of horizontal and vertical timbers. The
outside was faced with fine limestone.
THE GREEK DARK AGE (1100- 800 BC)

Invaders from north destroyed the Hellenic civilization of Mycenae. By 1104 BC,
conquest of western Greece and the Peloponnesus by the Dorian was complete
and in the first century of 1st millennium BC, the Ionians established settlement in
Eastern Aegean and Anatolia.

In about 1100 BC, Greece was overrun by invasion of barbaric tribes from the
north. The Dorian and later the Ionians occupied the areas where the Minoan -
Mycenaean cultures had flourished. Greece was not to be so rich and powerful
again until golden age of Athens, under Pericles in the 5th century BC. The
Greeks believed themselves to be a blend of two races - Dorian and Ionians. The
Dorian were tribe of northern shepherds - hardy, rigorous, and practical who had
come south in a series of migration. The Ionians, on the other hand, came over
the Sea from Asia Minor. They were oriental, sensuous, and colorful. These two
characters were always reflected in Architecture (example temple building of
Acropolis) - the plain sturdy Doric and the elegant ornamented Ionic. The
Athenians believed that they were given expression to the two poles of their
nature - luxury and abstinence.

Greek column temple design had its origin in the chieftain's house in Mycenae -
with style, entryway vestibule and importantly, a portico with column and
Megaron. The temple was always set apart from the town in a sacred enclosure.
Mycenaean palaces were formal in plan then those of Crete and stood in
Citadels, on strategic hills having walls with number of buildings for religious and
domestic purpose.

Early houses in Greece were free standing with a single room whereas in Asia
Minor, the houses were grouped together with common walls. The houses were
totally systematical and had random room arrangement. The Citadel of Troy
included one of the few monumental size buildings - a large rectangular hall with
a common nearly square with a deep porch. Thus the so called Megaron plan
became the basis of classical Greek temples.
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD (800-500 BC)

Many of characteristics of Greek society developed as urban life returned to

normal Greece after the Dark Ages. Examples are epic poetry and the "polis" or
"city-state". With internal transformation and eastern expansion of Greek
civilization, economy developed. Greeks became more commercialized and
industrial and expanded up to Mediterranean and Black Sea.

THE HELLENIC PERIOD (500-300 BC)

The Hellenic Period of Greek Culture is regarded by many as one of the most
creative periods in world history. Works developed in this period inspired
development not only in Rome and Western Europe, but also among Persians,
Buddhists and Muslims as well. It is the "classic" period of Greek culture. In the
period between the defeat of the Persians and the conquests of Alexander the
Great, Greece enjoyed a cultural flowering and economic prosperity seldom
matched in the ancient world. Drama, philosophy and sculpture all began or
underwent significant refinement in this period.

It was climax and crisis of Greek city, which began with victory over Persians.
This made Athena build navy. Athens centralized power over large area, which
already separated to economical units, in development of commerce. Pericles
(495-429 BC) was placed in power in 461 BC. Greece had reached its climax.
Pericles opened Athenian democracy to ordinary citizens. He also built
magnificent temples and statue on the Acropolis and thus created an Athenian
empire.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR (431-404 BC)

Most of the city states had become allied with one another of the leading military
powers. Athens was a great naval power, while Sparta relying in its army for
superiority. The Athenian Empire and the Spartan Alliance coexisted as long as
balance of power was maintained between them. A truce called the "Thirty Years
Treaty" had been signed by both powers in 45 BC. Twice the treaty was broken
by Athenians, as they sought to extend their empire. War again started at 431
BC, when Thebes, a Spartan ally, attacked Platae (an ally of Athens) in a conflict
in Peloponnesus, the Peninsula of which Sparta is located. The war ended in 405
BC, when the Spartan Navy, under Lysander, decisively defeated the Athenians
in the battle of Aegospolam. The result of the war was crushing defeat of Athens
and the end of it maritime empire. The long war resulted in the weakening of all
the city states. This made them vulnerable to takeover by Macedonia several
decades later.

THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD (300-50 BC)

While the polis continued to play an important role in Greek society, with the
formation of empires the polis lost much of its political and economic
independence. The Greek culture in the Hellenistic period was distinctly different
from that developed in the Hellenic period when the polis was at its height.
Greece was conquered by Alexander the Great and Alexandria was the center of
"Hellenistic" culture.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

The principal of Greek Architecture begins with the selection of appropriate

sites. This aspect can be verified by noting natural platforms for temples and
hilly side of theaters.

Greek architecture exposes clearly the structural parts of the building. The
stylobate expresses the foundation upon which the buildings rest. The columns
and continuous lintels call attention to the principle of vertical and horizontal
constructional members.

The pediments at each end of the column indicate the roof and serves as
terminating features. The ornamental parts and the sculptured incidents are in
variably in subordination to the oneness the building.

The remaining of the Greek architecture are open air theaters, the stadiums,
treasures, the gateway, alter and temples/shrines. The deliberate use of
straight lines to emphasize the true direction of support is all involved forms of
Greek architecture.

The powerful optical effect is enhanced by the simplicity of the main and
subordination lines of composition. The refinement is achieved by curvation in
the crepidoma and the entasis of columns and inclination of the vertical axis.
For entasis is nothing but tapering the column.

A few optical refinements are:

i) Entasis:
The columns are tapered as they raised such columns looks straight
from a distance. Tapering is done to eliminate the false impression of
building out of the columns at the top. This also eliminates false
impression that two vertical columns would meet at a low height.

ii) End columns of outer colonnade were kept out a less distance from other
columns because the space between outer and next column would be
open to clear atmosphere of bright sunlight which would give the feeling
of the distance being more than usual.

iii) Long straight beam were curved upwards at center so as to look straight
from a distance.

iv) Letters at the top were of big size so that they appear of same size from a
distance.
GREEK ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Architecture evolved by the Greek city-states during classical (Hellenic)

period 7th to 4th century BC and further developed in Hellenistic period 4th to 2nd
century BC is characterized by use of Stone/Marble in post and lintel construction
(initially the principal of earlier Timber buildings).

The first invention of Order was started from this part of world. The architecture
of Order was the products of demographic belief of Greek civilization. The
historically/artistically significance buildings were images of the life that went on
within their walls and reflected on particular belief of the society.

The best known contribution in Architecture was Style called Order for Columns
and their accompanying Entablature, which was believed to be developed in 7th
century BC.

The Order reflects the geographic division of Greek at that time. At first there
were only two Orders - Doric order in the mainland and Ionic in the eastern part
of Greek area of Aegean islands and in the coast of Asia Minor. In 15th Century
BC the third Greek Order appeared called Corinthian order, which was seldom
used by the Greeks, but became favorite during Roman. Roman added two
more orders during their period - Tuscan and Composite Orders.

In classic architecture, Order consists of upright columnar support. These

support included base, capital of the column and horizontal entablature. The
proportion of column and entablature varies in different orders. Order governed
all the form of any Greek temples. It may be thought of as a language, each
with its own vocabulary and rules of grammar and syntax, or as scale in music.

Greek architecture was conservative, the invention was little and was slow,
disciplined and quality filtered through self-impressed restriction. Every building
existed within the limits of its norm and was judged against other components
of the same norm. So every building conveys precise meaning against a
background of similarity.

1. DORIC ORDER

This order was an ideal invention in the stone temple of mainland Greece. This
order appeared in 600 BC, in the reconstructed elevation of the temple of Artemis
at Corfu and the second temple of Hera at Samos from the mid XII century with
its flimsy timber architecture. This order specifies column stands without a base
directly on a floor (stylobate). Conventionally thru steps in temple and other
building such as Stoa (Colonnade & Portico's) may have only one.

Doric columns of the 6th and 5th century BC resembles to some of the columns at
Zoser's Saqquare complex (2000 BC). The earliest columns were very slender
(later thick), 4 times the diameter at the base. During 5th century BC, the column
was made light up to 51/ 2 to 53/ 4 times the diameter. In the Hellenistic period (304
BC), columns were 7 times the diameter.

The diameter at the top varies 3/ 4 th to 2/ 3 rd. The shaft contained 20 shallow flutes
(the vertical channeling). But sometimes, it contained 12, 14, 16, 18 and up to 24
flutes. The shaft has slight convex (entasis) to counteract the concave
appearance produced by a straight-sided column. The shaft terminates with
‘hypotrachelium’. Immediately above of the capital is the continuation of the fluted
shaft, known as ‘trachelium’. The capital consists of abacus (slab forming in
crown member of a capital) and echinus, the convex or projection moulding,
which supports the abacus.

Doric Entablature is divided into three divisions:

i) Architrave or principal beam

ii) Frieze, formed of triglyphs with two vertical channels (glyphs) and two half
channels at each side alternating with metopas
iii) A triglyphs is aligned over each column and another centrally over each
inter-columniation. It is a general rule that Doric frieze must end with a
triglyphs, thus the columns are brought closer together at the comers.
iv) Cornice, or geison (Classical or Renaissance) is the crowning part of the
entablature. The soffit has an inclination approximately to the slope of the
roof and has flat blocks of mutules, which suggest the ends of slopping
rafters.

Example: Parthenon
2. IONIC ORDER

This is also termed as the second of the Greek decorative system. The
development of this order took place in the coast of Asia Minor and highly
flourished around this territory. The Ionic form seems to have come from the
wooden prototype architecture even closer than the Doric.

This order is characterized in its volute capital. Ionic columns including capital
and base are about 9-14 times their lower diameter in height. They have 24 flutes
on its surface. Early examples may have 40-48 flutes, which were shallow and
separated by sharp arires. There are different forms of base, principally which
were used in the eastern Greece and in Athens, 5th century BC. The capital has
two pairs of volute or spirals about 2/ 3 rd diameter in height, one pair on the front
of the column, the other on the back and joined at the sides by a concave
cushion, sometimes plain but usually ornamented with numerous flutes, fillets
and beads. The volute scroll rests on an echinus (circular in plan). Above the
volute scrolls is a shallow abacus.

The Ionic capital presented difficulties at the corners of a rectangular building and
in such positions a canted angle volute was used. For example, the four fronted
capital of Peloponnesian Ionic order at temple at Bassae. Though exceptional in
classical Greek Architecture, the Ionic order became increasing common in the
later period especially in the Hellenistic Period.

Ionic Entablature evolved in the Eastern Greece and had only two divisions -
architrave and cornice. It was later supported by a frieze of large dentils. It is very
light in relation to the columns, as little as 1/ 6 of height. In some temple such as
the archaic temple of Artemis of Ephesus, it was increased by high vertical faced
parapets, Sima, with carved decoration as frieze. It has a high entablature with
Frieze and dentils under the cornice, which was first, used in 340 BC for the
Temples at Samothrace, but did not become general till the 3rd century BC.

Example: The Temple of Athena Nike in Athens

3. CORNITHIAN ORDER

It was the latest, not arriving at full development until the middle of the 4th century
BC. The oldest known example is found in the temple of Apollo at Bassae (420
BC). The Greeks made little use of the order; the chief example is the circular
structure at Athens known as the choragic monument of Lysicrates (335 BC).
This order was used as a decorative variant of the Ionic, the difference lying
almost entirely in the column capital. It was first used only for internal
colonnade (externally colonnade was a Hellenistic development).
The distinctive capital is much deeper than the Ionic being about 1/ 6 diameter
high. It may be a combination of bell shaped Egyptian Capital and the
Assyrian Spiral. The usual type has a deep inverted bell, the lower part of
which is surrounded by two tiers of eight acanthus leaves.

Example: The Temple of the Sybil in Rome

COMPARISON STUDY OF GREEK ORDERS

Features Doric Ionic Corinthian

Nature Plain, powerful looking, Feminine and elegant Maiden
masculine and robust
Order Natural order of Doric Display more refinement Oriental
race, strong and richly ornamented decorations
Column Height lower than Ionic Higher and slender Comparatively
Height high
1
Base No base Base / 2 D Base l/2 D
Shaft 20 flutes with sharp 24 flutes with alternate Have flutes
arrises fillets
Capital Plain in nature More elaborate/ornament Very elaborate,
abacus and echinus decorated with
acanthus leaves
Architrave Single molded stone Divided into three flat Divided
beam strips fasciae
Freeze with triglyph/metope Usually plain/sometimes Plain
decorative
Cornice Ornaments in soffit Plain simple as in frieze Plain
Sloped Sloped Flat
Materials Timber/Stone Stone only Stone

PROPORTION OF GREEK ORDER (HEIGHT)

Order Column (based in D) Entablature Entablature/Column

Doric 7 2 2/7
Ionic 9 2 1/5
Corinthian 10 2.25 1/4

EXAMPLES OF GREECE ARCHITECTURE

• Temple,
• Monuments,
• Tombs,
• Theaters,
• Stadium,
• Gymnasium,
• Many public buildings, and
• Gateway in cities of Greece

The Moslem of Halicicarness is one of the famous tombs (Seven Wonders of the
World). Domestic building of Greece resembled the palaces in general
arrangement with only one storey. The arrangement of rooms was grouped
around an internal courtyard or Peristyle. The Greece Theater consisted of
orchestra pit, auditorium and stage. They were unroofed and intended to use
only during daytime.
These theaters were located on slope of all hills near the city to achieve the
object of tiers of scat cuts out of the solid rock. The Greek temples are quite
regular and symmetrical. There were rear and front porticos with flanking
colonnades. These were characterized by the general absence of windows. The
entrance door was generally on the center of the east wall so that morning sun
lights the statute in the Naos. .

SANCTUARIES AND TEMPLES

The Greek recognized separate areas as sacred to a god, both in their towns and
villages, and in the surrounding countryside, some were on older occupied sites
and some were chosen because of natural distinctions such as proximity of a
spring. In some places, sanctuaries were in walled citadels (fortresses), though
most cities the major sanctuary was not in the town at all, but outside in the
countryside. Unless they were in a citadel, the sanctuaries were rarely walled
and formal gateway was infrequent.

In Eastern Greece, certain low lying Sanctuaries Hera at Samos and Artemis on
Ephesus were probably used for cult practices inherited by the Greek settlers
from earlier inhabitants. Sanctuaries of Hera at Samos and at Argos were the
temples outside the countryside.

Even if it was not needed for religious practice, all sanctuaries of any size
always included a temple. Sanctuaries contained more than one temple and
included those of lesser importance than the principal building, such as the
temples of Artijmid in the Sanctuary of Asklepis at Epidaurus. Altar was often
monumental, generally rectangular with architectural motifs and mouldings such
as Triglyph, Metope and Frieze.

Evolution of Greek Temple

History reveals that shrines/temple buildings were virtually nonexistent during

Dark Age around 3000-1200 BC. Deities lived in open space, probably on the
hilltop. A number of huge palaces were there, but somewhere around 8th century
BC, with the downfall of kingship in the mainland Greece, large numbers of
temples were constructed. Divinities took place which concerned with Human
Form.

The development of Greek temples took place in three overlapping stages:

1. The first stage belongs to the very simple stage of housing the Deity in a
simple structure. Apsidal Chapel is the proper name given to such
structure, where there was a simple cult room or hearth and no distinct
structure no decorations.

2. The second stage being the experimental stage during this stage lot of
innovations was done in temple architecture. The Megaron structure of
first stage is now enclosed with peristyle. It is believed that the Megaron
concept came from Near east/Anatolia, basically from Troy. This Megaron
consists of two units of space. During this stage columns were added
 alongside of the Megaron increasing span of Sanctuary with Megaron
intact.
3. In the third and final stage of development new construction materials
were used in temple construction. In this stage timber being substituted to
stone and terracotta tile (might have imported from Egypt) for roofing
changed the whole form of Temple. With the change of timber column into
stone. The angle of inclination of the pediment also changed (less degree
of inclination) when terracotta tiles were introduced because of its weight.

Temple Architecture of Greece:

The principal type of Classical Greek building was Temple (original Greek
Architectural form). The basic elements of which were the columns. Entablature
and the Pitched roof with details refined over time to produce a bold yet simple
unity of design, decoration to expose rather than to hide the structure.

Recorded development in Architecture started somewhere from 7th century BC

following the basic concept of their ancestor. Their concepts include the concept
of Proportion and Harmony that still influence the Western architecture theory.

Each city had their own Gods/Immortals like:

• Samos with Hera

• Ephesus with Arthemis
• Corinth with Apollo
• Athens with Athena

By the Classical period these Temples varied in details.

• Simple rectangular building to hold statue of a god

• The statue stood in the Cella or Naos (width limited to span of timber roof)
• Inner colonnades made wider rooms possible
• Side walls usually extended forward to form Portico, so traditional
Megaron survives Prostyle - portico, porches in all but smallest buildings
was embellished with columns.

Conventional description of number of columns consists of a Greek numeral plus

the word 'style' (stylos, the Greek for column). Destyle (2) tetrastyle (4) hexastyle
(6) octastyle (8) decastyle (10) and the following tristyle (3) pentastyle (5)
heptastyle (7) enncastyle (9) are unusual and found chiefly in early building of 6th
Century BC. Destyle temples were smaller and common with only a couple
columns in the front. When column surrounds the building, the number of
columns increased to at least 6. The columns on the length were usually twice
the number in front plus one (making them an odd number on middle entrance
on the side is shown by the odd number of columns).

Externally temples were made larger and more impressive by using double rows
of external columns (dipteral) or even 3 rows (tripteral) along each end. The outer
colonnade might be spaced as though there were second internal rows, which is
in fact omitted (Pseudodipteral). Colonnaded false porches in nonperipheral
temples are rare and restricted to prostyle examples - the temple of Athena Nike
on the Athenian Acropolis.

Temple Architecture begins with the selection of appropriate site, generally built
away from the city in the countryside mostly in hillside which provide natural
platform for temple. Each and every mountain in Greece has got its own religious
significance and is related to different myth. Special feature of temple
architecture are:

• They exposed structural parts (column)

• Stylobate expressed the foundation
• Columns/lintels give the principal vertical and horizontal construction
members.
• The pediment at each end of column indicate roof and serve as a
dominant feature.

Factors affecting Temple Architecture:

Basis form of the matured mainland temple is the Megaron. Greek derived this
concept from Anatolia (Troy) with certain modification like addition of Peristyle.
Topography, early temples were built on the grounds of former Mycenaean
palaces.

Doric Temples:

• Temple of Atremis at Corfu (600 BC)

• 2nd Temple of Hera at Samos (7th century BC)
• Parthenon at Athens (5th century BC)
• The Herain at Olympia (590 BC)
• Temple of Apollo at Corinth and Delphi (540 and 510 BC)
• Temple of Zeus at Olympia (460 BC)
• Temple of Aphaia at Aegina (500 BC)
• Temple Poseidon at Sounion (440-144 BC)
• The Athenian temple to Apollo at Delos (426 BC)
• Temple of Apollo at Epicurus (425 BC)
• Temple of Asklepios at Epidaurus

Ionic Temples:

• Archau Temple of Artemis (560 BC)

• Temple of Hera at Samos (575 BC)
• Temple of Hissus at Athens (449 BC)
• Temple of Erechtheion, Acropolis Athens (420-409 BC)
• Later Temple of Artemis (356 BC)
• Temple of Athenapolias, Priene (334 BC)

Corinthian Temples:

It appeared in 5th century BC as a decorative variant of the Ionic and was used
only for interior column.
ACROPOLIS AT ATHENS

Acropolis at Athens is the supreme example of a Greek sanctuary. Originally it

was a citadel with massive fortifications having western entrance gate flanked by
a projecting base lion fortifications used till 6th century BC. A palace like was on
the summit and late destroyed.

By 8th century BC, an altar was placed on its highest point, with a temple of
Athena, rebuilt and improved many times. The core of this temple became a
double Cella.

One part was facing east, the other (an anteroom) facing west with two side by
side inner rooms with tetra style (prostyle) porches at each end. By 7th century
BC there was a peripheral colonnade in Doric orders. This temple was rebuilt in
525 BC but burnt by the Persians in 480 BC.

Around 490 BC plans were made to redo the Acropolis and some things were
begun but then burned and destroyed by the Persians. When the Persians
withdrew, the Athenians tidied the ruins. When the Persians accepted peace in
499 BC, the work was renewed.

Consists of basically three main structures

a) Parthenon
b) Propylaea
c) Erechtheion
TEMPLE - PARTHENON

Main Building on the Acropolis

was the revived large temple
of Athena The Parthenon was
started in 477 BC and
completed in 136 BC. The
existing south foundations
were reused, but the temple
was made wider by extending
towards the center of the
Acropolis. Facade now has 8
instead of 6 columns with 17
along the sides. Architects
were Architect Ictinus and Callicrates and it is not known how the work was
shared. Phidias was the master sculptor and may have been involved with
supervision of the works on the Acropolis.

It was 3 conventional steps and the previous foundation platform are visible on
the west, south and east sides of the building. Dimensions at the top step are
30.9 m x 69 m (101 ft x 228 ft). The step with a height of 508 mm (20") were too
high to use so intermediate steps were provided at the center of each of the short
sides for entrance. The Cella consisted of two rooms end to end with hexastyle
prostyle porches. Easter room was 29.8 m x 19.2 m, with internal Doric
colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the timber roofs. Inside
was the huge gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenon (constructed by
Phidias). Ceiling was of wood, painted and decorated. Light was admitted, as
normally in Greek temples, only through the doorway when the great doors were
opened. To the west, with its own porch, was a square chamber, the Parthenon
or Virgin's chamber, a place for valuable offering. Roof was supported by a group
of four Ionic columns. Open spaces were closed by metal grilles.

On the exterior the Doric columns measure 1.9 m diameter and are 10.4 m high
approximately 5.5 times the diameter. The corner columns are slightly larger in
diameter, with their spacing reduce to make it possible for the frieze to conform
to the rule that it must terminate with a triglyph.

Parthenon is the best example in Greek temple architecture of the practice of

optical refinement.

The later history of the Parthenon is mixed in the late 6th century AD. The
Parthenon was converted into a Christian church. Construction of semicircular
wall at the eastern end damaged some of the original building. From 1204- 1458
AD, it served as a Latin church and then the Turkish conquerors made it into a
mosque. During the siege of Athens by the Venetians in 1687 AD an explosion
from storage of gun power caused considerable damage; fortunately drawings
had been made before the explosion. The north colonnade was restored 1921-
1929 AD but the use of steel reinforcements and the increased atmospheric
pollution of Athens are causing considerable damage to the structure nowadays.
PROPYLAEA (ENTRY GATE TO ACROPOLIS COMPLEX)

It was "H" shaped entrance gate, burnt many times. After treaty with Persians in
440 BC, the work was restarted. In the new construction of the Acropolis, the
entryway was on the east west axis of Acropolis. Entry was by a flight of 7 steps.
The exterior columns were Doric hexastyle prostyle. The inner halls had different
roof levels supported by two rows of three Ionic columns. The ceiling and much
of the structure was marble. The north side has one rectangular room (formal
dinning room with wall painting and picture gallery). The architect was
Menesicles. The building was started in 436 BC and left incomplete at the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC. Temple of Athena Nike is located
on the south of Propyalea. Interesting features of this gate is that it is built from
separate building masses, each with its own roof.

ERECHTHEION (SECOND TEMPLE AT ACROPOLIS)

The second temple at

Athens - Erechtheion is
very unique in character.
There is replacement of
old temple (statue
Athena). The architect is
not known (probably
Menesicles students).
Construction was started
in 412 BC and completed
406 BC. The site is not
flat, so there are Cella in
two levels (east higher than west). East part has hexastyle porch (column height
6.6 m), whereas the West end of south side has a low porch projection at ground
level. There are no columns, but statues of young girls maidens (the caryatids).
Lower ground Ionic is on north porch. On the west, there is the sanctuary of
Pandrosus.
Propylaea
 Erechtheion

Naos - principal chamber in Greek temple, containing the statue of the deity.
Cella - chief apartment of a temple, where the image of god stood.
CLASSICAL CITY: ATHENS

Athens was a typical old Greek city. It was a maze of wandering unpaved lanes
lacking drainage and sanitation. There were few public or prominent buildings,
with similar housing for most citizens. Houses presented blank walls, with
random streets and opened to central courtyards with rooms surrounding. High
places became place for temples. A market agora was the central shopping area.
Street layout was mostly from unplanned growth and random development. The
atmosphere of philosophical and intellectual investigation impelled a search for
order in the city. Hippodamos advanced theory of "Grid-iron" street system. This
became common in other places, but Athens was too established to tear down
and start again.

CLASSICAL DESIGNED TOWN: MILETUS AND PRIENE (1500 BC-500 AD)

It was based on "Grid-Iron layout" for ideological reasons and later for solar
heating reasons. Miletus was in rigid grid but not in solar layout. By the 5th
century BC, many parts of Greece were almost totally denuded of trees. Pluto
compared the hills and mountains of his native Attica to the bones of a wasted
body. In 4th century BC, Athenians banned the use of olive wood for making
charcoal. Athens's fuel supply came from 800 km away on the shores of the
Black Sea. Solar heating homes were positive response to energy shortage.
Houses and whole cities were oriented to take advantage of winter sun.

Classical Greek towns were usually of small size and fixed number of residents
(5000-10000). After reaching its size a satellite town was built. Plagued by
constant flooding, the 40000 residents of the old city of Priene (Greek City in
present day Turkey) decided to abandon the town in the safety of nearby Mount
Mycale. The city planner devised a way to use the same Olynthian street plan on
Mycale's steep slopes - the main avenues were terraced along the contours of
the rocky spur in the east west axis, while the secondary streets ran up the
mountain from north to south. Due to the sharp incline, many of the secondary
streets were actually staircase rather than roads. Solar architecture was also a
prime concern to Classical Greek builders. The best design for the solar houses
was the basis for the design of the whole city - a concept not seen again for 2400
years.

URBAN ARCHITECTURE

A classical Greek city was either a result of continuous growth from long
prehistoric period, or the creation of a single moment, usually the result of
colonial settlement. Former had streets following lines of communication curving
and bending where necessary to avoid obstacles or ease gradients; the latter
generally had grid plane with straight streets crossing at right angles, ignoring
obstacles and becoming stairways, where the gradients were too steep.

Towns always had fixed boundaries. By 6th century BC some had fortifications;
later frequent, even when no walls demarcation between interior and exterior was
clear. Temples may be outside and graves usually outside. There were
sometimes suburban or rural farmhouses, but generally the public preferred the
safety and companionship of urban settlements.

Much area was devoted to public rather than private use such as the gathering
place - Agora, placed on flat ground easily accessible from all direction. Coastal
cities sometimes put agora by the harbor. The Agora is not just a marketplace,
but a public forum for all inhabitants and on all days, a bustling place that served
as the democratic alternative to the two great organizing facts of non-Greek
cities, the temple precinct and the palace complex. It was a place for public
speeches, citizen's assembly shows, as well as social and commercial activity.
The market place was surrounded by public buildings, which were formal and
monumental, without enclosing it.

Stoa is as distinctive a Greek building type as is the temple and much more
flexible in form and function. It came to use about the same time as the full-blown
stone temple in the late 7th century BC. Its first role was in the context of
sanctuaries. It was a free standing portico, modest in materials and structure but
able to serve a number of loosely related functions - shelter from the weather,
overnight accommodation for pilgrims and patients who were brought to the
sanctuaries to be healed.

Stoa was soon secularized and became a common urban feature. By 5th century
BC, stoa was substantial stone buildings containing notable programs for public
art. New functions came to be identified with them. Public sessions of the courts
(occasionally city council) were held there; official banquets given; public notices
displayed in the walks around. The stoas were frequented visited by students of
human behavior like Zeno of school of philosophy. It was quite naturally a place
where people lingered; shopped and browsed.
The external portico, intermediate space between the indoors and outdoors, was
common enough in the Bronze Age but there it always functioned as the
extension of another building. The continuous colonnade of peripheral temple is
a Greek example of the same practice. But the stoa was a building in its own
right, a covered portico of sufficient length and width, usable by number of people
on its own or in conjunction with others of its kind. The stoa gave formal shape to
a piece of open space by providing a definite edge that was nevertheless 'soft'
and capable of absorbing some of the public activity of the open space. Stoas
constitute some of the finest products of Greek architectural genius. They were
genuinely populist expression of monumental architecture, intended for the
common good and were often financed through private contribution.

The stoa consists of a long row of posts, a wide aisle behind and back wall. It is
covered with a flat or ridged roof. There is no separate ceiling. The interior view
opens to the rafters. This basic form was elaborated in several ways, often the
interior space was divided into two aisles by means of inner row of supports, a
line of single bay shops opened out from the back wall; wings extended at right
angles to the two ends and by the 4th century BC, stoas were columns of the
Doric or Ionic, other depending on the location, at least until the middle of the 5th
century. From then on, Doric was preferred everywhere for the outer colonnade
even in Ionian states. In case of two aisled stoas, until the 4th century, the inner
colonnade repeated the order of the Ionic order. It was also seen on the
Acropolis, in the interior of the Propylaea and the back porch of the Parthenon.
The introduction of the Ionic order in this premier city of the Doric mainland was
undoubtedly in part an aesthetic choice. But it must also have been political:
Athens claimed leadership over Ionian states as well as peninsular Greece. In
two- aisled stoas, an Ionic inner colonnade also responded to the architectural
convenience. This colonnade had to be taller than that of the facade in order to
reach up and support the roof. The accepted proportions of the Doric order with
the height of the column shaft about 5.5 times the lower diameter, in the 5th
century BC required that an inner row of Doric columns be substantially larger in
diameter so that it could reach higher than the outer row. Thus inhibiting the
useable space; or else, there had to be two super imposed tiers of columns, a
system tolerable in temple cellas where the few runs lengthwise but quite
unsatisfactory in stoas where one would encounter the two storied. The slenderer
proportions of the Ionic order 9 to 10 diameters in height were a happier solution
to the problem of interior height.

The stoa of the earliest agora in the Hippodamian plan of Miletus, the north agora
was single-aisled and I-shaped. This one district architectural corner sufficed to
set the scale of the public space and blind it to the harbor. The colonnade
afforded an impressive urban frontispiece to incoming vessels. The row of shops
was backed by a smaller stoa, also I shaped plan presented two problems the
juncture of roofs at the corner and the meeting of the lines of entablature on the
corner column. At Miletus the first problem was solved by choosing to use flat
roofs which were easier to reconcile at right angles than ridge roofs. The other
difficulty was chiefly aesthetic- the accommodation of two triglyphs over the same
column of the reentrant angle. It gave rise here to the invention of the heart
shaped pier made of two half columns attached to adjacent faces of a square
pillar.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

INFLUENCES

Geographical

The central and commanding position of Italy in the Mediterranean Sea enabled
Rome to act as an intermediary in spreading art and civilization over Europe,
Western Asia and North Africa. The methods adopted by Rome for extending its
influence differed from those of Greece. The Romans were not a seafaring
people like the Greeks, and depended for the extension of their power, not on
colonization, but on conquest. The Roman Empire was not only confined
geographically to Italy, but included all those parts of Europe, North Africa and
Western Asia which constituted the then-known world.

Geological

The Romans took very great pains to exploit natural resources to the full. The
geological formation of Italy differs from that of Greece, where the chief and
almost the only building materials are stone and marble; whereas in addition to
these, the Romans could procure suitable earths for the making of Terracotta
and brick, the latter very extensively used, even for important buildings. In the
neighborhood of Rome, building stones included Tufa, of varying degrees of
hardness, from calcareous deposits in Rome itself and immediate vicinity;
Peperino, a stone of volcanic origin from Mount Albano; Travertine, a hard
limestone of fine quality from Trivoli; lava from volcanic eruptions; besides
excellent sand and gravel. The building materials however which led to great
structural innovations was concrete, formed of stone or brick rubble and a mortar
of which the important ingredient was pozzolana, a volcanic earth, found in thick
strata in and around Rome and in the region of Naples. Enormous quantity of
white and colored marbles was imported from all parts of the Empire to special
wharves on the Tiber.

Climatic

North Italy has the climate of the temperature region of Europe; Central Italy is
genial and sunny, while the south is almost tropical. This variety of climatic
conditions is sufficient to account for diversity of architectural features and
treatment in the peninsula itself, while the differing climates of the various Roman
provinces produced local modifications in details, though Roman architectural
character was as pronounced and assertive as to leave little choice in general
design.
Historical and Social

From its legendary foundation 753 BC and throughout the 6th century BC Rome
was little more than an insignificant hill town in South Etruria. It was under
Etruscan domination and ruled by Etruscan Kings, aided by a form of popular
assembly. Towards the close of the 6th century BC, Etruscan supremacy began
to decline and fall. The declaration and development of a constitutional republic
and civil service are indicative of Roman characteristics; they were great
organizers, thrifty, patient farmer-soldiers, dutiful to authority and the law and
concerned with efficiency and justice.

The Romans began to conquer peoples outside Italy. The prolonged and often
desperate wars had a deleterious effect on the Roman personality and on
constitutional government. The economic and social dislocations led to the drift of
refugees and the dispossessed to Rome, producing social unbalance and class
strife which with the acquisition of territories and the beginning of Empire
overwhelmed and broke the system of government devised for a city state.
These troubles are further aggravated by the problems of maintaining large
standing armies serving for a long campaign in distant territories - a citizen
soldiery had to be transformed into a professional army, the reform and control of
which was exasperated ineffective republican government and gave rise to a
succession of military dictatorships of which Julius Caesar is the most famous.

The social life of the Romans is clearly revealed in their architecture. There were
thermae for bathing and games, circuses for races, amphitheatres for gladiatorial
contests, theatres for drama, basilicas for Lawsuits, state Temples for religion
and the apartment house or the "Domus" for family life, while the forum was
everywhere the centre of public life and national commerce. Amidst all this
diversity of pursuits, one constant trait runs through all Roman life, the capacity
for obedience which was the basis alike to society and the state. The "Patria -
Potestas" or supreme power of the father, was the foundation stone of family life,
and out of their obedience to authority, whether to the head .of the household, or
to censors in the state, the Romans developed their capacity as lawmakers.
Based on slavery, and aristocratic in origin, the Roman system lacked a strong
middle class. Roman women were held in high respect, family life was protected
and the Temple of Vesta. The most sacred spot in Rome, has recorded for all
time. The sacredness attached by the Romans to their family hearth.

Religious

Since the Romans were originally a mixed people, their polytheistic religion was
the fusion of several cults, but owed most to the Etruscans who involved a
scrupulous attention to ritual, to conformity, and to the will of the gods in a
Fatalistic acceptance of their domination. In the course if time many of the chief
Roman gods acquired similar attributes to those of the Greeks, but retained their
lain names and rites. Religious feelings had not so strong a hold on the Romans
as on the Greeks, and did not enter into the life of the people to the same degree
nor do find that it formed a bond of union among the different provinces of the
Empire. Dissatisfaction with state religion showed itself from time to time in the
introduction to Rome of alien cults from Egypt and the Near East.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Date Rulers/Periods Prominent Architecture

1000 BC Etruscan Period (900-509 BC) Hanging Garden of Babylon and
Rome founded (753 BC) Ziggurats
500 BC Early Roman Period Traditional date for the founding of
(509-273 BC) Rome. Agricultural settlements on
the Palatine hill.
300 BC Republic Period (273-27 BC) (753 BC)
First Punic War (264-241 BC) First appearance of Concrete and
Second Punic War (218-202 BC) Concrete Blocks
Third Punic War and the conquest of First paved road, via Appia (312
Greece (149-146 BC) BC)
Julius Caesar (49-44 BC) First appearance of the Arch form
Octavian, Mark Anthony and Lepidus in Roman area
(43-36 BC)
Civil War and the End of the Republic
(133-31 BC)
Imperial Period (27 BC - 217 AD)
Caesar Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD)
0 Birth of Christ
Tiberus (14-37 AD)
Caligula (37-41 AD)
Cladins (41 - 54 AD)
Nero (54 - 68 AD)
Flavian Dynsaty (68-96 AD)
Vespasion (68-79 AD)
Titus (79-81 AD)
Volcano destroys Pompeii (79 AD)
Domitian (81-96 AD)
Nerva (96-98 AD)
Trajan (98-117 AD)
100 AD Hadrian (117-138 AD)
Antonimus Pills (138-161 AD)
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD)
Barbarian (180-192 AD)
Septimius (192-211 AD)
Caracalla (211-217 AD)
200 AD Decline Empire Period
(217-476 AD)
Diocletian (283-305 AD)
Multiple Capitals
Constantine becomes Christian
Eastern Capital of Constantinople
Christianity only religion of Empire
Sacking of Rome (410 AD)
Fall of Rome (476 AD)
500 AD Goth Odoacer rules Rome
(476-490 AD)
Ostrogoth Theodoric
(490-526 AD)
INTRODUCTION

Rome began as a village on the banks of River Tibres. The traditional date of its
foundation was 753 BC, when it was supposed to have been founded by
Romulus (Latin tribes), who gave the new settlement his name.

It was certainly inhabited sometimes soon after 1000 BC. Roman gradually
became the leader of the nearby villages, which were formed into “Latin League”.
Somewhere in 6th century BC, foreigners called Etruscan Dynasty from the north
conquered Rome and began to rule. They were expelled in 510 BC and Rome
became Republic. The period from 509-273 BC is termed as Early Roman
period.

The new Republic took sometime to regain the position of strength that had been
under the Kings. During this period, Republic was ruled by two elected councils
or magistrate, chosen from the Patricians (Rich People). They were helped by
various assemblies (leading family was member assemblies). Citizens, called the
Plebians, struggled for centuries to gain equal rights and by 187 BC, they won
the struggle (officially called the Tribunals, protected their right). Rome was one
of the early state of have detailed code of law. The twelve tables, Roman’s first
written laws, were set down in 451-450 BC.

After 450 BC, Romans began to expand. By 270 BC, it had established its power
throughout Italy up to the north. The conquest of Sicily brought Rome conflict
with Cartage (North Africa). Romans believed in extension of power through
conquest and not on colonizing like Greece. Roman began to conquer other
lands in the seashore of the Mediterranean and enlarged their territory up to
Spain in the west, North Africa, Gauls, southern provision of Greece and parts of
Asia Minor.

The central and commanding position of Italy on Mediterranean Sea enabled

Rome in spreading Art/Civilization over Europe.

RISE OF REPUBLIC ROME

• First Punic War (264-241 BC) - Annexed Sicily

• Second Punic War (218-202 BC) - Civil war, bitter struggle for survival
• Third Punic War (149 -146 BC) - Roman Province in Africa

Major parts of Asia incorporated in the Roman Empire by 133 BC. During 64 BC,
Roma has conquered Spain, extended empire to west and conquest of Syria
extended the empire to the Euphrates in the east.

After this period there was a series of civil war due to the expansion of Empire.
The citizen grew richer and old Roman way of life worsened (cheaper corn were
imported from the North Africa). A century of civil war took place for power
struggle. Julius Caesar (49-44 BC), a military dictator, become more successful
and victorious. His brilliant campaigns in Gauls (58-49 BC) established northern
frontiers with Rhine (German) and English Channel. He wanted to call himself a
king and was murdered in 44 BC, giving a further period of confusion and civil
wars.
After his death, Octavian (nephew of Caesar and Marcus Lepidus) attempts to
revive Republic in 31 BC; Octavian took control over Rome and proceeded to
add Egypt to the Empire.

IMPERIAL ROME

Octavian reestablished order and run the empire. He became emperor by the
name Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) which also is called Augustion age, might be
compared with the Pericle age in ancient Greece (6th century-5th century BC). He
revitalized the national life which were expressed in construction of new building
and established the internal peace in Rome which is known as "Pax Romana"
(17-180 AD). He never formally established dynasty rule, but for next half
century, he was succeeded by his family clan members and become the Imperial
throne.

• Tiberus (14-37 AD)

• Caligula (37-41 AD)
• Cladins (41-54 AD)
• Nero (54-68 AD)

Somewhere in 64 AD, a great fire destroyed large part of Rome. After Nero's
suicide, an army commander, Vespasion (68-79 AD), restored the order and
founded Flavian Dynasty (68-96 AD). After him, his son Titus (79-81 AD) and his
son Domitian (81-96 AD) ruled Rome. The frontiers were expanded further to
Britain and Illirium (Yugoslavia). In the mean time, Jewish revolted and he also
sacked Jerusalem. During his period Pompeii, a Herculaneum city was destroyed
by eruption of Vesavius. The murder of Domitian ended the dynastic rule and
then new emperor was adopted by the Senate. Then the country was ruled by:

• Nerva (96-98 AD)

• Trajan (98-117 AD) - Spain guard
• Hadrian (117-138 AD) - Spain guard
• Antonimus Pills (138-161 AD) - Nimes, France
• Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD)

This resigns were collectively known as Antonium Age and during this the period,
the importance of province was of superior. Trajan and Hadrian were the two
great emperors after Augustus. The era came to end by plague on barbarian in
road on the Danube frontiers (180-192 AD).

The decline of Western Roman Empire (Foundation of Constantinople)

The 3rd century AD was political confusion, civil wars with barbarians in road to
the frontiers and economical instability brought by the cost of maintaining large
armies. Stability was restored by Septimius (192-211 AD) in North Africa and his
son Caracalla (211-217 AD). But this did not last after Caracalla was murdered.

From 230 AD, a soldier emperor proclaimed Rome. The economy declined and
social life was increasingly disrupted. This decline was stemmed by the drastic
reformed of Illirium (Diocletian) (283-305 AD) with new bureaucracy.
Decentralization was introduced, which weakened the power of Rome by setting
new capitals in Nicomedia, Siramium, Salonika, Milan and Tiers. Diocletian ruled
eastern Roman Empire from Nicomedia, with western emperor in Milan, and
assistants in Sirmium and Tier. Rivalries between their successors led to civil war
and Constantine finally emerged victorious in the west in 312 AD and East in 324
AD. From 324-337 AD till his death, he was a single Emperor and established a
new dynasty. He followed Diocletian's policy of decentralization and divided the
empire with 4 prefectures. Around 313 AD he recognized Christianity as a
religion and chose to rule from east, and chose Nicomedia as capital - Byzantia
(Byzantium in Greece) and inaugurated in 331 AD. He formed a new Rome
known as Constantinople, but the city of Constantinople did not last long. The
formal first partition was done in 364 AD with west Valantion Emperor and his
brothers Valerus on the east.

The Odorius the great (379-395 AD) tried to make a single empire. But after his
death, west was increasingly cut off from the new richer/more popular east. In
407 AD, Rhine frontiers were breached and barbarians occupied Gaul, serving
the line of communication with Britain in 408 AD. The Goths under Aleric invaded
Rome and sacked western province including North Africa. The last emperor in
the west, Romulus Augustus, was deported by the 6th Odacer (476-490 AD).
Christianity became the solo religion of the empire in 391 AD.

The Easter Empire for Theodosius to Justinian

From the beginning, the city grew slowly and by 6th century AD, the city
developed house (over 500,000 inhabitants). After the final partition in 395 AD,
this empire is known as Byzantium (derived from the early Greek name of the city
by Byzantium).

Eastern empire was more fortune than west is being lesser subject to the
pressure of attack of barbarian tribe from the north. But some pressure was felt
on the Balkan. A chief treat was posed by the Persians empire to tile east.

Greatest of Byzantine emperor Justinian (52-65 AD) attempted to reunify the

whole empire by the request of west and came near to success wining back
Spain/West Africa. But due to long war, economy was suffered and there was
also damage by plague, which caused great loss of life.

Byzantine Empire after Justinian

Justinian successors had to concentrate on defending the eastern Balkan

frontiers. As a result northern/central Italy, southern Spain and much of North
Africa were soon lost to Lambard, Goths and Barbarians. Herculus (610-641 AD)
carried out to reform and meet new situations. Alter his death, Damascus fell in
631 AD and whole Syria was lost soon afterwards. Arabs raided Jerusalem,
North Africa, Egypt and Asia Minor. Herculus Empire was reduced to half its size.
The Constantinople, through Thabese, was captured by Ottoman Sultanate
around 13th century AD and the city fell completely into Sultan Mohammed II in
1453 AD.
ARCHITECTURE CHARACTERISTICS

The Roman adopted the columnar and trabeated style of the Greeks and
developed arch, vault and dome of the Etruscans. This combined use of
columns, beams and arches was the keynote of the Roman style in its early
stages.

The Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders were used by changing the heights. The
Romans added the Tuscan and Composite Orders making five orders in all. The
Tuscan order is a simplified version of Doric order, about 7 diameters high, with a
base, unfluted shaft, simple moulded capital and plain entablature. The
Composite order has a capital, which is a combination of the Corinthian and Ionic
capital. It was used largely in Triumphal arches.

Tuscan order
 Composite order

Roman adopted Greek method of using large stone blocks without mortars but
their practical mind eventually hit open greater economy of materials by the use
of concrete (made out of Pazzolenna mixed with line).

Besides many colored marble, cement and stucco were used to wall surfaces
and polished mosaic on vaults and floors. Characters of Roman Architecture
depend largely on the extensive use of vaulting, which was standardized as a
structural system.

The various vaults used in Roman buildings were as follows:

A. Roman Wagon Vault

It was semicircular or wagon-headed vault otherwise known as the Barrel or

Tunnel vault. It was borne throughout its length on the two parallel walls of a
rectangular apartment.
B. Roman Wagon Vault with Intersecting Vault

C. Cross-Vault

It is formed by the intersection of two semi-circular vaults of equal span, was

used over a square apartment-and the pressure was taken by the four angles.
When cross-vaults were used over long halls or corridors, the hall was divided by
piers into square bays, each of which was covered with a cross-vault. This is
allowed of the insertion of windows in the upper part of the walls, as in the central
hall of the Thermae of Caracalla. The Lines of intersection of these cross-vaults
are known as "Groins".

The principal buildings were not only temples as in Greece but also public
buildings which materially express the Roman's Ruler and Imperial power.
They developed many Entertainment Buildings for their citizens:

• Thermae - for games/gymnasium/sports center in modern

concept
• Theater - for plays
• Circus - for races
• Amphitheaters - display of mortal combat (Bloody fight)

They also developed Basilica (Justice Hall), Forum for mass gathering/ market
place/ political public meeting place (like Agora in ancient Greece) and Domus
(village house). Besides these they also built many Triumphal gates (Arch to
honor victory in war), Victory Pillar and Tombs. They are very good engineers,
which reflects in the construction of bridges, roads and aqueducts.
EXAMPLES

1. TEMPLES:

• Very similar to Greek temple form and more as developed in the later
period (Greco-Roman temples)
• Doric temple by theatre in Popu peii represent Greek Phase
• Temple of Apollo on west side of Forum Ionic peristyle with frontally
approached. Temple on very high podium. Hybrid creation that looks
Greek but acts Italian.
• Corinthian temple to Jupiter typifies official Roman temple
• Rectangular, circular (Pantheon), Polygonal plan of Temples

ETRUSCAN PERIOD

(A) ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (5th century BC)

• timber construction

(B) CAPITOLINE TEMPLE, Rome (6th century BC)

• dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva

• also called the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
LATE REPUBLIC/EARLY IMPERIAL ROME

(A) TEMPLE OF HERCULES, Cori (late 2nd century BC)

• Example of Early Republican

Doric

(B) TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, Rome (late 2nd century BC)

• Ionic order

(C) MAISON CARREE, Nimes, France (1-10 AD)

• Best preserved Roman temple

• Corinthian order
• Porch has column six in Romans (Hexastyle)
• High podium
(D) The round temple on the FORUM BOARIUM Rome (1st century BC)

• An important temple (technical achievement)

IMPERIAL ROMAN from Tiberius to Hadrian

• Remarkable/varieties of shapes adopted for temples/structure

(A) TEMPLE OF JUPITER, Lebanon (1st century AD)

• Roman characters with Greek peripetral plan having 10 columns on

front and two rows of columns 19 numbers on sides
(B) TEMPLE OF DIANA, Nimes (134 AD)

• Pavilion type, with barrel vaults

(C) THE PANTHEON, Rome (118-128 AD)

The building is circular with a portico of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian
columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment
opening into the rotunda, under a coffered, concrete dome, with a central
opening (oculus), the Great Eye, open to the sky. A rectangular structure links
the portico with the rotunda. In the walls at the back of the portico were niches,
for statues of Caesar, Augustus and Agrippa.

The 5,000 metric ton weight of the dome is concentrated on a ring of voussoirs
9.1 m (30 ft) in diameter which form the oculus while the downward thrust of the
dome is carried by eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 m (21 ft) thick drum wall into 8
piers. The thickness of the dome varies from 6.4 m (21 ft) at the base of the
dome to 1.2 m (4 ft) around the oculus. The height to the oculus and the diameter
of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 m (142.5 ft), so the whole interior would fit
exactly within a cube. The dome was the largest in Western Europe until
Brunelleschi's dome of the Duomo of Florence was completed in 1436.

The interior of the roof was probably intended to symbolize the arched vault of
the heavens. The Great Eye at the dome's apex is the source of all light and is
symbolic of the sun. The oculus also serves as a cooling and ventilation method.
The interior features sunken panels (coffers), which reduce the weight of the roof,
as well as the elimination of the apex by means of the Great Eye. The top of the
rotunda wall features a series of brick-relieving arches, visible on the outside and
built into the mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such devices - for
example, there are relieving arches over the recesses inside, but all these arches
were, of course, originally hidden by marble facing. The lower parts of the interior
of the Pantheon are richly decorated in colored marbles; the coffered upper parts
are unadorned concrete.
IMPERIAL ROMAN from Antoninus to Constantine

(A) THE TEMPLE OF ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA, Rome (141 AD)

• simple Roman form with deep porch leading to cella with high
podium

(B) THE TEMPLE OF VENUS, Rome

(C) THE TEMPLE OF VENUS, Baalbek (3rd century AD)

(D) THE TEMPLE OF VESTA on Forum Romanum, Rome (307-312 AD)

• circular plan (primitive round hut type)

• most sacred shrine in the Imperial city
• differed from rest temple (Fire was kept burning)
2. BRIDGES/ROADS/AQUEDUCT

ROADS

Romans were engineers before they were architects. Extensive Road, which
were different from the Greek, held empire together. The Roman Macrosm (great
universe) differed from Greek Microcosm (miniature universe). Soldier built road
and fought. The first paved road is known to have been via Appia (312 BC). By
end of 2nd century AD, Italian road system was complete and Mediterranean
network planned. Road were 4 m wide, paved with flagstone in successive layer
of cement/gravel.

BRIDGES

Bridges had massive piers/tall arches spanned over deep valleys.

• PONS FABRICIUS Rome (62 BC)

• (The oldest surviving Bridges)

• BRIDGES OF AUGUSTUS, Rimini (1st century AD)

• ACCANTRA BRIDGE (106 AD)

• Six Arch of different size, central arch 27 m diameter

• Architect Gaius Julius Lacor

• TRAJAN'S BRIDGE Alcantara (105-106 AD) - Superior Bridge

• PONS AELIUS, Rome (135-139 AD)

AQUEDUCTS

• PONT DU GARD, near Nimes (1st century AD)

• THE AQUA CLAUDIA, Rome (38-52 AD)

• Channels of water supply for the capital

CITY PLANNING

• City plan, ROME (46 BC - 11 AD)

• City plan, POMPU (79 AD)

• TIMGAD ALGERIA (110 AD) - Roman Military Town Planning

3. BUILDING FOR LEISURE/ENTERTAINMENT

(A) THEATRE

MARCELLUS, Rome (23-13 BC)

Roman theatres often adapted from the Greek to suit the Roman drama, and
for this the auditorium, with its tiers of seats one above the other, was
restricted to a semi-circle. The central area at the ground level became part of
the auditorium and was assigned to senators and other dignitaries. The stage
increased in importance and was raised and brought into immediate
connection with the auditorium. Roman theatres were not only hollowed out of
a hill-side but they were also built up by means of concrete vaulting,
supporting tiers of seats, under which were the connecting corridors used for
retreat in case of sudden showers. The tier of seating was semi circle. The
stage was backed by a tall enclosing wall.
(B) CIRCUS

MAXIMUS, Rome (oldest) 1st century BC

The Roman circus, for horse and chariot, was derived from the Greek
hippodrome. It usually has dimension of 604 m x 200 m. Chariot racing was
enormously popular, and vast sums were spent upon the training and selection of
men and horses. Famous chariots were the idols of the day and though risking
life and limb, reaped rich rewards. Four horse chariots were usual, but up to ten
horses are also used. The teams compete with each other. Heavy betting gave
intensity to the popular interest.

(C) AMPHITHEATER

THE COLOSSEUM OR FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATER, Rome (72-80 AD)

The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, is a

giant amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome. It was built on a site just
east of the Roman Forum. The structure, largest Roman amphitheatre, was
begun by Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD and completed by his son, Titus, in 80
AD with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign. The structure
was termed an "amphitheater" or "double-theater" because it was constructed as
two normal semi-circular theaters built to face each other toward a central
performing area in a single building. It was used for gladiatorial contests and
public spectacles.

The Colosseum is in elliptical form (188 m x 156 m). Unlike earlier

amphitheatres, it was an entirely free-standing structure, constructed on flat
ground rather than being built into an existing hillside or natural depression. Its
outer wall originally measured 545 m (1,788 ft) and is estimated to have required
over 100,000 m³ (3,531,466 ft³) of travertine stone held together by 300 tons of
iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with
large segments having collapsed following earthquakes.

The Colosseum could seat up to 55,000-75,000 spectators on four levels of

seating, and like modern arenas, these seating levels were reserved for a
particular category or class. The first level was for the Emperor, Senators and
Vestals. The upper classes sat on the second level. Next were the professional
and business classes; while the top level was for the common people, slaves and
women.

The first level is 34 ft high and the Doric arches are 23 ft high and 14 ft wide.
The second level, in the Ionic order, is 38 ft high and the arches measure 21 ft
high and 14 ft wide. The third level, in the Corinthian style, is 37 ft high with the
arches being 21 ft high and 14 ft wide. The fourth or top level is 45 ft high and
had no arches. On each of the three levels with arches, there were eighty
passageways. The portals at the major axes were the main entrances to the floor
of the arena; while the other two were for the Magistrates (north) and the
Emperor, Senate and Vestals (south) to enter. The exterior and much of the
interior was travertine stone. The blocks were not held together by mortar; but
with pins of iron and other metals.

The arena or floor of the amphitheater was 258 ft long and 150 ft wide. Around
the arena's edge stood the "podium" wall about 15 ft high; which at times, was
topped by a trellis or net to protect the spectators. The wood floor of the central
exhibition area was covered with harena (latin for sand), which gives us the term
"arena" still used today for a large structure intended for the display of sports,
circuses or other large spectacles.

The subterranean areas beneath the arena floor contained everything that was
necessary for the spectacles. Here were the staging areas for the gladiators
along with cages for the wild beasts destined for the show. Mechanical elevators,
ramps and trapdoors were utilized by means of which the gladiators and animals
were made to appear on the surface of the arena from below.

Much of the Colosseum has been used as a source for building materials and
has been removed, what is left gives a feeling of the immensity of the great
achievement of Roman engineering/Architects.
(D) THERMAE OR BATH

It came to be known from the 2nd century BC. Public bath came to symbolize the
essence of the Roman Empire. They began as a bath, exercise yards with
separate bath for men/women with changing rooms (apodyterium). Within the
building there were three rooms - the caldarium (hot), the tepidarium (lukewarm)
and the frigidarium (cold). Sometimes there were also steam baths: the
sudatorium (moist steam bath) and the laconicum (dry steam bath much like a
modern day sauna).

The baths often included, aside from the three main rooms, a palaestra, or
outdoor gymnasium where men would engage in various ball games and
exercises. There weights were lifted and the discus thrown.

I. BATHS OF AGRIPPA

The Baths of Agrippa, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, were the first of the
great thermae constructed in Rome. They were apparently a hot-air bath with a
cold plunge, not unlike a sauna. With the completion of the Aqua Virgo, the
aqueduct completed by Agrippa in 19 BC, the baths were supplied with water
and became regular thermae, with a large ornamental pool attached. He left the
baths to the citizens of Rome at his death, 12 BC.

II. BATH OF CARACALLA, Rome (212-216 AD)

The Baths of Caracalla were built during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The
bath complex covered approximately 13 hectares (33 ac). The bath building was
228 m (750 ft) long, 116 m (380 ft) wide and 38.5 m (125 ft) high, and could hold
an estimated 1,600 bathers. The structure was completely symmetric planning
about principal axis with additional features such as landscaped parks, libraries,
shops, services and pavilions for other uses.

The baths consisted of a central 55 m x 24 m (183 x 79 ft) frigidarium under three

33 m (108 ft) high groin vaults, a double pool tepidarium and a 35 m (115 ft)
diameter caldarium, as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing
was practiced). The north end of the bath building contained a natatio or
swimming pool. The natatio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead
to direct sunlight into the pool area. The central hall was lit up by windows in the
clearstorey just below the vaults. The entire bath building was on a 6 m (20 ft)
high raised platform to allow for storage and furnaces under the building. The
building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal underneath the
ground to heat water provided by aqueduct.

The libraries were located on the east and west sides of the bath complex. The
entire north wall of the complex was devoted to shops. The reservoirs on the
south wall of the complex were fed with water from the Marcian Aqueduct.
III. BATHS OF CONSTANTINE

IV. BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, Rome (286-306 AD)

• Based on bath of Caracalla but even larger in connection

V. BATHS OF TITUS

VI. BATHS OF TRAJAN

4. ROMAN FORUM

The model for the Roman forum was same as the Greek Agora. It was the
central area around which ancient Rome developed, in which commerce,
business, cult and the administration of justice took place. Roman contribution
has two aspects - strong sense of axial organization (like common family house)
and irresistance of total enclosure. The design would shield undesirable views of
city and bring uniform order to irregular massing and elevation or surrounding
building. Adjustments were made to surrounding building. The objective was to
bring buildings of different data and orientation together into a total design, into a
single master plan (something the Roman architects, planner were particularly
good at). The forum/basilica was basic the components of Roman city centre.
Forum concept/layout seems to have developed in towns of northern Italy and
then moved on. Broad planning guideline was followed in all parts of the empire
though regional/local traditions of construction and design were also
implemented.

IMPERIAL FORUM Rome (46 BC-115 AD)

(1) FORUM CAESAR (46 BC)

It is a long court with porticos in 3 sides and Temple of Venus (Genetrix - the
mythical ancestor of Caesar's family) at the short end. It was the first attempt to
give the heart of Rome a more formal and worthy character. The forum is flanked
by double colonnade with shops behind them and with a temple at its head
Caesar's monument in the centre. This forum's design was to be repeated by
successive emperors, as the origin of Royal Square of later European Times.

(2) FORUM AUGUSTUS (2 BC)

It is at axis perpendicular to Caesar's Forum. It follows earlier plan while

embellishing with two lateral semicircular apses (circular termination of a church
sanctuary first used in Roman Basilica). In the middle of the temple was a statue
of Augustus standing in chariot. A temple was dedicated to Roman God Mars,
which is at the head of the Augustus Forum.

(3) THE FORUM OF NERVA OR FORUM OF TRENSITARIUM

It is not a functioning forum, but an illusion. It is only a monumental passage

between the Forum Augustus and the Subarra Quarters. The porticos of the side
are reduced to colonnades placed directly against the walls. This was the first
time that a purely decorative colonnade device was extensively used in later 2nd
century AD. The forum of Trojan, built in six years by Appollodorous of
Damascus, brings the axial plan of the forum to perfection by making the best
use of covered and open spaces. The sides are softened by curving colonnade.
5. ROMAN BASILICA

The basilica was a new type of building style developed by the Romans. The
origin of the basilica is unknown. History started with the Roman Forum, perhaps
as a spontaneous invention expanding on the Greek stoa, or with some closer
prototype in Greek towns near by of which the basilica, and Hellenistic building
like the Hypostyle Hall of Delos, were the successors. The size of such trabeated
halls was made possible by development of the timber truss, a device for roofing
broad spans that arranged straight timbers in tension or compression into rigid
load bearing frames. The Romans development great concrete and masonry
arches, domes and vaults, carpentry also improved greatly. Even the concrete
shells demanded master carpenters capable of making the necessary formwork.

Most basilicas were arranged transversely with entrances on the long sides.
They all had roofs supported on timber trusses and some sort of top lighting. Two
story galleries surrounded the central unencumbered space with outside
windows at the upper story forming Clerestory lighting. In formal terms we might
view the basilica either as an interiorized stoa or an externalized Greek temple
without the peristyle.

Early basilicas were built as early as 180 BC in Rome but they came into much
greater use later in the Imperial Period. The Basilica Julia, begun by Julius
Caesar and added on to later, reached a size of 105 m x 45 m. The structure had
vaulted double aisles on all sides and the relatively narrow central space had a
typical timber roof. There was no apse in either structure.

Examples:

A. BASILICA OF SEPTIMIUS SERVERUS, Lepcis Magna (Libra) 216 AD

It is a part of vast building program undertaken by Septimius Severus (193-211

AD) in his town. This sumptuous basilica had direct access to new forum, a
central nave, 33 m x 11 m x 30 m, with two story lighting and timber truss roof.

B. BASILICA OF TRAJAN, Rome 110 AD

Basilica of Trajan is also known as Basilica Ulpia. It was set transversely over the
full 120 m width of the Forum of Trajan and consists of a huge rectangular nave,
25 m wide surrounded on all sides by double colonnades and extended beyond
the end colonnades by two semicircular apses with attached orders for internal
decoration. Likely galleries over one or both of the aisles are created by the
colonnades. A trussed timber roof is over the central nave. Its span is almost
identical with the 4th century basilica of St. Peter's, so it could have served as a
model for that roof system. The ceiling was sheathed with gilded bronze and the
walls covered with multicolored marbles.
C. BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE, Rome (307-312 AD)

The Basilica of Constantine was started by Maxentius, but was completed and
partly remodeled by Constantine (From Bath to Basilica). Its design was derived
from the central halls of the later Imperial Baths (Caracalla 212 AD and
Diocletian 306 AD). The scale is larger than any of these and has been isolated
from the other rooms that surrounded the bath halls. Central nave, 80 m x 25 m,
was roofed by three coffered concrete groined vaults rising 35 m above the floor.
To reduce slightly their spans, they sprang like the similar vaults in the bath halls,
from short lengths of entablature carried by monolithic columns of proconnesian
marble. To each side of the nave were three lower transverse bays separated by
massive piers and spanned by coffered barrel vaults.

D. AUDIENCE HALL OF THE PALACE OF CONSTANTINE, Trier,

Germany (532-537 AD)

Importance of exterior window arcading 36 reminiscent of Colosseum in Rome

was now applied to basilica style building. The two outer service galleries that ran
continuously at the base of the windows do not show outside and the thinking is
vertical and not intent on banding. At Trier the classical framing devices of
engaged columns and entablatures have vanished without a trace. Thus the long
timber trussed basilican style has reached its design fulfillment.
6. ROMAN CITY

Pax Romana (peace of Rome) along with properly of Roman Empire found
expression of Architecture. The influx of oriental cults weakened the state
supported religion of the multitude of Roman God. Thus it was the civil and
Administration building which best expressed the spirit of mixed civilization.

The forum is the focus of the essentially urban Architecture in Rome and the
major cities of the empire. The mix of capital, administration, religious and
cultural activities in a unified designed outdoor civic space is shown both in the
Roman Empire and Durbar Square of major cities in Kathmandu valley.

7. RESIDENT BUILDING

There was a variety of social levels in Roman Domestic Architecture.

(a) At top Imperial Palaces and Palliative

(b) Below this was Country Villas
(c) Still further, there were social scale townhouses of Ostic Pompeii and
Herculanetun
(d) Finally there were tenant buildings, feature of every well-populated town.

IMPERIAL PALACES

The idea of palace was a Monumental symbol of supreme power, located in the
heart of capital, origin in Rome.

(a) DOMUS AUGUSTANA on the Palatine Rome (81-96) AD

Palatine of August was built when Emperor Augustine chose to live moderately in
contrast to the dwellers of the Roman Aristocracy. They were constructed
lavishly. The whole hill was made palatial complex with fortifications.
(b) PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, Split, Yugoslavia (300 AD)
IMPERIAL VILLA

It was located in suburban places, which reflects the high passions of Roman
Society, far away from the Public pressure. Similarly these days there are
farmhouses in Delhi, Moscow and American seashores. There is a distinction
between city palace and country villa. Villa is a very free spatial articulation of the
structure integrated with nature. It was built with a close relation with entire
landscape.

A. Pizza Armenian in Sicily

B. HOUSE OF PANSA, Pompeii (2nd Century BC)

It illustrates the typical Domus or family mansion. It comprises two portions - the
atrium or forepart, which served for formal occasions as well as normal use; and
a rear or "peristyle" portion, which was the more intimate, private part.

The atrium represents the entire dwelling; the peristyle is colonnaded and is an
additional chief element. Greek influence caused columns sometimes to be used
to support the margins of the roof opening or "compluvium" of an enlarged
atrium, which in the original lacked columns.

Privacy was assured for the whole house since all the rooms, faced inwards
towards atrium or peristyle, light being gained for them through tall doorways with
metal grilles within their doors or hung with curtains. Window glass was rare.

Encircling the House of Pansa on three sides were shops, bakeries and three
smaller dwellings. "A prothyrum" or entrance passage led-from the street to the
atrium, where a central, shallow rectangular basin or "impluvium" was sunk in the
pavement directly below the compluvium opening in the "Lean-to" roof above,
which sloped down four ways towards it. When space permitted, there was a
portico that opened with pergolas (plant covered walkways).

The Atrium also contained the shrine of the family gods, and near to the
impluvium there stood a marble table. An open living-room on "Tablinum" was
curtained off between the atrium and the peristyle, and at the side was a
passage, the "fauces".

The peristyle enframed by 16 Ionic columns was laid out with flower beds and
graced with statuary, fountains and water-basin. "Cubicula" or bedrooms,
"Triclinia" or dining rooms with different aspects for summer and winter, the
"oecus" or reception-room, and "alae" or recesses for conversation surrounded
the peristyle. Dining rooms were fitted with three couches for nine people, the
recognized number for a Roman feast. Floors were decorated with Mosaics and
walls with Fresco paintings. The kitchen and painting were at the side of the
peristyle, farthest from the entrance, but convenient for the side street. There
was a series of small upper rooms round the atrium and peristyle.
C. HADRIAN'S VILLA, Tivoli

PRERETE HOUSE

Residence and life style was similar to Greek counterparts. House design was
much same as in Prairie (Asia Minor). Men properly lived most of their lives in
public.

TENANT BUILDINGS

In large towns, ordinary people lived in tenements, which they rented in

apartment blocks.

8. MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES

(a) TRIUMPHAL ARCHES

A triumphal arch is a structure in the shape of a monumental archway, usually

built to celebrate a victory in war. The arch is invariably a free-standing structure,
quite separate from city gates or walls. In its simplest form a triumphal arch
consists of two pillars connected by an arch, crowned with a superstructure or
attic on which a statue might be mounted or which bears commemorative
inscriptions. More elaborate triumphal arches have flanking subsidiary archways,
typically a pair.

• Arch of Trajan, Ancona (113 AD)

• Arch of Titus, Roman (81 AD)

• Arch of Constantine, Rome (312-315 AD)

• Arch of Drusus, Rome, erected to honor Nero Claudius Drusus
• Arch of Gallienus, Rome
• Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, erected 203

• Arch of Janus, Rome

• Augustan Arch, Aosta
• Arch of Trajan, Beneventum, the Porta Aurea (114 AD)
• Arch of Augustus, Fano
• Arch of Augustus, Rimini, (27 AD)
• Arch of Augustus, Susa, (7 BC)
(b) Columns free standing 35 m with Doric order with spiral freeze - Trajan's
war victory on top (statue of Trajan replaced by statue of St. Peters).
BACKGROUND

Roman used a variety of shapes for their buildings such as vaults, cross and
Domes for Roofing/opening. They were not perfect in using combination of these
elements to develop peculiar interiors.

After Alexander the great, during the period of Diocletian (284-305 AD), Vast
Roman territories were divided into Eastern and Western Division and Emperor
Constantine reunited in 324 AD, and moved the capital to Byzantine. During his
period, there was waxed in power, reaching it climax during the periods of
Justinian (527-565 AD) and capital was named Constantinople (Istanbul today).
And buildings style of this part is given the name as Byzantine Architecture and
Western part of Rome was plunged into dark period and building style of western
part during this period was called Christian Architecture also termed as Early
Romanesque Architecture. The development of Architecture can be divided into
following style.

• Early Christian Period at the Western part (400-900 AD)

• Byzantine Architecture at the Eastern part (400-1400 AD)
• Romanesque Architecture at the Western part (900-1150 AD)
• Gothic Architecture at the Western part (1150-1500 AD)
• Renaissance Architecture at the Western part (1500-1700 AD)

CHRISTIAN (EARLY ROMANESQUE) ARCHITECTURE

This Architectural style belongs to the Western Europe (Roman Empire), which
resulted after the decline of Roman Empire. During this period of mass
disturbance and civil wars, people used to move around for shelter/livelihood and
churches provided this shelter. Although churches were used for specific
purpose, it remained as shelter for civilization and culture throughout the dark
period. Religions were preached in churches and something unseen was taken
of God. Therefore no provisions for shelter have been than the statue of God in
their temples as in Greek and Roman. This design of church was more or less
that of Roman Basilica.

INFLUENCES

Geographical

Christianity had its birth in Judaea, an Eastern province of the Roman Empire, but
directly it became a living organism it was naturally carried by St. Peter, St. Paul
and other missionaries to Rome, as the centre of the World-Empire. There at the
fountain-head of power and influence, and in spite of opposition and persecution,
the new religion took root and grew, till it was strong enough to become the
recognized universal religion of the whole Roman Empire. Early Christian
architecture in Rome was influenced by existing Roman art.

Geological

Geological influences maybe said to have acted indirectly rather than directly on
early Christian architecture, for the ruins of Roman buildings often provided the
quarry whence materials were obtained. This influenced the style, both as regards
construction and decoration, for columns and other architectural features as well as
fine sculptures and mosaics from older buildings, were worked into basilican
churches of the new faith.

Historical and Social

The Roman Empire with all its power and glory was beginning to decay from
within. The people were slowly loosing confidence in a state cult that deified
emperors that were being altered with rapid bloody turnovers. People looked for
a deeper faith in cults that beckoned from the East. The Eastern cults were not
new – a “religious” black stone had been transported to Rome as early as 203
BC and enshrined in a temple in the centre of Rome. Eastern deities were duly
tamed and included into the Roman Pantheon. Two of the Eastern religions
gained popularity - Mithraism and Christianity. Mithras was a Persian god and
popular in the army as the invincible god of light. This appealed to soldiers at the
frontiers and this god was accorded full official protection by the Roman state.
Christianity found its support among the poor. Monotheistic and uncooperative in
that it considered itself above the state, Christianity was disapproved by the state
and sporadically persecuted. Christians gathered for worship indoors away from
public view - once again different from Greco - Roman worship, which took place
in public in the open air and which considered the temple a privileged sanctum
off limits to popular use. In its illegal and persecuted status, early Christian
houses of worship were simply houses or very common looking buildings.

The vast Roman Empire had been administratively divided by Empire Diocletian
into four regions with Constantine ruling the Northern Region from Trier,
Germany. Constantine marched on Rome to conquer that region as well. A battle
was ready outside of Rome. On the eve of the Battle Constantine announced him
accepting Christianity and when he won the battle the next day, 28 October 312
AD, he attributed his victory to his new found faith and his new God. Christ was
the eternal king, and Constantine was his servant and vice regent on earth. The
Roman establishment was shocked. The Church was elated and ready. From the
beginning the church had spurned any compromise on its central belief that
Christianity was the only legitimate religion.

Religious

In this period and all ages, Christianity has inspired the building of same of the
greatest architectural monuments. Unlike those temples of the old Greeks and
Romans which were built to shelter the statues of the gods, the purpose of the
Christian Church was to shelter worshippers who met for prayer and praise to an
unseen deity and during the unsettled conditions at the beginning of Christianity,
various places were adapted for this worship. This is the buildings of pagan temples
ceased before any attempt was made to build Christian churches.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Construction method and adopted from early Roman Period, much of

construction materials used was obtained from the old Roman Building
remains.
• The same capitals/common were used and if could not fit, the same were
modified.
• Early Christian Architecture bear upon Roman Architecture.
• It had number of Architecture values or styles
• Basically Churches were developed from Roman Basilica.

CHRISTIAN CHURCH

The central power of the Christian Church had gravitated toward Rome even
before Constantine’s conversion. With the blessing of the state the central
location of Rome became the centre of the Christian Church as well. However,
there was no prescribed formula for the architectural for of a church. Therein lay
the excitement of innovation. The church adopted the basilica style for its
usefulness in covering a large space for worship.

In the basilican style, one very strong principle observed was concentrated
interest on the interior. Outsides consist of simple masses of brick, juxtaposed
but not merging with one another. The walls are fairly thin because they do not
have to support weight. Inside what is immediately striking is the way the eye of
the worshipper is drawn towards the altar by means of receding lines columns,
guttered walls and floors all contribute to this effect which is reinforced by the
covering. Consistent with Roman basilica design traditions these architects
covered their buildings with a timber frame truss that was hidden from view by
wooden ceiling. This allowed an impression of lightness which was transmitted to
the walls and further reinforced by the use of columns.

In contrast with the basilican plan churches, which became the standard in the
west, are the centrally planned and also their universal use in baptisteries (which
also became the standard in the East). An example of this centrally planned
church design is the Santo Stefano Rotunda built by Pope Simplicius (468-483
AD).

EXAMPLES

ST. PETERS BASICILIAN CHURCH, Rome 320-330 AD

Built by Constantine to honor the early apostle, it lasted until end 15th century
and details of this early church are well known (except for the atrium area in
front). At the risk of committing a grave sin, the violation of burial sites,
Constantine had the cemetery leveled and filled with earth from the adjacent hill.
The church was constructed over a cemetery which extended along one side of
an earlier circus since there was considerable slope, one side was constructed
above the tombs of the cemetery and the other side cut into the hill. The church
was particularly built over the tomb of the apostle peter that had been one of
Jesus’ early disciples and martyred in Rome. The basilica was 64 m wide with
double aisles on each side and 90 m long not counting the transept and the
apse. 22 huge columns varying in size and color with different capitals supported
the nave wall on a horizontal entablature. Similar numbers of shorter columns
carry arcades divided aisle from aisle. This functioned as a church, but also as a
covered cemetery, and place for people to come to commemorate the dead.
There is also a mausoleum attached to one side.
The new church faced the city and was approached up a series of steps of the
atrium beyond which lay the hung basilica. A hundred ancient columns of colored
stone were used in the complex. Because of the use of old columns, there was
somewhat a lack of uniformity in the final construction. In the central nave the
wall above the entablature was punctuated by Clerestory windows of translucent
alabaster.

Initial function of this hall was to host funeral on the anniversary of St. Peter's
martyrdom, a ceremony that was disallowed in the next century because of its
rowdy nature. Tombs of those who wished to be buried next to the prince of the
apostles initially covered the floor. The inscription across the triumphal arch
Constantine addressed his God - “Because under your guidance the world rose
triumphant to the skies, Constantine, himself a victor, built you this hall “. The
church was meant to celebrate the dual triumph of Christ over death and of the
emperor over his political adversaries as well as to honor St. Peter’s tomb. To
accomplish this last purpose a transept arm was placed at right angles to the
direction of the nave and screened off from it and the tomb was contained within
the apse of this arm.
SANTO STEFANO, Rome 320-330 AD

Founded by Pope Simplicius (486-483 AD) to house the relics of St. Stephen
discovered in 415 AD. It was built on circular plan line the ancient mausoleums.
Simple archaic elevation with squat proportions and timber framed roof.
SANTA SABINA, Rome 432-440 AD

Interior view shows longitudinal basilica form without transepts. Short spacing of
columns and apse and accentuates impression of depth. Columns are fluted with
Corinthian capitals, which support arcades. There is significant lighting from
clerestory and large windows of the apse.
BYZANTIUM ARCHITECTURE

INFLUENCES

Geographical

Byzantium, renamed Constantinople after Constantine the great, and later to

Istanbul, was also called the "New Rome," was inaugurated as the capital of the
Roman Empire in 330 AD. It stood at the junction of the Bosphorus and the sea
of Marmora, where Asia and Europe are divided by only a narrow strip of water.
This gave it a commanding and central position, for the government of the
eastern and most valuable part of the Roman Empire.

Geological

Constantinople had no good building stone, and local materials such as clay for
bricks and rubble for concrete were employed. Other materials more monumental
in character had therefore to be imported; marble was brought from the quarries
in the island and along the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean to
Constantinople, which was the chief marble-working centre and supplied all parts
of the Roman Empire. Byzantine architecture was further considerably influenced
by the multitude of Monolithic columns of such sizes as were obtainable from the
different quarries. These were even introduced into the underground astern for
the water storage of this Imperial city.

Climatic

Flat roofs for summer resort were combined with oriental domes and these, with
small windows often high up in otherwise unbroken walls, formed the chief
features of the style, and sheltering arcades surrounded the open courts.

Historical and Social

Byzantium was founded as a Greek colony 660 BC and 330 AD became the
capital of the Roman Empire. On the death of the Emperor Theodosius I (395
AD) the Empire was finally divided and Byzantium continued to be the capital of
the Eastern Empire. Throughout the Middle Ages, it was the bulwarks of
Christianity against the attacks of slay barbarians on the west and of Moslem in
the East. The history of the Byzantine Empire from the 5th to the 11th century is
one of fluctuating and gradually declining fortunes.

There were always conflicts with Persians and the Moslems. In the 11th century
the decline was accelerated, besides having enemies of the East and North. The
Empire was now attacked by Normans and Venetians. The old Empire still
lingered on for nearly two hundred years, but its vitality had been sapped by
internal dissensions and continuous warfare against the Persians and Turks, and
it was finally captured by Ottoman Turks in 1453. Nevertheless, the spirit of the
Empire had fallen, especially in Russia and in the Balkans. Constantinople has
continued up to the present day as the seat of a Patriarch of the Orthodox
Church.
Byzantium was an old Greek City, and so the new Imperial buildings were
executed by Greek craftsmen untrammelled by Roman traditions. Within the
fortifications of Constantine, the new city was laid out on Roman lines, so far as
the hills and site allowed.

There was the central dividing street running through a succession of six forums
of which the original Augusteam was adjoined, not only by St. Sophia, the
greatest glory of early Christendom, but also by the Imperial palace, senate
house and law courts. The forum of Constantine, with its great porphyry column,
was the center of commercial life, while in the Hippodrome hard by, the chariot
races took place which were the chief amusement of New Rome, as gladiatorial
combat had been of old Rome.

The Hippodrome held the same position in the social life of New Rome as the
Colosseum and Thermae did in old Rome, and was used for all purposes and on
all occasions-for election of emperors; burying or martyrs, execution of criminals,
and for triumphal processions.

Religious

In the year 313 AD, the Edict of Milan was issued, which granted toleration to
Christians, and in 330 AD, Constantinople became the capital of the first
Christian Empire. It follows that the chief buildings erected in the new capital
were churches for the new religions. At first they were of the basilician Early
Christian type. But later the domical Byzantine Style was developed.

Byzantine architecture, devoid of statues has always been and still remains the
official style of the Orthodox church of Greece and Eastern Europe which has
conserved unchanged its doctrines and ritual.

INTRODUCTION

When Roman Empire on the West was in the decline period, Eastern Byzantine
waxed to power reaching its climax under Emporia Justinian (527-565 AD).
Through ruled by Roman Rulers, it was submerged in Existing Greek Culture
(Eastern). Under Justinian, it expanded adding up of North Africa, Sicily and
Eastern Gothic Kingdoms (North of Italy).

The style of Architecture named after this empire, Byzantine Architecture,

flourished for 1000 years. During this period, most secular buildings were
destroyed, except the church. They are dominated by a dome construction in
bricks (Trabeated) backed with Terracotta. A dome emphasis and defines its
space beneath it. When combined with others vaults, it creates a rich spatial
organization within a building, with colored marble columns/mosaic and gold
background.

Some scholars believe that the Byzantine Architecture's source is from main area
of Eastern Mediterranean such as Egypt, Palestine, Syria/Anatolia while other
insist that it had steamed from Rome itself.
The eastern style of Roman Architecture accepted certain relationship between
the columns and its supports (end before dome this had crystallized into the
orders of classis Architecture). However by 3-4th century AD, Roman Architects
began to abandon their relation.

Palace of Diocletian (split, Yugoslavia) 300 AD (Arches rested directly on the

column capitals. The Architrave was bent into the Arch (Archivolt) and violation of
the rules of the orders occurred.

This freedom of handling the orders became typical of Byzantine Architecture.

The first flowering of Byzantine style under Justinian was a block above capital to
support the Arch and to concentrate the support the Arch and to concentrate the
weight on the capitals.

The first example of this system was used in:

• Basilica Ursine (Ravenna) (370-384 AD) - Roman Building

• San Vitale, Ravenna (522-532 AD) by Justinian
Domical forms made to cover a longitudinal Nave.

The Byzantium Masterpiece is Hagia Sophia (Divine Wisdom) or St. Sophia at

Constantinople built under the direction of Emperor Justinian.

The story of Byzantine Architecture involves the first solution of the structure
problem from Dome construction. Byzantium inherited the artistry of Greek World
(almost all individuals artists were Greek, who married it to the structure and
engineering genius of Rome).

In west the main structural model was the long narrow Basilica plan, where as in
the east, Byzantine settled on the Domed Hall reminiscent of the
Pantheon/Roman Beth of Caracalla/Diocletian. In the west the Dome was never
completely accepted for church design as it was in the east.
ARCHITECTURE CHARACTERISTICS

The character of Byzantine Architecture lies in development of the Dome to cover

the polygonal/Square plan for church, Baptisteries with the help of pendentive.
(Romans had Dome to cover only Polygonal/circular plans).

• Brick replaced stone, classical orders were used more freely, mosaics
replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected.
• Byzantine Builder provided a cylinder on the pendentive over which Dome
was built.
• Walls from brick and internally finished with rich colored marbles/shining
mosaic/glass mosaics.
• External walls are comparatively plain.
• Arches or semicircular Arch - used to support the galleries.
• Door usually spaced by semi circular Arch/Horseshoe arch.
• Windows - small and stained to similar way by semi circular arch
• The integrity of plan per functions.
• Final solution of unity where structural/decoration/decoration function
combined more in Harmony.
• Discovery of decoration system with colored marble and mosaic on golden
background.
EXAMPLES

HAGIA SOPHIA, Constantinople (532-537 AD)

The best example of Byzantine Architecture is Hagia Sophia (means Holy

Wisdom) or St. Sophia, which was built under Emperor Justinian. It was designed
by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus - men with a deep knowledge of
the mechanical science of the day who are referred to not as architects but as
mechanicoi or mechanopoioi. That science was more similar to geocentric
ordering of space and the vaults that cover it that is most apparent from a
detailed study of the design. The design was not completely successful because
the dome partly collapsed barely 30 years after completion and had to be rebuilt
to a codified design. That collapse was at least partly attributed to the great
speed of construction far exceeding that of any comparable later structure and to
an unusual sequence of earthquakes in the years following its construction.

It is belied that Byzantine Dome (brick) is copied from the Dome of the Caldarium
in the Beth of Caracalla (211-217 AD) and so called Temple of Minerva Medica,
Rome (310-320 AD). Some device was necessary to support the circular Dome
on a square plan and one such was squinch in frequently use a Sassanian,
Persia (226-641 AD) but also found in the earlier Villas of Hadrian at Tivoli, Italy
(125-135 AD).

The Hagia Sophia is 70 m x 75 m rectangle with a projecting Apse at the east

and double arched entrance porch (Narthex), preceded by an atrium at the west.
In the centre of the structure is a square of 31 m (102 feet) dome covered by the
main dome, 56 feet high. The dome is carried on pendentives - four concave
triangular sections of masonry which solve the problem of setting the circular
base of a dome on a rectangular base. At Hagia Sophia the weight of the dome
passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the corners. Between
them the dome seems to float upon four great arches.

Colonnades between the Piers separate the Aisles and Galleries over then from
the Nave. Below the semi-domes are great hemisphere shaped buttresses that
double the east west size of the nave. The interior was lit by 40 windows from
beneath the domes.

At the western (entrance) and eastern (liturgical) ends, the arched openings are
extended by half domes carried on smaller semidomed exedras. Thus a
hierarchy of dome-headed elements builds up to create a vast oblong interior
crowned by the main dome, a sequence unexampled in antiquity. All interior
surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles, green and white with purple
porphyry and gold mosaics, encrusted upon the brick. On the exterior, simple
stuccoed walls reveal the clarity of massed vaults and domes.
ST. MARK’S BASILICA, Venice (Italy) 1063-1096 AD (finishing until 19th
century AD)

It has a Greek cross plan and is similar to Constantinople church of the Holy
Apostles. Five domes cover the cross and each of the arms is supported by large
piers linked by arches. The light is thus directed towards the center of the
basilica, leaving the side aisles in comparative shadow.

Venice technically remained part of the Byzantine Empire for five hundred years,
even after it had become an independent republic. It continued to look east rather
than west. Later, as its own commercial empire grew, it became Europe's
principle crossroads and cleaning house. St. Mark’s reflects both the double
heritage of culture and wealth.

The first church on the site was completed in 832 AD as a gigantic reliquary for
the body of the Evangelish himself, stolen from Alexander by a couple of
enterprising Venetian merchants four years before. The church is embellished
with mosaics, mostly Byzantine. It also shamelessly flaunts much of the loot
including the four horses, deriving from the abominable each of Constantinople
by Venetian and Franks in the so called 4th Crusade of 1204-1205 AD. Beneath
all this exuberant encrustation, however the 11th century AD building has been
preserved virtually intact and once inside the great bronze doors, reveals itself in
its entire spender, a painted harlot with a heart of gold.
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

The term Romanesque, like many other stylistic designations of periods in

architecture, was not a term contemporary, but an invention of modern scholars
to categorize a period. The areas of Europe when buildings were constructed
during the decline of Roman were sources of inspiration (faith in Christianity) for
a new style named Romanesque Architecture. Romanesque is characterized by
the use of round arches, barrel vaults, cruciform piers supporting vaults and groin
vaults.

Europe was a shambles of crude wooden

houses and churches from 300-1000 AD. This
was in sharp contract with the continuation of
Roman building techniques in the Byzantium
and Islamic Empires in the east. There had
been only one short break in these dark ages.
The reign of Charlemagne (768-814 AD) was
marked by the erection of his palace Chapel
(792-805 AD) at Aachen (now in Germany),
which is a copy of San Vital in Ravena. Shortly
after some centuries, however a miraculous
transformation occurred. Large masonry
churches were simultaneously built all over
Europe. This was a Religious Architecture, built
by anonymous architects according to symbolic
prescriptions.

The most significant regions of the development were in Charlenagne Homeland,

Northern France, Southern Spain, Northern Italy and Anglo Saxen England.

This new period of Architecture, called Romanesque today, was the reproduction
of Roman vaulted style. The methods of construction were the same. But great
originality was shown in interior spatial planning and exterior massing and
decoration.

Romanesque churches of this type, in France, northern Spain and Italy, have
been called the Pilgrimage Churches because they stand along the route of
pilgrimage roads to San Juan Campo Stella (a high popular place for Pilgrims).
Relies were displayed by veneration in the chapels around the cheviot and
sleeping space for pilgrims were provided in triforium. Other similar Romanesque
churches types developed all over Europe. Along the Rhine River (Germany)
large churches were built with narrow, vaulted nave, no transepts and groups of
tall towers at both ends.

In northern France, the Norman Romanesque evolved with the skilled vaulting
and pairs of towers at the west facade. This style was carried to England by
William the Conqueror after 1066 AD and produced Anglo Norman Romanesque
of Durham Cathedrals.

The Romanesque was most striking probably in Italy, among the ruins of the
ancient Roman Empire and near the continuing Byzantine culture. The proximity
of Byzantine made impact in periodic wave of influence, the native Italian variants
of Romanesque tended to be more intellectually controlled than in the north. This
may be seen by comparing the Baptistery and Leaning Tower of Piza with the
extravagant decorative surface of mosaic as the solid, yet vertical emphasis in
the church like in La-charity-Sur at Lyon (France). During this style the groined
vaults pointed arch had both evolved. It was fusion of these two elements that in
12th century AD that brought Gothic style. Romanesque survived for long
afterwards in Italy where Gothic made only a slight impact.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE

This style of architecture is arculated and stresses every structural division in

order to produce unified compositions.

The most innovation of this style were

1. The evolution of new concepts in external massing with development of

pier forms

2. The introduction of gallery triforium (an upper aisles) an important role

which break up the smooth wall surface and transforming them in the
articulate architecture units
3. Use of round arches, barrel vaults, cruciform piers supporting vaults, and
groin vaults.

This style was the reproduction of Roman vaulted style and developed
based on Roman Art transformation of style of classic Roman having a
common structural approach although detailed varied from
regions/nations.

4. The addition of transepts and the prolongation of the sanctuary made the
church a well-defined cross on plan

5. Transepts were generally the same breadth as the nave, which was
usually twice the width of the aisles

6. The choir was often raised on piers above the level of the nave and over a
vaulted crypt, in which saint or martyr had been buried
7. A pair of towers on the west (sometimes on the east) and spires to give
the sense of height and its importance

8. Attached columns, with rough

capitals supporting semicircular
arches, formed wall arcading,
which was a frequent
decorative feature

9. Variations of Corinthian or Ionic

capitals were used

10. Mouldings were often

elaborately carved

11. Glass seems not to have come

into general use till the 9th
century

12. A rose or wheel window was

often placed over the west door
EXAMPLES

ROMANESQUE IN ITALY

PISA CATHEDRAL, Pisa (1063-1138 AD)

One of the most famous buildings of the world, Cathedral is a fine Romanesque
example with strongly marked individually. It resembles other early basilican
churches in plan, with long rows of columns connected by arches double aisles
and a nave, which has the usual timber roof. The transepts, each with an apse at
the end, were an advance on the simple basilican on its general proportions and
on the delicacy of its ornamental features, rather than on any new structural
development, such as may be seen in Fortran Italy. The exterior has bands of
red and white marble, and the ground storey is faced with wall arcading, while
the entrance façade is thrown into relief by tiers of open arcades which rise one
above another right into the gable end.

BAPTISTERY, Pisa (1153-1265 AD)

It is designed by Dioti Salvi on a circular plan with a central space or nave 18.3 m
(60 ft) in diameter, separated by four piers and eight columns from the
surrounding two storeyed aisles. Externally it is surrounded on the lower storey
by half-columns, connected by semicircular arches, less than one of which is the
door. This arcade is surmounted by Gothic additions of the 14th century AD,
which disguise the original design. The structure is crowned by an outer
hemispherical roof, through which penetrated a truncated cone is capped by a
small covering the central space.

CAMPANILE OR BELL TOWER, Pisa (LEANING TOWER OF PISA, 1174-1271

AD)

This circular tower is 16 m (52 ft) in diameter, is eight stories of rising encircling
arcades. It has encircling arcades. This world famous Leaning Tower, which is
the most arresting features of the group, has been the subject of much
discussion, but there is little doubt that its inclination is due to subsidence in the
foundations. The upper part of the tower now overhangs its base more than 4.2
m (13 ft 10 in) and it thus has a very unstable appearance. The bell stage was
not added until 1350 AD.
PALAZZO PUBBLICO, Sienna, Italy (1288-1289 AD)

With its 334 ft high, Tore Del Mangia - Italy’s highest bell-tower symbolized the
civil pride of wealthy Sienese merchants in their seat of government. It is light
and palatial - one of Italy’s most beautiful municipal buildings. The stone-built
lower storey is pierced by characteristic Sienese arches, in which a depressed
round arch is enclosed in a tall pointed one. The upper storey is built of brick.
With its mock crenellations and curved façade, the Palazzo forms part of a
graceful city center around a shell-shaped piazza.

VALENTRE BRIDGE, Cahors, Italy (1308-1380 AD)

It spans through the Lot River at Cahors. It is protected by three tall towers, one
at each end and a third at mid-point between its six arches. It was originally
linked to the walls of the city, forming part of the defensive system and enabling
the hills on the opposite bank to be kept under surveillance.

ROMANESQUE IN FRANCE

The great period of French Romanesque architecture was 100 years (1050-1150
AD). At this time, France was split into a number of quite independent domains. It
may seem surprising to find even a comparatively unified architectural character.
The explanation lies in the cult of relies, which distinguishes this intensely
credulous age. It induced people to move about the country, and indeed well
beyond it, on pilgrimages. The pedigrees of these relies were usually dubious,
but people were willing to believe in them. This bluing faith made possible the
erection of huge buildings, generally abbeys, the scale of which far exceeded
local needs.

ST. SERNIN at Toulouse, France (1077-1119 AD)

A new type of church evolved,

which has a cross shaped plan,
instead of centralized as in
Hagia Sophia. The longest if it's
four arms extended westward
and called the nave. It is
crossed by shorter transepts
and balanced by a short
cheviot, or head, where alter is
set in front of semi-circular and
wall roofed with a half dome.
Each arm has aisle on either
side below a high balcony a triforium. These arms were vaulted with simple half
cylindrical barrel vaults. The arms were narrow so that the intersection or
crossing is less important for the tiny dome inside than all the tall tower built in
tiers above it on the exterior. In the cheviot the aisles are carried around the
curved and as on ambulatory from which open individual semi circular chapels.
THIRD ABBEY CHURCH, CLUNY, BURGUNDT, FRANCE (1088-1130 AD)

The 3rd Abbey Church at Cluny in Burgundy was built 1088-1130 AD and
demolished in 1810 AD. The longest church in France, it had massive walls, an
immense nave, double aisles, twin transepts and many chapels and towers. Part
of the greater abbey in Christendom, it is inspired many subsequence churches.
The church has many similarities of Cathedral of St. James, Santiago de
Compostela, Spain.

ROMANESQUE IN SPAIN

Southern Spain has no Romanesque architecture because the area was still in
the hands of the Moors (Muslims). Over the years Christian in Spain drove the
Moors southeast wards and Cordaba, the Moorish capital, fell to Ferdinand III of
Castile in 1126 AD. Northern Spain had a variety of local architectural
developments, often influenced from aboard. Spanish Romanesque Art derived
mainly from France. The main influence was the pilgrimage to the reputed relics
of St. James at Santiago de Compostela in Galieli, northwest Spain.
Enthusiastically supported by the Cluniac Order in the 11th and 12th centuries,
this pilgrimage was second only in importance to the pilgrimage to Rome.

CATHEDRAL OF SANTIAGO DE COMPOSSTELA (1078-1211 AD)

The Cathedral of St. James at Santiago de Compostela was the end of the
journey for the myriad pilgrims, who trod the great European pilgrimage routes to
the shrine of St. James in remote Galcia. The undisputed masterpiece of Spanish
Romanesque architecture, the cathedral was influenced by the design of France
pilgrimage churches and, in turn inspired many others. It was built between 1078
AD and 1211 AD, on the site of the modest 9th century AD church which formerly
enshrined the reputed tomb of St. James and was modified by successive
generations until the 8th century AD. The Romanesque exterior is now disguised
in a clock of 17th - 18th century Baroque extravagance. This illustration is a
reconstruction of the original form. The interior, hardly altered, is a fine example
of Romanesque austerity.
ROMANESQUE IN ENGLAND

DURHAM CATHEDRAL, Durham, England (1093-1220 AD)

The Anglo-Norman Cathedral is

one of the world’s supreme
masterpieces of Romanesque
Architecture. Begun in 1093
AD, the cathedral was built
mainly in the 12th century AD
and its west towers were
completed by 1220 AD. After
this, the most significant
changes were the replacement
of the Norman apsidal east end
by the Chapel of the Nine
Altars, started in 1242 AD and
completed in 1280 AD. The
central tower was rebuilt
between 1465 AD and 1490
AD, as it was struck by
lightening in 1429 AD. The
impression on entering the
cathedral is one of
overwhelming grandeur. The
lofty nave - a reading is borne on alternating composite and circular piers. The
circular piers have boldly incised patterns; the chevron, the diaper and the
vertical flute. Above the aisles is a deep tribune or gallery that harbors flying
buttresses, which date to 1133 AD, the earliest in England. The cathedral was
the first building in Europe to have ribbed vaults and one of the earliest to have
pointed transverse arches in the nave. Although such features are more usually
associated with Gothic building, the spirit is not in the smallest degree Gothic.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

While crusade of 13th century uprising the Latin Empire in the east was dissolved,
in the North Europe the energetic development produced buildings with pointed
masonry arches and with vaults capable of covering the vast nave and transepts
of the Romanesque model. This term used to describe the Architecture between
12th and 16th century, is given the name as Gothic Architecture. This style
generally accepted that the notion of the pointed arch was imported from the
east, where it had been used by the Arabs for centuries. At the same time there
were elements in Romanesque Art which probably contribute to the formation of
this new style.

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture, particularly associated with

cathedrals and other churches, which flourished in Europe during the high and
late medieval period. Beginning in twelfth century France, it was known as "the
French Style" (Opus Francigenum) during the period, with the term Gothic first
appearing in the Reformation era. It was succeeded by Renaissance architecture
beginning in Florence in the fifteenth century. This style had no connection
whatsoever with the Germanic tribe of Goths who had lost their identity as tribes,
centuries before the term Goth emerged.

ORIGIN

The style originated at the abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis, near

Paris, where it exemplified the vision of Abbot Suger. Suger wanted to create a
physical representation of the Heavenly Jerusalem, a building of a high degree of
linearity that was suffused with light and colour. The façade was actually
designed by Suger, whereas the Gothic nave was added some hundred years
later. He designed the façade of Saint-Denis to be an echo of the Roman Arch of
Constantine with its three-part division. This division is also frequently found in
the Romanesque style. The eastern "rose" window, which is credited to him as
well, is a re-imagining of the Christian "circle-square" iconography. The first truly
Gothic construction was the choir of the church, consecrated in 1144. With its
thin columns, stained-glass windows, and a sense of verticality with an ethereal
look, the choir of Saint-Denis established the elements that would later be
elaborated upon during the Gothic period. This style was adopted first in northern
France and by the English, and spread throughout France, the Low Countries
and parts of Germany and also to Spain and northern Italy.

INFLUENCES (FRANCE)

Geological

The excellent building stone in France continued as abundant as in the

Romanesque period, and that found near Caen aided in the development of the
northern Gothic style. In the mountainous districts of Auvergne the use of
volcanic stone gave a rich chromatic appearance to the buildings; while in the
extreme south good local stone helped to continue the classical tradition handed
down through the Romanesque period.
Climatic

The comparatively dull climate of the North permitted, and even invited, the
extension of large tracery windows to light the vast interiors.

Historical, Social and Religious

It was during the Philip that a number of French Cathedrals were begun. The
period during which Gothic architecture in France had its growth was marked by
all the restlessness that characterizes the style, which is instinct with the
intellectual and spiritual aspirations of that age.

The Religious zeal of the 12th to 13th centuries, when Christianity was united
against the Moslems, was especially manifested in France in the third crusade
under Philip Augustus, and the 8th and 9th crusades under St. Louis and was
marked by the erection of many grand cathedrals which were the work of the laity
and the free communes, in contrast with the monastic church-building of the
Romanesque period. The religious spirit of the age found an outlet in the
inauguration of cults of special saints in different localities, and this brought fame
to certain shrines which thus acquired wealth and importance as pilgrimage
centers, this being reflected in the beautiful architecture and decoration of the
churches. The active zeal with which urban populations set about building
cathedrals produced almost miraculously rapid results, and with this outburst of
building activity transformed the face of France.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

1. The basic character of Gothic Architecture was the pointed arch, the flying
buttress and the ribbed vaults. Other features developed as the
consequence of the use of the pointed arch.
2. Pointed arch made it much easier to vaults an opening or bay and with
varieties of height. In any vaulting compartments, it can be controlled with
much greater visual success. To support the greater thrust of stone vaults
and the greater strain put on the remains section of walls, once windows
had become larger, it was necessary to use heavier and heavier Buttress.

3. Internally there is a focus on large stained-glass windows that allow more

light to enter than was possible with the previous Romanesque style. To
achieve this lightness, flying buttresses were used between windows as a
means of support to enable higher ceilings and slender columns. Many of
these features had already appeared, for example in Durham Cathedral.
In flying Buttress, thrust can be transferred by an arch or a series of
arches from the nave, over the roof of the aisles to a flying buttress that
may be free standing or attached to the aisles.

4. The pointed arch was introduced for both visual and structural reasons.
Visually, the verticality suggests an aspiration to Heaven. Structurally, its
use gives a greater flexibility to Architectural form. The Gothic vault, unlike
the semi-circular vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, can be used
to roof rectangular and irregularly shaped plans such as trapezoids. The
 other advantage is that the pointed arch channels the weight onto the
bearing piers or columns at a steep angle.

5. In Gothic Architecture the pointed arch is utilized in every location where a

vaulted shape is called for, both structural and decorative. Gothic
openings such as doorways, windows, arcades and galleries have pointed
arches. Gothic vaulting above spaces both large and small is usually
supported by richly molded ribs. Rows of arches upon delicate shafts form
a typical wall decoration known as blind arcading. Niches with pointed
arches and containing statuary are a major external feature. The pointed
arch leant itself to elaborate intersecting shapes which developed within
window spaces into complex Gothic tracery forming the structural support
of the large windows that are characteristic of the style.

6. Pointed stained glass was used to form brilliant transparent picture in

windows under the pointed vault arch. Gothic was fundamentally an
Ecclesiastical (Religious) Style. A church style with specific means went
hand to hand with the development of Gothic sculpture, stained glass and
with plentiful quota preferment spiritual residents.

EXAMPLES

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE

In France, between 1140 and 1200 AD, a new and more efficient type of
masonry vaulted construction was invented. The Roman vault was a consistent
of mass of concrete that has been poured over a heavy wooden mould and left to
harden, where as the now Gothic vault consisted of a net work of separate stone
arches, ribs, spanning the space between which were laid a then webbing of
small stones. This king of vault was lights and its thrust was more clearly defined,
since they passed down the ribs. This meant that the walls of building separating
the vaults could be made thinner and opened with large windows.

CHAPEL OF NOTRE DAME, Paris (1163 – 1250 AD)

One of the oldest of French Gothic Cathedrals was begun by Bishop Maurice de
Sully. The plan is on a bent axial line, is typical with wide nave and double aisles,
transepts of small projection practically in 'line with the aisles, and a notable
chevet, with double aisles and surrounding chapels between the buttresses.

The impressive interior has a nave arcade with cylindrical columns and
Corinthian capitals carrying pointed arches and shafts to support the ribs of the
lofty sexpartite vaulting.

The wide-spreading western facade served as a model for many later churches.
It has three deeply recessed portals with successive encircling tiers of statued
niches, and the central doorway is divided by a pillar with a statue of Christ, while
above and across this stretches a band of statues of the kings of France. This is
surmounted by a central wheel window of great beauty, 13 m (42 ft.) in diameter,
flanked by high coupled windows, over which again a pierced arcaded screen
stretches across the facade in front of the nave roof and connecting the two
western towers, which have high pointed louvered openings. The east end
presents a fairy like appearance with slender flying buttresses and chevet
chapels which, with the gabled transepts and delicate fleche soaring 90 m (300
ft.) above the ground backed by the western towers, from one of the most striking
of cathedral groups.
CHARTERS CATHEDRAL, Chartress, France (1154-220 AD)

In 1194 AD, a new Cathedral at

Chartres, France was constructed with
vaults where the weight of these
vaults were supported on flying
buttress - light structure of stone piers
and arches standing out the mass of
the building itself. The plan of this
church was similar to Romanesque,
but was more unified because the
arms were shorter. The spaces
border, and the walls between the
parts made thinner or entirely
removed with the developments and
introduction of efficient vaults, this
system enabled these space to be
much lighter and to be entirely
surrounded with windows that were
filled with stained glass depicting Biblical scenes and saints. This Cathedral was
rebuilt after a fire in 1194 and completed about 1220 by incorporating substantial
remains of the previous church. This was designed as a Pilgrimage church for
those who flocked to visit the robe of the virgin, the Cathedral most treasured
possession. To accommodate the pilgrims the church had wide Aisles doubled in
the Choir for each circulation and enormous aisled transepts with triple portals
and porches to rival the west front. The windows are so exquisite that the church
was almost designed around its windows. The stained glass which fills the
churches is among the finest produced in the middle age. The vaults are 37 m
high. A fabulous play of flying Buttress outside adds majesty to the building.
REIMS CATHEDRAL, REIMS, FRANCE (1211-1300 AD)

This Cathedral is built around 13th Century

and completed at the end of 14th Century.
During this time the gothic style was far more
developed and this reformation is reflected in
this Cathedral at Reims. This Cathedral is
unusually rich in sculpture both inside and out
as befitted its royal status.

The interior elevation in 4 levels, with arcade

of Transverse vaults and lit by rounded
windows decorated oculi opening into the
tribune roof space and a small clearstory
window. The high vaults sexpartite lovering
double bays the vaults are very high over 30
m. The wall which supports is very thin and
Articulated by very slender shafts. Double
span flying Buttress support the Nave. There
are often said to be the Earliest Buttress.
STRASBOURG CATHEDRAL, France (1245-1275 AD)

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND

WEST MINISTER ABBEY (1045-1065 AD)

It is the single most important mediaeval building in Britain. It is the largest in

both area and width, 32 m within the walls. Transepts are remarkable for beauty
of mouldings and the ‘Five Sisters’ – a name given to lancet windows of north
transept, each 15 m (50 ft) high and 1.5 m (5 ft) wide. It has unique 14th century
stained glasses.
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL (1220-1262 AD)
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL (1400 AD)
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY

This style penetrates up the design of Rhine and German speaking centers at
around the beginning of 13th Century.

COLOGNE CATHEDRAL, GERMANY (1248 AD)

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN

Replacement of barrel vault with ribbed vault and solid Romanesque wall in
(1131 AD). Full fledged Gothic style developed in late 12th and early 13th century
AD.

Early Gothic remained aloof, from both Romanesque / Islamic Spain. Early stage
was French type, but later Spanish style with lavish decoration in the nave of the
Spanish Cathedral.

BURGOS CATHEDRAL (1221 – 1260 AD)

It is irregular in plan and the most poetic of all the Spanish cathedrals. The two
western towers with open-work spire recall cologne is a feature of the exterior.
The interior has elaborate triforium tracery massive piers and fine transeptal
circular windows. Among the side chapels, which are of extraordinary size, the
Octagonal Capilla del Condestable (1482 AD) over 15.2 m (50 ft) in diameter is
especially remarkable for the beauty and magnificence of its late Gothic detail.
GRANADA CATHEDRAL (1523 AD)
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY

Gothic style came late in Italy. They approved it simply because it was the
Architecture which commands the general approach to church. The great
rebuilding of Italian Cathedral was in Romanesque, rather than Gothic.

MILAN CATHEDRAL, Florence (1360 AD)

The largest mediaeval cathedral and it’s somewhat German in character. In plan
it consists of a nave 16.7 m (55 ft) wide between the piers, lofty double aisles and
transepts terminated with a circlet of columns in the French manner, but
enclosed in a German polygonal apse, while there is an absence of lateral
chapels.

The interior is vast, lofty and imposing, rendered impressive by the dimness and
mystery which result from lack of light. It has huge piers, 18 m (60 ft) high,
surrounded by engaged shafts and surmounted by enormous capitals, 6.1 m (20
ft) in height, containing canopies and statues, from which spring the nave arches
supporting the vault 45 m (148 ft) above the ground. There is no triforium and the
clear-storey is small, in striking contrast with French and English Gothic
cathedrals. The exterior is a gleaming mass of white marble with lofty traceried
windows, panelled buttresses, flying buttresses and pinnacles crowned with
statues. The whole wrought into a soaring design of lacelike intricacy. The three
magnificent traceried windows of the apse, 20.7 m x 8.5 m (68 x 28 ft) are the
finest of their type in Italy.

The flat-pitched roofs are constructed of massive marble slabs laid on the
vaulting and over the crossing is a domical vault, 65.5 m (215 ft) above the
ground, finishing in a lantern to which in 1750 an open-work spire was added
rising 107 m (350 ft) above the ground.
PALAZZODUCALE, Venice, Italy 1350 AD (DOGE’S PLACE)

• A lacy network of arcades and open stonework supports the colorful

marble façade of the 14th century Doge’s Place. Exuberant yet refined, it
represents the climax of Italian Gothic.

• The oriental delicacy of the ornament is the fruit of Byzantine influence

upon a city situated midway between East and Wets. This has been
described as “the most successful non-ecclesiastical building ever
achieved in the Gothic Style”.

• It is the grandest effort in civic architecture of the period. The facades

have open arcades in the two lower storeys, and the third storey was
rebuilt after a fire in the 16th century. Facade is 15 m (500 ft.) total length.

• The upper storey is faced with white and rose-colored marble walls,
resembling patterned brickwork, pierced by a few large and ornate
windows, and finished with a lace-like parapet of oriental cresting.
SIENA CATHEDRAL (1260-1280 AD)

One of the most

stupendous undertakings
since the building of Pisa
Cathedral was largely
the outcome of civic
pride, and all artistic bf
Sienna contributed their
works to its building and
adornment. The plan is
cruciform, with. an
unusual irregular
hexagon at the crossing
17.7 m (58 ft.) in
diameter, covered by a
dome and lantern of
1259-64, while the
sanctuary, owing to the
slope of the ground, is
built over the Baptistery
of St. Giovanni which -
thus forms a Crypt, and
is entered from the lower
level. The interior is
striking in its combination
of unusual features. The
zebra marble-stripping on wall and pier, the squinch-arches of the strange
hexagon and the incised marble floor, by the famous pavement-artists of Sienna.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION

The broad term Renaissance derived from the Latin meaning “to be born again”.
This notion of rebirth is mostly applied to the social, economic and political
changes that took place during 14th and 15th century AD in Italy, which was rich in
ancient Roman monuments, and was the pioneer in the Renaissance movement.
Renaissance Architecture is a style which used Gothic methods in construction
but, classical character of Roman Architecture. The Renaissance Architect
adopted Byzantine treatment of domes over square compartments. They made
the exterior of domes dominating features by further increasing the height of
drum and decorating not only with windows but also with new columns. The
pointed arch was now ousted by semicircular Roman Arch. Gothic vault gave
place to the ancient Roman semi-circular vaults and cross vaults. By the end of
15th century AD parts of Northern Europe were also affected and in the 16th
century AD, wider spread changes were occurred in art/architecture. The
Renaissance was a period of discovery in manifolds of new scientific laws, new
forms of arts and literature, new religions and political ideas new lands including
America. The first concern of the period was the revival of ancient culture.

INFLUENCES

Historical

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD brought a huge number of learned Classic

teachers (mostly Greeks) to Europe. This greatly increased interest in all aspects
of classic tunes: literature, history, art, architecture and town planning.

At about this same time an increasing opposition to the practices of the Solo
Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe lead to a move by “Protestors” to
Reform Catholic Church. This became known as the Reformation and the
reformist as ‘Protestants’. This split Western Europe about it half and caused a
cultural division which would take two parts (Catholic and Protestant) in different
aesthetic directions.

Among the leading architects of the period were sculptures Filippo Brunelleschi
and Michelangelo and three painters Leonardo Da Vince, Raphael and Gulio
Romano. Leonardo was a scientist, Michelangelo philosopher and Leon Battista
Alberti and Andrea Palladio wrote treaties on Architecture.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Renaissance movement, begun in Italy in the 15th century, created a break
in the continuous evolution of European architecture. The salient characteristic of
this new departure from Gothic was the employment of the Classic Roman
'Orders of Architecture', which were reintroduced after a thousand years (Tuscan,
Doric, Corinthian, Ionic and Composite).

Plan

The plans of Renaissance buildings have a

square, symmetrical, planned appearance in
which proportions are usually based on a module.
Within a church the module is often the width of
an aisle. The need to integrate the design of the
plan with the façade was introduced in the work
of Filippo Brunelleschi, but he was never able to
carry this aspect. The first building to
demonstrate this was St. Andrea in Mantua by
Alberti. The development of the plan in secular
architecture was to take place in the 16th century,
with the work of Palladio.
Facade

Façades are symmetrical around their

vertical axis. Church facades are
generally surmounted by a pediment
and organized by a system of
pilasters, arches and entablatures.
The columns and windows show a
progression towards the centre. One
of the first true Renaissance facades
was the Cathedral of Pienza (1459-
62), which has been attributed to the
Florentine architect Bernardo
Gambarelli (known as Rossellino) with
Alberti perhaps design some parts of it. Domestic buildings are often surmounted
by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on each floor, and the
centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated
surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for the Palazzo
Rucellai (1446 - 1451) in Florence with its three registers of pilasters

Columns and Pilasters

The Roman orders of columns are used: - Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and
Composite. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or
architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. During
the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters and entablatures as
an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated
system was in the Old Sacristy (1421-1440) by Brunelleschi.

Arches

Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often
used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a
section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti
was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental scale at the St. Andrea in
Mantua.

Vaults

Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square
plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault is
returned to architectural vocabulary as at the St. Andrea in Mantua.

Ceilings

Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in
medieval architecture. They are frequently painted or decorated.
Domes

The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible
from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are
only visible internally. While the Byzantines contributed the pendentive domes,
allowing domical vaults to be erected over polygonal compartments, a particular
development was raising a high drum above pendentives to accommodate not
only windows but decoration with the classical columns. The dome is crowned
with a lantern and the pointed arch of the Gothic was changed into the Roman
semi-circular arch. Domes had been used only rarely in the Middle Ages, but
after the success of the dome in Brunelleschi’s design for the Basilica di Santa
Maria del Fiore and its use in Bramante’s plan for St. Peter's Basilica (1506) in
Rome, the dome became an indispensable element in church architecture and
later even for secular architecture, such as Palladio's Villa Rotonda.

Doors

Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted
by a triangular or segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are
usually arched and frequently have a large or decorative keystone.

Windows

Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have
square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used
alternately. Emblematic in this respect is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in
1517 AD. In the Mannerist period the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a
motif of a high semi-circular topped opening flanked with two lower square-
topped openings. Windows are used to bring light into the building and in
domestic architecture, to give views. Stained glass, although sometimes present,
is not a feature.

Walls

External walls are

generally of highly-
finished ashlar masonry,
laid in straight courses.
The corners of buildings
are often emphasized by
rusticated “quoins”.
Basements and ground
floors were often
rusticated, as modeled
on the Palazzo Medici Riccardi (1444-1460) in Florence. Internal walls are
smoothly plastered and surfaced with white-chalk paint. For more formal spaces,
internal surfaces are decorated with frescoes.

Details

Courses, moldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision.
Studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the
important aspects of Renaissance. The different orders each required different
sets of details. Some architects were stricter in their use of classical details than
others, but there was also a good deal of innovation in solving problems,
especially at corners. Moldings stand out around doors and windows rather than
being recessed, as in Gothic Architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in
niches or placed on plinths. They are not integral to the building as in medieval
architecture. Baluster was also introduced, not known to the Romans. Baluster is
one of a number of short vertical members often circular in section used to
support a stair handrail or a coping.
RENAISSNCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY

Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the
Renaissance. It is in Florence that the new architectural style had its beginning,
not slowly evolving in the way that Gothic grew out of Romanesque, but
consciously brought to being by particular architects who sought to revive the
order of a past "Golden Age". The scholarly approach to the architecture of the
ancient coincided with the general revival of learning.

The architecture of the Renaissance, which began in the 1300’s Italy, was
looking back to “the good old days” of antiquity to the splendid image of ancient
Rome. The world history was viewed in three phases – antiquity, the middle ages
and the age of the Renaissance. The idea was not to copy the ancients, but to
built on its ideas and surpasses it. There was an intense study of the Roman
classic work on Architecture by Vitruvius treatise De Architectura. This book and
the relics of Roman architecture were first studied by the Italian architects who
lead them to the basis for this new old design. With this book, other printings
were also done by contemporary architects and writers such as Brunelleschi,
Alberti and Palladio.

The Renaissance is Italy can be broadly classified into four main periods:

• Early Renaissance or Quattrocento – 15th century

• High Renaissance and Mannerism – 16th century
• Baroque and Rococo – 17th – early 18th century
• New Classical – mid 18th – early 19th century

EARLY RENAISSANCE

This style revival of ancient architectural principles began in Florence with the
work of Fillippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446 AD). The underlying feature of the work
of Brunelleschi was "order". The leading architects of the Early Renaissance or
Quattrocento were Brunelleschi, Michelozzo and Alberti.

The next well known developer of this period was Leon Battisti Alberta (1404-
1472 AD) who went for Antiquity (Archaeological) and introduced specific ancient
feature such as triumphal arch and temple font into churches.

This style of architecture is based on:

• Simple modular proportion

• Clarity of design
• Standardized vocabulary of monolithic grey stone columns and pilasters
set against white plaster walls
• Forms details more on Tuscan Romanesque
• Arches supported on columns (is the norm)
• Pendentive vaults
EXAMPLES

DOME OF FLORENCE CATHEDRAL (1420-1434 AD)

Brunelleschi's first major architectural commission was for the enormous brick
dome which covers the central space that of Florence's cathedral, designed by
Arnolfo di Cambio in the 14th century but left unroofed. While often described as
the first building of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi's daring design utilizes the
pointed Gothic arch and Gothic ribs. It seems certain that while stylistically
Gothic, the dome is in fact structurally influenced by the great dome of Ancient
Rome - dome of the Pantheon.

Brunelleschi was aware that a dome of enormous proportion could in fact be

engineered without a keystone. The dome in Florence is supported by the eight
large ribs and sixteen more internal ones holding a brick shell, with the bricks
arranged in a herringbone manner. Although the techniques employed are
different, in practice both domes comprise a thick network of ribs supporting very
much lighter and thinner infilling. And both have a large opening at the top.
S. SPIRITO, Florence (1436 AD)

Begun two years before Brunelleschi’s death, it was not completed until 1486. It
remains a perfect example of composition by the addition of identical units,
typical of early Renaissance culture. All dimensions are derived from the
measurement of the radius of the nave, arches by the arithmetical multiplication.
The width of the nave; Brunelleschi’s successors shrank from the ultimate
conclusion of this repetitive scheme and built a face with three doors instead of
the four bays which the scheme demanded.
PAZZI CHAPEL, S. Croce, Florence (1429-1461 AD)

It is considered to be one of the masterpieces of Renaissance architecture. Once

thought to be a work of Filippo Brunelleschi, it now seems that he most probably
was responsible for the plan, which is based on simple geometrical forms, the
square and the circle, but not for the building's execution and detailing. A façade
that he had begun was partially obscured by the addition of a porch. The size of
the chapel was predetermined by existing walls, creating an unusual situation.
The building gives us insight into the ambitions of Renaissance architects in their
struggle to bring coherency to the architectural language of columns, pilasters,
arches and vaults. Between the pilasters in the transept there are tall, blank,
round headed panels and above them, roundels and common Renaissance
decorative motifs. As to the architect, scholars argue that it could have been
either the work of Giuliano da Maiano or Michelozzo.

THE MEDICI PALACE (PALAZZO RICCARDI) Florence (1444 AD)

Palazzo Riccardi is Michelozzi's best known building of Tuscan Palace design.

The rooms are arranged around an open cortile the main apartments being those
on the 'piano nobile', approached by an unpretentious but generous staircase,
not symmetrically placed. The more intimate of the family rooms were in the
second floor. The exterior is an admirable astylar example and shows effect of
graduated rustication. The ground storey has heavily rusticated masonry, with
semi-circular arches enclosing windows added from the designs of Michelangelo.
The intermediate storey has channeled masonry with bifurcated windows and the
upper storey, in plain ashlar masonry, has similar windows. The whole facade is
crowned by a bold cornice, about 1 /8th the height of the building and projecting
2.5 m (8 ft 4 in).
SAINT ANDREA, Mantua (1470-1700 AD)

Begun by Alberti in 1472 AD the year of his death, Sant Andrea was completed
in the 18th century AD by Filippo Juvara, who built the dome the plan initiated the
Latin cross type with a single nave flanked by chapels, which was later adopted
in numerous churches. The majestic facade combining a triumphal arch with a
temple front is the most distinctive feature of the exterior. The overall conception
indicates a very free attitude towards ancient models.

THE OPSEDALE MAGGIORE, Milan (1456 AD – 18th century AD)

S. MARIA DELLA GRAZIE, Milan (1493 AD)

The church is also famous for the mural of the Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci,
which is in the refectory of the convent.

PALAZZO DELLA CANCILLERIA, Rome (1485 AD)

The Palazzo della Cancelleria, is the first really important Renaissance building
in Rome, and was a rebuilt residence for Cardinal Riario, incorporating St.
Lorenzo in Damaso, an ancient Basilica which previously had been on another
site.

The façades are of travertine stone robbed from the coliseum; they rise in three
main tiers; the lowest in channeled masonry and the two upper each ornamented
with plain Corinthian pilasters arranged in alternating spacing instead of the
regular spacing of earlier stylar palaces. The intermediate full entablature is
subdued, while that at the top has vertical modillions across the frieze, giving it all
the vigor of the crowning cornice of the coliseum. The shallow pilasters stand up
on simulated pedestals, the corresponding 'blind' parapets serving as aprons to
the main windows, which latter have arched openings on the first floor, fitted
within square, corniced head. The wings of the principal facades are advanced
slightly, and round the corner to the left of the entrance front is a first floor
balcony with extremely delicate decoration. The imposing cortile, 31.5 m x 19 m
(104 ft. x 63 ft.), is surrounded by two storey of arcades of Doric columns
carrying a third, solid storey ornamented with pilasters spanning two tiers of small
windows in height and carrying a bold cornice similar to that on the fronts.
S. MARIA DEI MIRACOLI, Venice (1481 – 1489 AD)

It is also known as the "marble church". The church has a false colonnade on the
exterior walls (pilasters) and a semicircular pediment. The main altar is reached
by a series of steps. The circular facade windows recall Donato Bramante's
churches in Milan. It was built between by Pietro Lombardo to house a
miraculous icon of the Virgin Mary. The interior is enclosed by a wide barrel vault,
with a single nave. The naive is dominated by an ornamental marble stair rising
between two pulpets, with statues by Tullio Lombardo, Alessandro Vittoria and
Nicolò di Pietro. The vaulted ceiling is divided in fifty coffers decorated with
paintings of the prophets's faces

HIGH RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM

The High Renaissance style in Rome (1500-1514 AD) began with the work of
Bramanta. This style aim was monumentality, emulation of the massive spatial
effects of Imperial Roman Architecture and use of language of order. Raphael
(1483-1520 AD) also came closest of all Renaissance Architects in realizing the
decorative richness and variety of ancient Architecture and was followed by
Peruzzi (1481-1536 AD) and Giulio Romano (1455-1546 AD).
This stage was set for the emergency of two main items in 16th century
Architectural style:

(i) A tendency of correctness and formulation of rule

(ii) An inventiveness verging on Eccentricity

The second one is often called the ‘Mannerist’. This style although break the
classical rule, but merely reject the ancient example. The most influential
Architects of mid century were Michelangelo (1475-1564 AD), Palladio (1508-
1580 AD). Michelangelo’s concept of Plastic approach to the wall mass, his
spatial innovations and fantastic sculpture details later paved the way for the
Baroque. And Palladio concept of clear Hermonious proportion masterly
deployment of select standardized antique forms and systematic formulation of
rules. Michelangelo is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that
stretches from the bottom to the top of a facade. He used this in his design for
the Campidoglio in Rome.

EXAMPLES

TEMPIETTO, in the cloister of S. PIETRO, Montorio, Rome (1502 AD)

The Tempietto in St. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, erected to mark the spot where
St. Peter was martyred, is a perfect architectural gem by Bramante, in full High
Renaissance style, resembling in design a small Roman circular temple. It is only
4.5 m (15 ft) in diameter internally and is surrounded by a Doric peristyle, behind
which rises the drum, pierced with windows alternating with shell-headed niches
and carrying a dome.
S. PETER’S, Rome (1506-1626 AD)

It is the most important building of this period and was the outcome of the work of
many architects under the direction of many Popes during a period of 120 years.
The present cathedral had its origin in the intention of Pope Julius II to erect a
tomb house for himself, since he wanted to erect a monument as should
enshrine all the magnificence which he wished to stand as associated with the
papal power, the Christian religion and the Latin race.

A competition produced several designs, and that of Bramante was selected.

Planned as a Greek cross, the foundation stone was laid in 1506 and the
proposed dome was founded on that of the Pantheon, with the addition of a
peristyle and Lantern. In 1513, on the death of Julius II, Bramante was
superseded by Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Raphael
proposed a plan in the shape of a Latin cross, but when he died, Baldassarre
Peruzzi, as appointed architects reverted to the Greek-cross plan. On the death
of Peruzzi, Antonio de Sangallo submitted a slightly altered plan, with an
extended vestibule, lofty campanile, and elaborated central dome. On his death
ten years later, Michelangelo, then in his 72nd year, succeeded him, and the
present building owes most of its outstanding features to him. He used a Greek-
cross plan, strengthened the piers of the dome, and redesigned the surrounding
chapels and apses. He reduced the original and indeterminate number of bays to
each limb of the church from two to one.

The Dome was completed in 1590 by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico
Fontana. In 1564 Vignola had added sided cupolas but these became ineffective
when Carlo Maderna lengthened the nave to form a Latin cross and added the
gigantic facade (1606-12). Finally Bernini erected in 1655-67 the noble entrance
piazza 198 m (650 ft) wide, surrounded by 284 columns forming the imposing
Fourfold Tuscan colonnades. Chatedral, Piazza and Vatican form a world famous
group.

The completed plan of vast proportions is a Latin cross with an internal length of
183 m (600 ft) and an internal width across the transepts of 137 m (450 ft), while
the total external length, including portico, is 213.4 m (700 ft). The nave, 25.6 m
(84 ft) wide, consists of four immense bays. The crossing is covered by the
majestic dome 41.9 m (137 ft 6 in) internal diameters, while the short transepts
and the sanctuary are terminated by semicircular apses. The magnificent
entrance portico 71.3 m x 13.3 m (234 ft x 43 ft 6 in), extends the whole width of
the church and leads to the interior, the walls of which are of brick faced by a
gigantic order of Corinthian pilasters, 25.5 m (83 ft 6 in) high, and entablature 6.1
m (20 ft) high. Surmounted by a semicircular barrel vault, coffered, glided and
frescoed, 46 m (150 ft) above the marble pavement. The four stupendous piers,
18 m (60 ft) square which uphold the dome have colossal statues 4.9 m (16 ft)
high. The throne of St. Peter, in the western apse, is a Baroque work of Bernini,
30.5 m (100 ft) high, covering the high altar which stands over the alleged tomb
of St. Peter in the crypt, behind the Dome.
PALAZZO FARNESE, Rome (1517-1589 AD)

Palazzo Farnese is a prominent High Renaissance palace in Rome, designed by

Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, one of Bramante's assistants in the design of
St. Peter's. Michelangelo was employed to complete the third story with its deep
cornice and revise the courtyard. The massive facade dominates a small piazza;
the features of its facade are the alternating pediments that cap the windows, the
central rusticated portal and Michelangelo's projecting cornice. The courtyard,
initially open arcades, is ringed by an academic exercise in ascending orders
(Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic).
BASILICA VICENZA, Vicenza (1549 AD)

The Basilica, Vicenza, is famous for its Renaissance arcades added by Palladio.
The design was won in competition in 1545 and completed in 1614. This has
three sides of the building with two story facade of Doric below and Ionic above.
The openings are framed by half columns which are doubled at the corner. The
end bays on each facade were unrestricted in width, so Palladio made them
narrower in order to give an effect of strength at the angles. These arcades, in
time hard stone which, under the main entablature; frame intervening arches
supported on smaller freestanding twin columns, and there are circular openings
in the spandrels. This grouping and combination of columns and arches has
been termed the "Palladian Motif", and is exceedingly effective especially when
seen in conjunction with the slender campanile alongside. This brilliantly flexible
solution allows for site constrictions and irregular bay widths due to the Gothic
core behind, since the side openings of the Serliana can be expanded or
contracted at will. A balustrade punctuated by sculpture crowns this soberly
magnificent structure.
VILLA ALMERICO CAPRA, (LA ROTUNDA VICENZA) Mantua (1566 AD)

Its square plan is based on double symmetry dictated by 4 flights of steps. At the
centre is the rotunda. With its columned porches surmounted by pediments and
central domed hall, this was how Palladio imagined Roman villas to have been.
This is a typical example of rigor and balance that typified the Renaissance.
TEATRO OLIMPICO (OLYMPIC THEATER), Vicenza (1575 AD)

Designed by Palladio and completed

after his death in 1580 AD by
Scamozzi. The elliptical cavea,
surmounted by a columned gallery of
which the central portion is closed with
niches was inspired by the plan of an
amphitheatre cut in two along its
longitudinal axis, but the theatre
reflects antiquity by being roofed. A
fascinating innovation was the
enhanced perspective effects offered
by the openings in the stage wall. This
is the sole Renaissance structures of
that kind to have survived until
contemporary times, and the Teatro
Olimpico is the oldest surviving
Renaissance Theater.

BAROQUE/ROCOCO

BAROQUE

The movement, spatial invention, drama and freedom of details associated with
the Baroque are a delayed response to Michelangelo’s achievement. This
Baroque style was a new phase of Architectural developments. It was perhaps
the outcome of reaction against the blind worship of the Roman Architecture.
Beauty living Italians revolved against the lifeless art. They wanted freedom in
plan, design and ornament. The spirit of the Artistic is dependence was often
expressed in frontages, over burdened decoration and apparent disregard of time
constructive principle.

This style consisted of twisted shaft, huge wavy scrolls and flying figures in
dangerous looking position. The style, in spite of its many glaring defects has
given relief formed in Architecture, which did not allow any novelty of designs.

The Baroque style finds its expression in Villas Summer Results, and Gardens
which were built to meet the growing desire of wealthy people for outdoor life.
Bernini (1598-1680 AD) the founder of Roman Baroque and other were Pietro Da
Cortuna (1596-1669 AD), Francesco Borronim (1599-1667 AD), Guarino Guarini
(1624-1683 AD) and Fillipo Juvarra (1678-1736 AD). Carlo Maderno (1556-1629
AD) - introduced a vigorous, sculptural approach to Architectural design in the 1st
decade of 17th century AD.
EXAMPLES

PALAZZO BARBERINI, Rome (1628-1633 AD)

The palazzo is around a forecourt centered on Bernini's grand two-storey hall,

with an extended wing dominating the piazza, which lies on a lower level. The
main block presents three tiers of great arch-headed windows, like glazed
arcades. On the uppermost floor, Borromini's windows are set in a false
perspective that suggests extra depth, a feature that has been copied into the
20th century. Flanking the hall, two sets of stairs lead to the piano nobile, a large
squared staircase by Bernini to the left and a smaller oval staircase by Borromini
to the right.

PIAZZA OF ST. PETER, Rome (1656 – 1667 AD)

The piazza, which lies before the basilica, designed by Bernini under the
direction of Pope Alexander VII as an appropriate forecourt, designed "so that the
greatest number of people could see the Pope give his blessing, either from the
middle of the façade of the church or from a window in the Vatican Palace". The
obelisk marked a center, and a granite fountain by Maderno stood to one side:
Bernini made the fountain appear to be one of the foci of the ellipse embraced by
his colonnades and eventually matched it on the other side, in 1675, just five
years before his death. The colossal Tuscan colonnades, four columns deep
frame the trapezoidal entrance to the basilica and the massive elliptical area. The
ellipse's long axis, parallel to the basilica's façade, creates a pause in the
sequence of forward movements that is characteristic of a Baroque monumental
approach. The colonnades define the piazza. The elliptical center of the piazza,
which contrasts with the trapezoidal entrance, encloses the visitor with "the
maternal arms of Mother Church" in Bernini's expression. At the center of the
ellipse stands an Egyptian obelisk of red granite, 25.5 m tall, supported on
bronze lions and surmounted by the Chigi arms in bronze, in all 41 m to the cross
on its top. The obelisk, of the 13th century BC, was moved to Rome in AD 37 by
the Emperor Caligula to stand in the central spina of the Circus Gai et Neronis,
which lay to the left of the present basilica. The Vatican Obelisk is the only
obelisk in Rome that has not toppled since ancient Roman times.
ROCOCO

In early 18th century, Rome came with new style Spanish steps possessing a
curvilinear elegance and sprightness giving a new name Rococo Style.

EXAMPLE

PALAZZO STANGA, Cremona (18th century AD)

The fanciful carving frames of the Arches/window are characteristic features.

TREVI FOUNTAIN, Rome

It is the largest foundation, 25.9 m (85 ft) high and 19.8 m (65 ft) wide and most
ambitious of the Baroque fountains of Rome. It is made by Nicola Salvi. It is
fused to a palace facade.
NEOCLASSICAL

During mid 18th century a new style evolved called Neo-Classical which is a
revival of classical style. The Greek revival did not hold in Italy for long but during
the period of Napoleone, a wave of French inspired Neo Classical public building,
as well as grand some town planning scheme. Architect Giovanni Battista
Piranesi (1720-1778 AD) is best known for his dramatic architectural etching and
for championing Roman Architecture at the expense of Greek.

EXAMPLES

SS. SIMEONE E GIUDA, Venice (1718-1738 AD)

• Rigid classicism inspired by the pantheon, with

Pedimented Portico.

• The dome is of the stilted Byzantine type) which is

traditional to Venice.

LA SCALA, Milan (1776-1780 AD)

A theatre (seven bay facade an arcaded ground floor with flat banded projection,
upper level is articulated with an order of paired composite columns.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE

Development of Architecture from 15th-19th century AD as follows:

• The French Renaissance (15th-17th AD)

• The classical period (17th-18th AD)
• Rococo and Neo classical (18th-19th AD)

THE FRENCH RENAISSANCE

The Renaissance in France was encouraged by the Italian campaign of Charles

VII and Louis XII and aware influenced by Antiquity and Italian Craftsman.

Architect are Jean Andronet du Cerrcau and Francois Mausart (1596 – 1666 AD)

THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

The use of word ‘classical’ in French Architecture is not a direct imitation of the
Antique models, but to indicate a performance in that period for quetities of Logic,
Balance and Clarity.

The greatest Architects of the period are Jacques Lemmercier (1585-1659 AD),
Francois Mansan (1598-1666 AD) and Louis Levau (1612-1670 AD)

Seventeenth century France resisted the Baroque (Bernin’s Design for the
Louvre no Favor.

ROCOCO AND NEO-CLASSICAL

French Rococo was a style to Interiors and no stylistic break is evident in the
design of facade, using vertical pilaster. This is an architecture of intimate
comfortable residence Asymmetrical with greater separation of private and public
apartments and much use of round corners and sinuous curves and is
characterized by Asymmetrical Arabesques, the use of ‘c’ and ‘s’ curves known
as ‘Rochelle’. Rococo had little effect on French Design.

The neo-classical movement in France drew in long traditions of classically

based teaching in Academy of Architects in PARIS and Archaeological ideas.

EXAMPLES

CHATEAU DE CHENONCEAUX, Near Paris (1515-1559 AD)

The early section was built from 1515 AD and Italian influence can be seen in the
decoration, the symmetry of the facades and the straight flights of internal
staircase. The bridge was built between 1555-1559 AD and the gallery from 1559
AD onwards by Jean Bulant, architect to Catherine de medicis.
CHATEAU DE CHAMBOARD (1519-1547 AD)

It is designed by an Italian architect, Domenico da Cortona and the most famous

structure in the Loire district. It is semi-fortified in character and has a plan
reminiscent of a Mediaeval 'concentric' caste, being made up of two rectangles
one within the other, but wit the facade of the smaller on the same line as that of
the outer court, which thus protects it on three sides, while the fourth is protected
by the moat. Many different influences are evident at Chambord, typical of hybrid
character of French architecture at beginning of the 16th century AD. With round
towers and high roofs, it has a medieval aspect. But the plan is modern: the great
quadrangle appears to develop from the inner “keep” in the keep itself, fort
identical apartments are divided by the arms of a vestibule in the shape of a
Greek cross.

This inner block, 67m (220 ft) square, corresponds to the keep of an English
castle, and has four lofty halls on each floor, finished by elliptical barrel vaulting.
At the junction of these halls is the world-famous double spiral staircase, by
which people can ascend and descend simultaneously without being visible to
each other. It is built up in a cage of stone crowned with a storied 'lantern' which
forms the central feature of the exterior. There is much waste of space, as
rectangular rooms are formed in the circular towers. This remarkable pile has
many Gothic features clothed with Renaissance detail, and a vertical Gothic
effect is produced by wall pilasters with unique carved capitals. At this time
French religious architecture was closely analogous with secular architecture.
CHATEAU OF FONTAINEBLEAU, France (1528-1540 AD)

Built by the master mason Gilles Le Breton around the keep of a small medieval
chateau, the work being carried out in several stages that lasted until the 18th
century AD; hence the irregularity in plan and lack of unity in style. Even so, the
initial plan, which was probably the result of successive decisions under Francois
I was largely adhered to. The Gallery of Francois I, with its frescoes framed in
stucco by Rosso, 1533-1540 AD, is the first great decorated gallery in France.
The exterior is remarkably ineffective in composition and the palace depends for
its attraction of the court. Formal gardens, terraces, lakes and radiating vistas,
while the chief interest lies in architectural features of the interior.

THE LOUVRE, Paris (1546-1878 AD)

Palais, du Louvre, Paris was in course of construction from the time of Francis I
to Napoleon III in the 19th century. The Louvre, together with the Tuileries,
constituted one of the most imposing palaces in Europe, and enclosed an area of
over 45 acres. The facade of the early designed consists of two storey with
Corinthian and composite pilasters surmounted by an attic storey, and is
enriched with beautiful sculptured detail by Jean Goujon. The gallery facing the
Seine was erected by J.A. du Cerceau II, in which pilasters including two storey
were surmounted by alternately triangular and segmental pediments.
CHATEAU DE MAISONS, Near Paris (1642-1646 AD)

The Chateau de Maisons is one of the most pleasantly harmonious of all the
chateaux. It was designed by Francois Mansart on a symmetrical E-plan with
central entrance and twin oval-shaped side vestibules. It is notable externally for
the effective use of the classic orders and the high roofs with prominent chimney
stacks, of the three pavilions, and internally for the refinement of detail of the
balustrade stairs, carved chimney pieces ornamental ceilings.

It was regarded by Voltaire and his contemporaries as the purest example of

French classical architecture, and the King Louis XV considered buying it and
adapting it to his needs but decided that this would be vandalism. The building
and decoration of the interior have survived almost unaltered, but the magnificent
gardens and park which surrounded it have been built over with modern
suburban villas.

PALAIS DE VERSAILLES, near Paris (1661 - 1756 AD)

Designed and built over a long period of time the palace at Versailles is an
exquisite example of French Royal architecture. In a building over 415 meters
long the palace contains rich and regal spaces. The complex is set in hung
garden of several acres and has been maintained as an official government
retreat house.
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN

The first great exponent of Renaissance architecture in England was Inigo Jones
(1573–1652), who had studied architecture in Italy where the influence of
Palladio was very strong. His works, with their clean lines, and symmetry were
revolutionary in a country still enamoured with mullion windows, crenelations and
turrets.

LITTLE MORETON HALL, Cheshire (1559 AD)

A mid 16th century AD house, romantic half - timbered structure, surrounded by a

moat. Its projecting long galley, 75 ft by 12.5 ft was superimposed in 1580 AD. It
has a ceiling of curved braces and plaster panels of emblematic devices. Its
carved corner posts, gables and “magpie” surfaces are typical of the Tudor
Midlands.
QUEEN’S HOUSE, Greenwich (1616 – 1635 AD)

The Queen's House, Greenwich, was designed and begun by architect Inigo
Jones for Anne of Denmark (the queen of King James I of England) and was
completed for Henrietta Maria, queen of King Charles I. The Queen's House is
one of the most important buildings in British architectural history, being the first
consciously classical building to have been put up in Britain. However, its style is
generally called Palladian. It has a lofty cubic two-storied entrance hall with a ring
gallery leading across a former road by bridge to a central ionic Loggia set a first-
floor level. The sills of the ground-floor windows have since been lowered and
sashed. Extra bridges were added by Webb.

SWAKELEYS, (1629-1638 AD) Indigo Jones

ROYAL HOSPITAL, Greenwich

WHITEHALL PALACE, London

The Palace of Whitehall was the main residence of the English monarchs in
London from 1530 until 1698 when all except Inigo Jones's 1622 Banqueting
House was destroyed by fire. Before the fire it had grown to be the largest palace
in Europe, with over 1,500 rooms (and was at one time the largest building in the
world).
ST. PAUL'S London (1675-1710 AD)

It was built by Sir Christopher Wren.

The first design was a Greek cross in plan, with projecting vestibule, but the
influence of, the clergy, who desired a long nave and choir suitable for ritual,
finally caused the selection of a Latin cross.

The interior has a length of 141 m including pase, a breadth including aisles of
30.8 m and an area of about 6.000 m2.

This plan consists of a great central space at the crossing suitable for vast
congregations, crowned by a Dome painted by Sir James Thornhill; a choir and
nave in three bays, north and south transepts with semicircular porticoes, and
projecting western portico of coupled columns.

The Dome and its support presented a complicated structural problem.

The Dome is carried on eight piers, and is 34 m in diameter at the base of the
high drum, and is of triple construction.

The inner dome of brick, 457 mm (18 in) thick has its eye 65.3 m above the floor,
while the intermediate conical dome, of brick 457 mm (18 in) thick, strengthened
by a double of Iron supports the stone lantern, ball and cross.

Eight openings are formed in the summit of the outer dome to admit light to the
inner dome.

The facades have two orders, the lower Corinthian and the upper composite,
totaling 33.6 m in height.

The aisles are only one storey high, so the part above them is a screen-wall
introduced to give dioity and to act as a counter weight to the flying buttresses
concealed behind it, which receive the thrust of the nave vault.

The western facade, 54 m wide, approached by a broad flight of steps which give
scale to the building, has a central two-storied portico of coupled Corinthian and
composite columns superimposed, surmounted by a pediment sculptured with
the conversion of St. Paul.

The portico is flanked by two beautifully proportioned campanile 64.7 m high

above the nave floor, that on the north containing bells and that on the south the
clock.
KEDLESTON HALL, Derbyshire (1757-1759 AD)

The design of the three-floored house is of three blocks linked by two

segmentally curved corridors. The ground floor is rusticated, while the upper
floors are of smooth dressed stone. The central, largest block contains the state
rooms and was intended for use only when there were important guests in the
house. The East block was a self-contained country house in its own right
containing all the rooms for the family's private use, and the identical West block
contained the kitchens and all other domestic rooms and staff accommodation.
Plans for two more pavilions (as the two smaller blocks are known) of identical
size, and similar appearance were not executed. Externally these latter pavilions
would have differed from their northern counterparts by large glazed Serlian
windows on the piano nobile of their southern facades. Here the blocks were to
appear as of two floors only; a mezzanine was to have been disguised in the
north of the music room block. The linking galleries here were also to contain
larger windows, than on the north, and niches containing classical statuary.

The great north front, approximately 107 m in length, is Palladian in character,

dominated by the massive, six-columned Corinthian portico. It is divided into
three distinct sets of bays, the central section is a four-columned, blind triumphal
arch (based on the Arch of Constantine in Rome) containing one large,
pedimented glass door reached from the rusticated ground floor by an external,
curved double staircase. Above the door, at second floor height, are stone
garlands and medallions in relief. The four Corinthian columns are topped by
classical statues. This whole centre section of the facade is crowned by a low
dome visible only from a distance. Flanking the central section are two identical
wings on three floors, each three windows wide, the windows of the first-floor
piano nobile being the tallest. Adam's design for this facade contains huge
"movement" and has a delicate almost fragile quality.

The neoclassical interior of the house was designed by Adam to be no less

impressive than the exterior. Entering the house through the great north portico
on the piano nobile, one is confronted by the marble hall designed to suggest the
open courtyard or atrium of a Roman villa. Twenty fluted alabaster columns with
Corinthian capitals support the heavily decorated, high-coved cornice. Niches in
the walls contain classical statuary; above the niches are grisaille panels. The
floor is of inlaid Italian marble. Matthew Paine's original designs for this room
intended for it to be lit by conventional windows at the northern end, but Adam,
warming to the Roman theme, did away with the distracting windows and lit the
whole from the roof through innovative glass skylights.

If the hall was the atrium of the villa, then the adjoining saloon was to be the
vestibulum. The saloon, contained behind the triumphal arch of the south front,
like the marble hall rises the full height of the house, 62 ft to the top of the dome,
where it too is sky-lit through a glass oculus. Designed as a sculpture gallery, this
circular room was completed in 1763. The decorative theme is based on the
temples of the Roman Forum with more modern inventions: in the four massive,
apse-like recesses are stoves disguised as pedestals for classical urns. The four
sets of double doors giving entry to the room have heavy pediments supported
by alabaster columns, and at second floor height, grisaille panels depict classical
themes.
HISTORY OF WESTERN ARCHITECTURE

RECOMMENDED READING BOOKS/JOURNALS

1. A History of Architecture: Banister Fletcher

2. A History of Architecture: Settings/Rituals: Kostof Spiro

3. Architecture of the Western World: Michael Raebum

4. The Story of Western Architecture: Risebero Bill

5. A concise History of Western Architecture: Jordan R.Furneaux

6. Encyclopedia of World Architecture: Stierlin Henri

7. History of Architecture: Crouch Dora

8. Oxford Dictionary of Architecture: James Steven Curl

8. The World Atlas of Architecture