Control lectures - Part II

Frequency responses
yr (t )  A sin( wt ) y (t )  B sin( wt   )
H(s)

The frequency w of the sinusoisodal input may be varied => frequency response of H(s)
 Frequency - Response Method

• The frequency of the sinusoisodal input is varied and the output reponse
is studied.

• The frequency response is the steady state response (after the transient).

• The design of feedback control systems in industry is performed based on

the frequency response.

• It allows an easier design, which is robust against uncertainties in the

plant model
 Frequency responses : Magnitude in decibels (dB)

• The decibels (dB) are used to measure sound level, and are
widely used in electronics, signals and communication.

• Decibel scales (dB) are useful in discussing sound: they can

describe very big ratios using numbers of modest size.

• Example: Two loudspeakers, the first playing a sound with

power P1, and another playing a louder version of the same
sound with power P2. If the second has a million times the
power of the first, the difference in decibels will be:

20 log (P2/P1) = 20 log 1,000,000 = 120 dB

Easier to use!!!
3
 Frequency - Response Method
• Logarithmic technique changes multiplication into addition, and
division into subtraction 
• Octave : the frequency interval for which the frequency doubles
[1=> 2=> 4 …]
• Decade : the frequency interval for which the frequency is
multiplied by 10 [1=> 10 => 100 …]
• As a number increases/decreases by a factor of 10, the dB value
Increases/decreases by 20 dB
• As a number increases/decreases by a factor of 2, the dB value
Increases/decreases by 6 dB
• Frequency response of a low pass filter with 6 dB per octave or
20 dB per decade
 In dB the reciprocal numbers differ only in sign!

• 0.01 = -40 dB
• 0.1 = -20 dB
• 0.5 = -6 dB the number is divided by 2=> in dB its value is
decreased by 6 dB
• 1.0 = 0 dB
• 2.0 = 6 dB
• 10.0 = 20 dB
• 100.0 = 40 dB
 Frequency responses
• The frequency - response curves give a complete description
of the system’s dynamic behavior and allow us to compute
the response for any input (not only sine waves)
• A negative phase angle is called phase lag, and a positive
phase angle is called phase lead

If the reference is yr(t)=sin2t and the output y(t)=0.3sin(2t-80°) => phase lag 80°

https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-30-feedback-control-systems-fall-2010/lecture-
notes/MIT16_30F10_lec03.pdf
 Frequency responses
• Every dynamical system has a frequency
spectrum
• When combined with the system’s frequency
response, we can calculate from it the system
time response
• The peak amplitude ratio is a relative stability
criterion. Bigger peak => poorer stability
 Frequency response
• H(jw) is a complex function of w so we plot
separate graphs for the :

 Phase response

 Magnitude response
 Phase response
Definition. The phase response F(w) = <H(jw) or arg(H(jw)) of a linear time invariant
(LTI) system is defined as the phase (or the angle) of the frequency response H(jw)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_frequency

The phase response gives the phase shift in radians that each input Im
component sinusoid will undergo.
w is the radian frequency , w=2 *f =2 / T [rad/sec]
|H]
w is in rad/sec ; f is in Herz ; T is in seconds
F

Re
F cos F + j.sin F]

Phase F = arg{H(jw)} = arctan

NB The arctangent function arctan(x) is an anti-symmetrical function

 Magnitude response
Definition. The magnitude response of a linear time invariant
(LTI) system is defined as the magnitude of the frequency response H(jw)

Im
The magnitude response gives the magnitude change that each input
component will undergo under frequency variation.

w is the radian frequency , w=2 *f =2 / T [rad/sec] |H]

F
w is in rad/sec ; f is in Herz ; T is in seconds
Re
(for f=1 Hz => w [rad/s] = 2π [rad/s] = 6.2831853 [rad/s] )
(for w=1 [rad/s] => f [Hz] = 1/2π [Hz] = 0.1591549 [Hz] )
 Some recalls
For a complex number

Phase=arg{H(jw)}=arctan

For instance, = =

F = arg{ } = arctan{ } = arctan =

 For a complex number :

Phase=arg{H(jw)}=arctan

For instance, = =

F= arg{ } = arctan{ } = arctan =

=arctan{G1(jw)} - arctan{G2(jw)}=arctan{Im{G1}/Re{G1}]-
-arctan{Im{G2}/Re{G2}]=arctan{w/0.2}-arctan{w/5}
 For a complex number :

Phase=arg{H(jw)}=arctan

For instance, = =

F= arg{ } = arctan{ } = arctan =

=arctan{G1(jw)} - arctan{G2(jw)}=arctan{Im{G1}/Re{G1}]-
-arctan{Im{G2}/Re{G2}]=arctan{w/0.2}-arctan{w/5}
For instance Consider an RC circuit with R = 10k and C = 1μ => RC= 10ms

Vo 1 1
W ( s)   
Vi 1  jwRC 1  0.01 jw

Vo VI i VO
w  50   0 . 89   27  R=10k
Vi
Vo
w  100   0 . 71   45  C=1μ
Vi
Vo
w  300   0 . 32   72 
Vi

Hayt et al. « Analysis of circuits »

14
 This is a complex function of w so we plot separate
graphs for:

vo Magnitude: Vo

1

1
Magnitude Vi 1  jwRC 1  ( wRC ) 2
vi
1
Magnitude response

0 1 2 3 4 5
wRC
Vo Phase Shift:
Phase 
Vi Vo wRC
0    ( jwRC  1)   arctan( )
Vi 1
-0,2
-0,4 Phase response
0 1 2 3 4 5
wRC 15
 Logarithmic axes for w

• Because log frequencies are more significant

than absolute frequencies
• e.g. 5kHz versus 5.005 kHz is less significant than 10Hz
versus 15Hz, even though both differences equal 5Hz!
 Frequency responses of some useful
elementary transfer functions

• Gain
• Integrator
• General form first order transfer function
• General form second order transfer function
 Magnitude response of a gain H(s)=k
• The gain is recognizable by its zero magnitude slope, which is
always 0dB/dec

=>| =>| 20*log

40𝑑𝐵
Slope 0 dB/dec
20*log
20𝑑𝐵

0𝑑𝐵
 Magnitude response of an integrator
• The integrator is recognizable by its magnitude slope, which is
always -20dB/dec
=>| =>| 0 – 20*log => -20dB/dec
| |
Note that for = 1 0 (crosses the w-axis)
* Good building element in controllers => it suppresses noise (always high
frequency)

40𝑑𝐵

20𝑑𝐵

0𝑑𝐵
 Logarithmic axes

• Because log frequencies are more significant

than absolute frequencies
• e.g. 5kHz versus 5.005 kHz is less significant than 10Hz
versus 15Hz, even though both differences equal 5Hz!
( )
( )

30𝑑𝐵

10𝑑𝐵
 Logarithmic axes

• Because log frequencies are more significant

than absolute frequencies
• e.g. 5kHz versus 5.005 kHz is less significant than 10Hz
versus 15Hz, even though both differences equal 5Hz!
( )
( )

30𝑑𝐵

10𝑑𝐵

In one decade, the magnitude changes by 20 dB

It is a log-log graph
 Logarithmic axes, first order system

• Key idea:
•
( )
( )

0𝑑𝐵

−20𝑑𝐵

The magnitude can be approximated by two straight lines intersecting

in the corner frequency (here
NB If k is different from 1, shift up or down by 20*logk
 Loarithmic axes
• Note that the worst case error between the real magnitude
and the approximation is -3dB, because

| =-3dB=0.707

0𝑑𝐵

−20𝑑𝐵

The magnitude can be approximated by two straight lines intersecting

at the corner frequency
 To resume : First order transfer function

• ω < 1/T: straight-line asymptote with zero slope

• ω > 1/T: straight - line asymptote with
± 20 dB/decade slope
• ω = 1/T: value is 0 dB
• ωc = corner frequency = 1/T = frequency at which the
asymptotes to the log magnitude curve intersect
• If the static gain is not 1 shift up or down by
20*log
 Exercise
• Plot the magnitude response of =

• Plot the magnitude response of G = *

 G 𝑠 = *
Bode Diagram
60

40
Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 10

-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
What if there is a numerator wich is not just a gain?
Additional first order transfer functions:
• For the elementary transfer functions G(s) = s
and G(s) = 1+sT, the magnitude responses are
symmetrical to and on ω axis i.e. with
slopes of +20db/dec
• Exercise : Plot the magnitude response of
= Hint : plot each elementary TF
separately, and sum up the corersponding log plots 
 Second order frequency responses
• When a physical system exhibits a natural
oscillatory behavior, a 1st order model (or
even a cascade of several 1 st-order models)
cannot provide the desired response

• The simplest model that does possess that

possibility is the 2nd - order dynamic system
model
 Second order frequency responses
• Second order systems (those with complex
poles) are important because they are the
simplest systems (smaller order) that exhibit
oscillations and overshoot.
• They enable the understanding of higher order
systems
• Recall that the output/input amplitude ratio is
defined by the magnitude |H(jw)|
Second order magnitude responses
k

1  2 /  n * s  1 /  n * s
2 2

k k
 
1  2 /  n * j  1 /  n2 * ( j ) 2 1  2j /  n   2 /  n2
 Second order magnitude responses
• k k
 for k  1
1  2 /  n * j  1 /  n2 * ( j ) 2 1  2j /  n   2 /  n2

  0 .1

0𝑑𝐵
 Second order magnitude responses
k k
• 
1  2 / n * j  1 / n2 * ( j ) 2 1  2j / n   2 / n2

| | ( / n ) 2

  0 .1 | 0 - 20log ( / n ) 2 

 40 log   40 log n
0𝑑𝐵
neglectable with w ≫ 𝑤

−40𝑑𝐵   n , | H ( j ) |  1  0dB
Second order magnitude responses
k
• 1  2 /  N * s  1 /  N2 * s 2

  0 .1

0𝑑𝐵

−40𝑑𝐵
 Second order magnitude responses
k
• 1  2 /  N * s  1 /  N2 * s 2

  0 .1   0 .1

20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘[𝑑𝐵]

20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 − 40 [𝑑𝐵]

10𝑤 10𝑤
 Second order magnitude responses
k
•
1  2 /  N * s  1 /  N2 * s 2

  0 .1   0 .1

20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘[𝑑𝐵]

20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 − 40 [𝑑𝐵]

10𝑤 10𝑤
 Second order magnitude responses
k
• 1  2 /  N * s  1 /  N2 * s 2

  0 .1 Impossibl
e
d’afficher
l’image.

  0 .1
  0 .3
  0 .5
20 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘[𝑑𝐵]
  0 . 707

[20 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 − 40]𝑑𝐵  1

10𝑤
 Second order magnitude responses
k
•
1  2 / n * s  1 / n2 * s 2
Impossibl
e
d’afficher
l’image.

  0 .1
  0 .3
  0 .5
20 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘[𝑑𝐵]
  0 . 707

[20 ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 − 40]𝑑𝐵

10𝑤

The maximum of the magnitude H (when dH/dw =0) is achieved for  r   n 1  2 2 so r  n

There is a maximum (or resonance ) iff 2 2  1    0.707

1
The peak of the magnitude is defined by H (r )  H (0)  20 log10 (for k  1, H (0 )  0dB )
2 * 1   2

NB Obviously, if ξ is smaller, the magnitude peak H (r ) is bigger, r is bigger so shifted to the right
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/underdamped/underdampedApprox.html
 Frequency responses - bandwidth
• The bandwidth is the frequency for which the
amplitude ratio (the magnitude |H(jw)|) has
dropped to 0.707 of its zero frequency value
• It corresponds to the maximum frequence for
which a sinusoidal input will be reproduced at
the output
Magnitude responses for any H(jω)
• Factorize the polynomials in H(jω)
• Sort the corner frequencies by their increasing
order
• For each simple element plot the
corresponding magnitude log-log response
• Add all the magnitude responses
 Phase response
The phase φ(ω) in degrees (°) or radians (rad)

φ(ω) ω φ (ω) φ (ω)=arg H (jω)

=> The phase response of H(jω) is the sum of the phases

φ of the elementary transfer functions H (jω)
 Phase response of elementary systems
φ [rad]
Gain H(s)=k
= arctan (
k>0
k>0 no phase shift 0
ω[rad/sec]
k<0 constant phase = -
k<0
−𝜋

φ [rad]
Derivation H(s)= s = jω
𝜋/2

constant phase = +𝜋/2 0°

ω[rad/sec]
φ [rad]
Integration H(s)=1/s = 1/jω =−j/ω
0
ω[rad/sec]
constant phase = -𝜋/2 −𝜋/2
 Phase response of elementary systems
First order H(s)=1+Ts=1+Tjω (T>0)
φ [rad] H(s)=1+Ts=1+Tjω
= arctan( ωT) 𝜋
2
Two horizontal asymptotes: 𝜋
4

ωT ω<< ω φ 0
0.1ω ω 10 ω
ωT ω ω φ ω[rad/sec]

NB At ω= ω φ = ) so the
phase is φ=

φ [rad]
First order H(s)=1-Ts=1-Tjω (T>0)
= arctan( ωT) H(s)=1-Ts=1-Tjω
Two horizontal asymptotes:
0.1ω ω 10 ω
0
ωT φ ω[rad/sec]
ωT φ -

-
NB At ω= ω the phase is φ=
 Phase response of elementary systems
First order H(s)=1/(1+Ts)=1/(1+Tjω), T>0 φ [rad]
= arctan( ωT)
Two horizontal asymptotes: H(s)=1/(1+Ts)

ωT φ 0.1ω ω 10 ω
0
ωT φ ω[rad/sec]
-
NB At ω= ω the phase is φ= -

First order H(s)=1/(1-Ts)=1/(1-Tjω), T>0

φ [rad] H(s)=1/(1-Ts)
= arctan( ωT) 𝜋
Two horizontal asymptotes: 2
𝜋
4
ωT φ 0
ωT φ 0.1ω ω 10 ω
ω[rad/sec]

NB At ω= ω the phase is φ=
 Phase response of elementary systems
1
Second order H(s)=
1  2 / n * s  1 / n2 * s 2 φ [rad]
 2n 
F   arctan 2 
 n   2 
 
Two horizontal asymptotes:
0.1ω ω 10ω
0
ω ω φ ω[rad/sec]
ω ω φ -
  0 .2
NB At ω= ω the phase is φ=
 -𝜋
At ω= ω the phase is φ  arcsin
  0.05
1 2

Second order H(s)= 1  2 / n * s  1 / n2 * s 2

 2n  φ [rad]
F  arctan 2 
 n   2    0.05
  𝜋

Two horizontal asymptotes:

  0.2
𝜋
2

ω ω φ 0
0.1ω ω 10ω
ω ω φ ω[rad/sec]
NB At ω= ω the phase is φ =
 Bode and Nyquist planes
1
Example : H ( s) 
s 2  2s  1

Im{H}
Bode Diagram
0

Nyquist Diagram
-10 0.8

-20
No physical meaning
-30
0.6
ω<0
Magnitude (dB)

-40

0.4
-50

-60
0.2     H  0 ω = 0 => |H|=Re{H} =1
-70

Re{H}

Imaginary Axis
-80
0
0

F
-0.2

|H|
-45
Phase (deg)

-0.4
-90

-135
-0.6 ω>0

-180 -0.8
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 Real Axis
Frequency (rad/s)

Bode plane = magnitude and phase Nyquist plot = Complex plane

 Nyquist plot – stability criterion

• The stability of the closed loop system can be defined

from the Nyquist plot of the open loop system

• Two hypothesis have to be satisfied to apply the

stability criterion :
1) the open loop is stable (or unstable with one integrator
i.e. one pole at the origin s=0)
2) the open loop is minimum phase (i.e. no unstable zeros)
 Bode and Nyquist planes – critical point and stability
1 H ( s)
Example : H ( s)  closed loop T ( s )  The critical point is H=-1 => |H|=1 F  180°
s  2s  1
2
1  H ( s) (0dB)
Im{H}
Bode Diagram
0

Nyquist Diagram
-10 0.8

-20

0.6
-30
Magnitude (dB)

-40
0.4
-50

-60
0.2

-70

Re{H}

Imaginary Axis
-80
0
0

F
-0.2
-45

|H|
Phase (deg)

-90 -0.4

-135 -0.6

-180 -0.8
-2 -1 0 1 2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
10 10 10 10 10
Real Axis
Frequency (rad/s)

Bode plane = magnitude and phase Nyquist plane = Complex plane

The closed loop system T(s) is stable iff the nyquist graph of the open loop H(s) leaves the critical point
(-1,0) to the left when ω is increased from 0 to  .
1
In the example, the closed loop T(s) is stable: two complex poles with negative real part T ( s ) 
s 2  2s  2
 Bode and Nyquist planes – critical point and stability margins
1 H ( s) The critical point is H=-1 => |H|=1 F  180°
Example : H ( s)  closed loop T ( s ) 
s  2s  1
2
1  H (s) (0dB)
0
Bode Diagram
Im
Nyquist Diagram
-10
0.8

-20

-30 0.6
Magnitude (dB)

-40

0.4
-50

-60
0.2

-70

Re

Imaginary Axis
-80
0
0

F
-0.2
-45

|H|
FM
Phase (deg)

-0.4
-90

-0.6
-135

-180 -0.8
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 Real Axis
Frequency (rad/s)

Bode plane = magnitude and phase Nyquist plane = Complex plane

The closed loop system is stable iff the open loop nyquist plot leaves the critical point to the left
when ω is increased from 0 to  .
The stability margins measure how far the open loop system H passes from the critical point =>
when |H| = 0dB FM  180° F ω)  phase margin FM Here, FM = 180°
when F  180° GM = 0 –20log |(ω)| °
 gain margin GM NB GM in absolute value! Here, GM = 
In linear scale, GM = ( )
 Margins
• Model uncertainties and ageing require to introduce
stability margins
• Gain margins (magnitude response) and phase margins
(phase response), none of which is sufficient alone
• The stability margins tell us what is the worst
perturbation of the transfer function that will make the
system marginally stable (at the limit of stability)?
• Good values are considered to be
=> Phase Margin >30° Gain Margin > 2.5
 Example of gain margin in Nyquist
Diagram

Question : If the gain margin is higher, it means a more stable or a less stable system ?
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistStability.html
 Example of phase margin in Nyquist
Diagram

Question : A higher phase margin means a more stable or a less stable system ?
http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Nyquist/NyquistStability.html
 Delay margin
• The delay margin is the time delay that can be added to the open loop
system so that the closed loop system will be on the verge of instability.

• It is important because a lot of controller applications use A/D converters for the
sensors, and D/A converters for the actuators, where the computation takes
time!

• The delay can be modelled by a transfer function with time delay .

• The delay margin is proportional to the Phase margin :

೏
FM π
Tdm  .
ωFM 180
 Tuning of controllers in frequency domain

• The closed loop has to satisfy some requirements

for the performances (first overshoot, required
static error, stability margins etc)
• Tune the controller using the open loop and the
nichols chart
• Check the performances of the closed loop
• If necessary, adjust the controller parameters
 Black - Nichols chart: Magnitude as a function of the phase
Critical point H = 0dB F  180° at the origin => easier stability margins caclulation
Nichols Chart
40

0 dB

0.25 dB

0.5 dB

20 1 dB
-1 dB

3 dB
-3 dB

FM = 180°
6 dB

0 -6 dB

-12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

GM = 

-80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 Black - Nichols chart: Magnitude as a function of the phase
=> Closed loop peak frequency response at the resonance is given by the M-circles
Nichols Chart
40

0 dB

0.25 dB

0.5 dB

20 1 dB
-1 dB

𝐌 − 𝐜𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐓 𝒋𝒘𝒓 = 𝟑 𝐝𝐁

3 dB
-3 dB
6 dB

0 -6 dB

-12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
Exemple of an open loop system with one integrator
Open loop unstable, closed loop stable
Nichols Chart
40 ω →0
F → −90°
0 dB

0.25 dB

0.5 dB

20 1 dB -1 dB
2.3 dB
3 dB
-3 dB
6 dB

0 -6 dB

-12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

ω → 𝑖𝑛𝑓
F → −180° -80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 Open loop H(s) before correction
1
H (s) 
s 2  2s  1
Step Response
1

System: sys
Time (seconds): 5.86
0.9 Amplitude: 0.98

0.8

0.7

0.6
Amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (seconds)
 Tuning of P controllers
• M-circle is related to the closed loop first overshoot =>
– calculate the M-circle (closed loop resonance peak)
corresponding to the required overshoot X% that you want
to achieve


– then, measure the gain P such as the open loop becomes
tangent to the corresponding M-circle => get the required P
• For instance, for an overshoot of 25% :

( , )
( , )
= 1,35 => dB] = 2,63dB => corresponding (desired) M-circle for the closed loop
 Tuning the proportional gain P
calculated to shift up and down the nichols chart
Nichols Chart
40

0 dB

0.25 dB

0.5 dB

20 1 dB
-1 dB
M-circle of 2.63 dB
3 dB
-3 dB
6 dB

0 -6 dB

-12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

-20 -20 dB

Required gain P to shift up

H(s) to make it tangent
to the M-circle of 2.63 dB
-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 Nichols chart, proportional gain P
Nichols Chart
40
0 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB
20 1 dB -1 dB
2.63 dB P*H(jω)
3 dB
6 dB -3 dB
0 -6 dB
H(jω) -12 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

Required gain P to tangent

-20 the M-circle of 2.63 dB -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 -80 dB

-100 dB
-100
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 Nichols chart: tuning the
proportional gain P
• Correct if necessary the gain P so that Q = 2,63dB (or X=25%)

• Recall :
 Bode diagram of the closed loop => P=5
P * H ( s) 5
T ' (s)   2 𝒓
1  P * H ( s) s  2s  6 20log10(5/6) = -1.58
Bode Diagram
20 System: syscl
System: syscl
Frequency (rad/s): 2.02
10 Frequency (rad/s): 0.1
Magnitude (dB): 1.05
Magnitude (dB): -1.55
0

-10
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0

-45
Phase (deg)

-90

-135

-180
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
 Time response of the new closed loop
For P=5 the closed loop’s overshoot is X=25% and the system is faster
∗ , ,
=> T’(s) =
∗ ,

Step Response
1.4

1.2
System: syscl
Time (seconds): 1.41
Amplitude: 1.04

1
System: syscl System: syscl
Time (seconds): 4.92 Time (seconds): 8
Amplitude: 0.836 Amplitude: 0.833

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (seconds)
 1
PI controller K ( s )  P(1  )
sTi
Nichols Chart
40
0 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB 𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)
20 1 dB -1 dB
3 dB
6 dB -3 dB
0 -6 dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

𝑊(𝑠)
-12 dB

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 1
PI controller K ( s )  P(1  )
sTi
• PI has no action in high frequencies !
• Decreasing the frequency ω implies a phase lag which tends to -
• Zero static error φ°=−90°
Nichols Chart Integral action
|𝐾(𝑗ω)| 60

40 𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)
0 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB
20 1 dB
2.63 dB -1 dB
3 dB 𝑃 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)

Open-Loop Gain (dB)

6 dB -3 dB
0 -6 dB
ω 𝑊(𝑠) -12 dB
0𝑑𝐵
10/𝑇 1/𝑇 10/𝑇 ω[rad/sec] -20 -20 dB

φ[rad] -40 -40 dB

0
10/𝑇 1/𝑇 10/𝑇
ω[rad/sec] -60 -60 dB

-
-80 dB
-80
- -360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)
 1
PI controller K ( s )  P(1  )
sTi
1. Tune the proportional gain P to get tangent to the desired M-circle
2. Note the resonance frequency ω Nichols Chart Integral action
3. Choose Ti in the interval [10/ ω , 1/ ω ] 60
𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)
4. Decrease P to re-tangent the desired M-circle
40
0 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB
20 1 dB
2.63 dB -1 dB
3 dB 𝑃 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)

Open-Loop Gain (dB)

6 dB -3 dB
0 -6 dB
ω 𝑊(𝑠) -12 dB

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB

-80 dB
-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg)

Ti = 10/ ω
 1
PI controller K ( s)  P(1  )
1. Tune the proportional gain P to get tangent to the desired M-circle
sTi
2. Note the resonance frequency ω
3. Choose Ti in the interval [10/ ω , 1/ ω ]
4. Decrease P to re-tangent the desired M-circle

Nichols Chart Nichols Chart

60 40
𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠) 0 dB
𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠) 0.25 dB
0.5 dB
40
0 dB 20 1 dB -1 dB
0.25 dB
0.5 dB 2.63 dB 3 dB 𝑃 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)
6 dB -3 dB
20 1 dB
2.63 dB -1 dB
0 -6 dB
3 dB 𝑃 ∗ 𝑊(𝑠)

Open-Loop Gain (dB)

6 dB -3 dB ω 𝑊(𝑠) -12 dB
0 -6 dB
ω 𝑊(𝑠) -20 dB
-12 dB -20

-20 -20 dB

-40 -40 dB
-40 -40 dB

-60 -60 dB
-60 -60 dB

-80 dB -80 -80 dB

-80
-360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0 -360 -315 -270 -225 -180 -135 -90 -45 0
Open-Loop Phase (deg) Open-Loop Phase (deg)

Here Ti = 10/ ω Here Ti = 4/ ω (1/ ω Ti 10/ ω

 1
PI controller K ( s )  P(1  )
sTi
1. Zero static error ! After the transient, the output is equal to the
reference, and the system rejects the noise as well (regulation)
2. The step response could be quite slow => better use phase lag
controller, if zero static error is not required
Step Response
1.4

1.2 System: clop2

Time (seconds): 172
Amplitude: 1.25
1
System: clop2
Time (seconds): 637
0.8 Amplitude: 1
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time (seconds)
 1
PI controller K ( s )  P(1  )
sTi
NB. If the step response is dragging as in the example below, Ti should be
decreased (towards 1/ ω to speed up the system, and P must be
decreased as well to keep sufficient stability margins
Step Response
1.2

System: syscl
Time (seconds): 20
Amplitude: 0.995
1

System: syscl
Time (seconds): 0.757
Amplitude: 0.771
0.8

0.6
Amplitude

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (seconds)
 1
PID controller K ( s )  P(1   sTd )
sTi
1. Zero static error : after the transient, the output is equal to the reference; rejects noise!
2. Fast step response
3. The derivative part increases the stability margins (but amplifies the noise)
4. Instead of three parameters to tune P, Ti, Td => Method of the ω pivot invariant point

Let’s define ω = and  = 1  2 s / n  s 2 / n2

K ( s)  P
∗

2n
2
Let’s pose Td = and Ti = ω
ω

So, if ω is fixed , only parameters P and  remain to be tuned!

1 sTd
NB In practice, deg(num) ≤ deg(den) for feasibility => the PID controller is K ( s )  P(1   )
(low pass filter)
sTi 1  s

Where  is to be chosen very small not to interfere with the system dynamics  << 1/ω
 PID controller tuning
• Tune a P controller as usual : Open loop with P controller tangent to the
desired M-circle (for instance 2,3 dB for 23% overshoot)

• Note the value of ω for φ°=−100° : that is the pivot (invariant) point
(ω <ω )

• Tune  until you reach the desired value  for which the open loop with
PID controller becomes again tangent to the desired M-circle ( hint : check with
Bode closed loop for more precision => T = T(jω ) = M-circle in dB )

• If necessary, increase P to tangent again the desired M-circle

• Calculate Ti and Td from  and ω

• You are done!

PID controller tuning (nichols chart)
φ°=−100°

  
 1  Ts
Phase lag compensator K ( s )  Plag
1  bTs
(approximated PI controller)

|𝐾(𝑗ω)| 1 1 1
ω =
𝑇𝑏 𝑇
𝑇 𝑏 ω[rad/sec]
0𝑑𝐵
We use :
−10log(𝑏) Maximum gain decrease b
in high frequencies 
−20log(𝑏)

φ[rad] ω =
0
ω[rad/sec]
-
−φM

-
 1  Ts
Phase lag tuning K ( s )  Plag
1  bTs

• Tune the Plag to guarantee required static error

(step input 1/s for class 0, ramp input 1/ s 2 for class 1 etc)
9.794 1 9.794 1
For instance the system is H ( s )    H ' ( s)
suppose required static error is 0.3%
s (1  0.025s ) s 1  0.025s s

 K ( s) H ( s)  1
E ( s )  Yc ( s )  Y ( s )  Yc ( s )(1  T ( s ))  Yc ( s )1    Yc ( s )
 1  K ( s) H ( s)  1  K ( s) H ( s)
1 1 1 s 1
lim e(t )  lim s.E ( s )  lim s 2  lim   0.003
t s 0 s0
s 1  K ( s ) H ( s ) s0
s s  K ( s ) H ' ( s ) 0  K ( 0) H ' ( 0 )

1 1
  0.003  Plag  34.03
Plag * H ' (0) Plag * 9.794
 Phase lag compensator tuning
1  Ts
K ( s )  Plag
1  bTs
• Tune a P controller, note as usual (to tangent the desired M-circle)

• Calculate Plag to guarantee the required static error

• Plot in Nichols plane the two responses P*H and Plag*H

• 𝒃 to switch from Plag *H to P*H in high frequencies :

1  Ts
K ( s )  Plag
1  bTs
when s  0 K (0)  Plag
Plag Plag
when s   K ( s )   P  b 
b P
• Calculate b = Plag /P and T=10/ω (initial values)

• Adjust b and T until you reach the desired M-circle and the desired closed loop overshoot
 1  aTs
Phase lead compensator K ( s)  Plead
(approximated PD controller) 1  Ts
|𝐾(𝑗ω)|

20log(𝑎)

10log(𝑎)

0𝑑𝐵
ω[rad/sec]

φ[rad]
φM
𝜋 We use :
4
Maximum phase lead φM
ω = ω[rad/sec] around frequency 
 1  aTs
Phase lead compensator tuning K ( s )  Plead
(approximated PD controller) 1  Ts
• Tune a P controller, as usual (to tangent the desired M-circle)
• Calculate Plead to guarantee the required static error
• Plot in Nichols plane the two responses P*H and Plead*H
• Measure the phase φ between P*H and Plead*H (n
• Calculate a = (1+sinφ )/(1-sinφ ) and T=10/ (initial values)

• Calculate (initial value)

• Adjust a and T until you reach the desired M-circle and the
desired closed loop overshoot