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E246 – Electrical and Electronic Fundamentals II

Worksheet for Lessons 4

1) Filters (Irfan)
It is sometimes desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one frequency or
range of frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit. A circuit designed to
perform this frequency selection is called a filter circuit, or simply a filter. 

A Filter is a circuit capable of selectively filtering out one frequency or range of frequencies
of an electrical signal and pass those signals wanted by the designer.

A common need for filter circuits is in high-performance stereo systems, where certain
ranges of audio frequencies need to be amplified or suppressed for best sound quality and
power efficiency.

Figure 1) Bass & Treble Control

The basic control of stereo system that we see commonly is to adjust the Bass & Treble
knobs. Basically, bass and treble are the functions that change the lower and higher
frequency of audio. This tool has the functionality to increase the frequencies related to the
audio. Or, decrease them without affecting each other.

Bass is the setting up of the gain to low (bass) frequency where Treble is the measurement
of Gain with respect to high frequencies. Gain is the value of attenuation, or amplification,
below 0 decibels. Conversely, it is also the value of attenuation above 0 decibels.

1a) What is decibel? What is the value of decibel when the power is reduced by half? (Irfan)

Another application of filter circuit is in the "conditioning" of non-sinusoidal voltage

waveforms in power circuits. Some electronic devices are sensitive to the presence of
harmonics in the power supply voltage, and so require power conditioning for proper
operation.

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The meaning of decibel is that it is a unit used to measure the intensity of a sound or the
power level of an electrical signal by comparing it with given level on a logarithmic scale.
The value of decibel will decrease by three when the power is reduced by half , due to the
power is directional proportional to decibel
2) Type of filters (Lloyd)
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass
through them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest.
2a) Explain the functionality of the commonly used filter designs as shown below:
⮚ Ø Low Pass Filter – Only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its cut-off
frequency, point to pass while blocking those any higher.
⮚
⮚ Ø High Pass Filter – Only allows high frequency signals from its cut-off
frequency, point and higher to infinity to pass through while those any lower.
⮚
⮚ Ø Band Pass Filter – Allows signals falling within a certain frequency band setup
between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and higher
frequencies either side of this frequency band.
⮚
⮚ Ø Band Stop Filter known also as a Notch Filter, blocks and rejects frequencies
that lie between its two cut-off frequency points passes all those frequencies
either side of this range.
⮚

Filters may be classified as __Passive_____ or ___Active_____ depending on the type of

elements that are being used in the design.

2b) What is the difference between the two different filters?

Passive filters are constructed with passive components such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors while Active filters are constructed with active components such as op-
amp, resistor-capacitor networks involving
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2c) There are actually hundreds if not thousands of different kinds of filters developed to meet
the needs of various applications. Despite this variety, many filters can be described by a few
common characteristics. The first of these is the frequency range of their pass band.

Definition from Textbooks

A filter's pass band is the range of frequencies over which it will pass an incoming
signal. Signal frequencies lying outside the pass band are attenuated.

Using this definition, discuss on the following response categories of these filters, based on the
overall shape of their pass band.

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3) Gain of Filter

The understanding of the basic filter can be started with the consideration of the resistive
voltage divider. Examine the following resistive circuit and derive its relationship between input
and output voltages.

3a) Which rule could be used to determine the relationship between Vout and Vin? (Jeether)
Vout will be of lower value than Vin. The voltage divider is used to describe the relationship,
Vout = Vin * [RB/(RA +RB)]

3b) Derive the same Vout/Vin relationship for both configurations using similar method as that of
the resistive circuit. Note that the impedance of inductors and capacitors are dependent on
the frequency of the applied signal.
Given that for AC signals, the complex impedances of resistor (ZR), capacitor (ZC), and
inductor (ZL) can be represented in s-domain ( Laplace domain): (Jeether)

Z R=R

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1
XC=
j2 πfC
X L = j 2 πfL

Configuration #1 Configuration #2
R Xc=
Vout
Xc= Vout
Vin
I Vin R
I

Working < Work Out Yourself >

Using Voltage Divider Rule, Using Voltage Divider Rule,

Z2 Vout = Vin * [RB/(RA +RB)]
V out = Vout / Vin = Av
( Z¿ ¿1+ Z ¿¿ 2)×Vin ¿ ¿
Av = R/(R+Xc)
V out XC
= Gain (A v ¿= Where Xc = 1/j(2fC) = 2f,
Vin R+ X C
Vout = R/[(R+1) / j(2fC)] * Vin
1 1 Av = Vout/Vin = 1/[(1+1)/jRC] = 1/[(1-1)/jRC]
where XC = = (ω=2 πf ¿
jωC j 2 πfC

( 1
j2 πfC ) | | V out
V¿
= 1/sqrt(1+(1/RC)^2)

Vout ¿ V¿
[ (
R+
1
j2 πfC )] phase angle = tan^-1 (1/RC)

A v=
V out
=
( j 2 πfC )
1
=
1
V¿
[ j 2 πfC )]
R+ (
1 1+ j 2 πfRC

Expressing in terms of magnitude and phase,

| |
V out
V¿
=
√
1
❑

−1
θ=−tan ( 2 πfRC )

i) Consider both circuits, what is the magnitude of |Vout/Vin| when ωRC = 1 (ω = 2 πf ¿ where it
is also the condition for cut-off frequency?(Jeether)
For low-pass,

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| |
V out
V¿
= 1 / sqrt(1+1^2) = 0.7071

High pass,

| |
V out
V¿
= 1/ sqrt(1+(1/1)^2) = 0.7071

ii) Consider both circuits, what is the magnitude of |Vout/Vin| when ωRC << 1 and become
insignificant? (“<<” represent much smaller). (Jeether)
Low pass,
voltage gain will be near 1

High pass,
voltage gain = 0

iii) Consider both circuit, what is the magnitude of |Vout/Vin| when ωRC >> 1 (“>>” represent
much greater). (shafee)
When ωRC is more than 1, XC will decrease as it is indirectly proportional where XC =
1
. Therefore, when XC decreases, it can decrease up to nearly zero. Hence when substituting
j 2 πfC
XC
the the value into the expression it will give a Vout/Vin of nearly zero or zero
R + XC

iv) For part d and e, comment on the effect on |Vout/Vin| when ω increases? (shafee)

1
When ω increases, the value of decreases resulting in the overall value of the
j 2 πfC
voltage gain to decrease as voltage gain is indirectly proportional to the expression

v) Based on what you have obtained earlier, what type of Filter do configuration #1 and
Configuration #2 circuit belongs to? (shafee)

Configuration 1 is passive low pass filter and configuration 2 is passive high pass filter

3c) Refer to the RL circuit below, determine the type of filters and its cutoff frequency?
(Yuzheng)

(iii) Filter Type: RL Low-Pass

Filter
Cutoff Freq = f(cutoff)
(RL)=R/2πL

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(iii)
(iv) Filter Type: RL High-Pass
Filter
Cutoff Freq = f(cutoff)
(RL)=R/2πL

3d) Refer to the RC circuit below, determine the type of filters, the cutoff frequency and the
relationship between Vout and Vin: (Yuzheng)

(i)

(i) Filter Type: RC Low-Pass

Filter
Cutoff Freq = 1/2πRC
Below 70.7% (-3dB)
Vout/Vin=Xc/(R+Xc)

To calculate Vout, we can use voltage divider rule. Use the formula Vout=[Z2/(Z1+Z2)]*Vin,
iwhich is Vin times the result of capacitor impedance divided by the total impedance of
resistance and capacitor.

(ii)

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(ii) Filter Type: RC High-Pass

Filter
Cutoff Freq = 1/2πRC
Above 70.7% (-3dB)
Vout/Vin=R/(R+Xc)

We can use voltage divider rule to calculate the Vout from Vin. Use the
formula Vout=[Z1/(Z1+Z2)]*Vin, which is Vin times the result of capacitor
impedance divided by the total impedance of resistance and capacitor.

4) Frequency Response of Op-Amp (Ahbi)

The frequency response of an ideal Op-Amp is as shown below:

fC
Frequency response of the open loop gain of an ideal op-amp.

4a) The typical frequency response characteristics of an Op-Amp is similar to which type of
filter?

Low-Pass Filter
Unity-Gain Frequency (fu)
4b) The maximum possible operating frequency for an op-amp, measured at AOL = 1
or AOL (equivalent to 0 dB).

Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW) is defined as the product of the open loop voltage

gain and the frequency at which it is measured or operating. The GBW is similar to
the unity gain bandwidth when gain AOL = 1.

GBW = AOL x fC (Hz)

where

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fC is the cutoff frequency with respect to the closed loop gain,

AOL ×fC is the open-loop gain bandwidth product.

4c) However, the frequency response of practical Op-Amp is as shown below. It’s
gain of an op-amp decreases as the frequency of the input signal increases:

fc
Frequency response of the open loop gain of a practical op-amp

4d) The GBW is similar to the unity gain bandwidth when gain AOL = 1.

GBW = 0.707* A OL X fc (HZ)

= 0.707 * 1 * -20
= -14.14

where fc is the cutoff frequency of closed-loop (e.g. -3dB) and AOL fc is the open-
loop gain bandwidth product.

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5) Bode Plot (Irfan)

A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system engineering to determine
the stability of a control system. A Bode plot maps the frequency response of the
system through two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot (expressing the magnitude
in decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in degrees).

Examine the pass band of each filter configuration. Relating the frequency response
verify the type of filter configurations (LPF or HPF) and what is the gain and -3db
cutoff frequency?

-3 = 20 log(g)
-3/20 = log(g)
g = antilog (-3/20)
g = 0.7079

BODE PLOT
GAIN

20 Log (Vout/Vin)
vs Frequency

Phase vs Frequency

PHASE

5a) What is the mathematical relationship between the cut-off frequency (fc), R and C? (recall ω
= 2πf and Vout/Vin = 1/√2 at cutoff)

If the capacitance and resistance increases,the cut off frequency would be decrease,
therefore they have an inversely proportional relationship.

R =1/ 2pi fc
Fc = 1 / 2pi Rc

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5b) Both RC configurations are cascaded to a non-inverting amplifier. What do you think is the
effect of the amplifier on the frequency response plot?

There will be a voltage gain.

5c) There are 2 frequency-related terms used in the op-amp, “unity-gain frequency” and the
“gain-bandwidth product”. Explain how are these two terms related and what should we take
into consideration when dealing with practical op-amp?

Definition from Textbooks

Unity-Gain Frequency is the frequency where the open-loop gain falls to 1.

The Gain–Bandwidth Product (designated as GBW) for an amplifier is the

product of the amplifier's bandwidth, and the gain at which the bandwidth is
measured.

The open loop gain is equivalent to 1 at unity gain frequency. It is the highest
operational frequency that an op amp can handle and still function properly. The
response would decrease by 3 dB at the end of the passband, so we need take
that into account.

5d) Given that the cutoff frequency and the gain-bandwidth product of the IC741 op-amp is 20Hz
and 1.7MHz respectively. Calculate the opened-loop gain.

GBW = 0.707 x AoL x fc

1.7x10^6 = 0.707 x AoL x 20Hz
1700000 / (0.707x20) = AoL
AoL = 120226.31

~ End of Worksheet ~
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