EXPERIMENT NO.

RC integrating and differentiating circuits

(Transient analysis with different inputs and frequency response)

AIM
To design and implement

(i) RC integrator circuit and plot the response with different inputs
(ii) RC differentiating circuit and plot the response with different inputs

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
Resistors, capacitors, signal generator, breadboard, CRO.

RC INTEGRATOR
A circuit in which the output voltage is directly proportional to the integral of the input voltage
1
is called an integrating circuit. Mathematically, Vo =
𝑅𝐶
∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 , where, RC is the time
constant. An integrating circuit is a simple RC series circuit with output taken across the
capacitor. RC of the circuit is very large in comparison with the time period of the input signal.
For the satisfactory integration the time constant RC ≥ 16 T, where T is the period of input
signal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESIGN

For an integrator, RC ≥ 16T

Let the input signal frequency is 1 KHz.ie, T = 1ms
Let C=0.1𝜇F
16 x 10−3
R= = 150K
0.1 x 10−6
RC LOW PASS FILTER

A low pass filter attenuates high frequencies and passes low frequency. At low frequencies,
the reactance of the capacitor will be very high and hence most of the input voltage will drop
across the capacitor. Thus at low frequencies, the input voltage appears almost completely at
the output, without much attenuation. At high frequencies, the capacitive reactance will be less
and hence the output voltage across the capacitor will be very less. ie, the low frequencies will
passed to the output while high frequencies will be attenuated by the circuit. The magnitude of
1
the ratio of output voltage to input voltage of the circuit is given by 𝐴 = 𝑓
,where f is
√1+(𝑓 )2
𝐻

the input signal frequency and fH is the upper 3 dB cutoff frequency given by the expression
1
fH = .
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Let the cut off frequency fc = 1KHz

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Let R = 1.2KΩ

1 1
𝐶= = = 1.3 𝑛𝐹
2𝜋𝑅𝑓𝑐 2𝜋 × 1.2 × 103 × 103

RC DIFFERENTIATOR
A circuit in which the output voltage is directly proportional to the derivative of the input
voltage is called an integrating circuit. Mathematically, the output voltage is given by 𝑉 o =
𝑑𝑉
RC 𝑑𝑡𝑖 , where RC is the time constant. An integrating circuit is a simple RC series circuit
with output taken across the resistor. The time constant RC of the circuit is smaller in
comparison with the time period of the input signal. For the satisfactory integration the time
constant RC ≤ 0.0016 T, where T is the period of input signal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN

For a differentiator, RC≤ 0.0016T

Let the input signal frequency is 1 KHz.
T= 1ms.

Let R =33K

0.0016 x 10−3
C= = 47pF
33 x 103

RC HIGH PASS FILTER

A high pass filter passes high frequency readily and attenuates low frequencies. Since the
reactance of the capacitor decreases with increase in frequency, high frequency components in
the input signal appear at the output with less attenuation than the low frequency components.
In other words, lower frequencies are attenuated by the circuit. The magnitude of the ratio of
1
output voltage to input voltage of the circuit is given by 𝐴 = 𝑓
, where f is the input signal
√1+( 𝑓𝐿 )2

1
frequency and f L is the lower 3 dB cutoff frequency given by the expression f L = .
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
1
Substituting f = fL in gain equation, A = = 0.707. It means that when input frequency becomes
√2

fL, output becomes 70.7% of its maximum level.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN

Let the cut off frequency fc = 2KHz

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

Let R = 1.2KΩ

1 1
𝐶= = = 0.65 𝑛𝐹
2𝜋𝑅𝑓𝑐 2𝜋 × 1.2 × 103 × 2 × 103

OBSERVATIONS

(i) For both RC integrator and differentiator, plot the transient response by
(a) varying time period of input signal, keeping R, C values constant
(b) varying R value or c value, keeping time period of input signal constant
(ii) Plot the frequency response for both low pass and high pass RC circuits

Vin = …..V
Frequency (Hz) V0 (V) 𝑽 Gain in dB=
Gain, 𝑨𝒗= 𝑽 𝟎
𝒊𝒏
𝑽
20 log (𝑽 𝟎 )
𝒊𝒏

RESULT
 EXPERIMENT NO.2

CLIPPING AND CLAMPING CIRCUITS

Transients and transfer characteristics

AIM

To design and study clipping and clamping circuits.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Diodes, resistors, capacitors, signal generator, dc power source, breadboard, CRO.

THEORY

Clipping circuits are used to clip off a part of the input waveform. Clipping circuits are
also referred to as amplitude limiters. There are two categories of clipping circuits namely,
series and parallel. In series clippers, the diode is connected in series with the load, whereas in
parallel clippers, the diode is connected in parallel to the load. The value of the series resistance
R is given by the expression, = √𝑅𝑓 ∗ 𝑅𝑟 , where Rf is the forward resistance of the diode and
Rr is the reverse resistance of the diode.

Parallel clippers, also called shunt clippers, are discussed in this section. In shunt
clippers, when diode does not conduct, input voltage passes to the output. When the diode
conducts, the input signal bypasses to the earth and hence the output voltage is the sum of bias
voltage and the diode forward voltage.

A clamping circuit adds DC component to the signal in such a way that it pushes the
signal either on the positive side or on the negative side. When the circuit pushes the signal on
the positive side then the negative peak of the signal falls on the zero level, this circuit is called
a positive clamper. When the circuit pushes the signal on the negative , this is called negative
clamper.

• Clipping circuits

Positive clipper clipping at 0 V

This circuit passes only negative going half waves of the input to the output. All the
positive half cycles are bypassed through the diode to the ground since the diode gets forward
biased when the input voltage becomes positive. Due to the voltage drop across the diode,
clipping occurs at +0.6V.
Negative clipper clipping at 0 V
This passes only positive going half waves of the input to the output. All the negative
half cycles are bypassed through the diode to the ground since the diode gets forward biased
when the input voltage becomes negative. Due to the voltage drop across the diode, clipping
occurs at -0.6V.

Positive clipper clipping at +3 V

Till the input becomes greater than +3V, diode is reverse biased and the input appears
at the output. When the input is greater than +3V, diode becomes forward biased and cell
voltage appears at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops in series with
the cell, clipping occurs at +3.6V.

Positive clipper clipping at -3 V

Diode becomes reverse biased when the input voltage is less than -3 V and the input
appears at the output. When the input is greater than -3V, diode becomes forward biased and
cell voltage appears at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops in series
and opposite with the cell, clipping occurs at -2.4 V.

Negative clipper clipping at -3 V

When the input voltage becomes less than -3V, diode becomes forward biased and cell
voltage appears at the output. When the input is greater than -3V, diode is reverse biased and
the input appears at the output. Due to the voltage drop across the diode, clipping occurs at -
3.6V.

Negative clipper clipping at +3 V

When the input voltage becomes greater than +3V, diode becomes reverse biased and
the input appears at the output. When the input is less than +3V, diode is forward biased and
the cell voltage appears at the output. Since the voltage drop across the diode develops in series
and opposite with the cell, clipping occurs at +2.4 V.

Double clipper clipping at +3 V and -3 V

This circuit is the combination of positive and negative clippers. During the positive
half cycle of the input, one branch is effective and the other remains open. Vice versa during
the negative half cycle. Actual clipping levels are at +3.6 V and -3.6 V due to the diode drops.
Slicer

It is a two level clipper. In this clipping occurs at both positive and negative cycles.
Consider the two level slicer at slicing levels +3V and +5V as shown in figure. Here the input
is allowed to go to output between +3V and +5V. During the negative cycle of the input, diode
D1 conducts and D2 get reverse biased. Output remains at +3V since D1 conducts less than
+3V. During the positive half cycle, when input exceed +3V, D1 get reverse biased and input
appears at output. If the input exceed +5V, D2 conducts and the output remains +5V.
Considering the diode drops, actual clipping occurs at +2.4V and +5.6V.

• Clamping circuits:

Positive clamper clamping at 0V

Suppose the input voltage is represented by the expression V m sinωt. During one
negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to V m
with positive polarity at right side of the capacitor. During the positive half cycle of the input
sine waves, the capacitor cannot discharges and the diode does not conduct. Thus the capacitor
act as a DC source of Vm volts connected in series with input signal source. The output then
can be represented as V0=V m +Vm sinωt.

Negative clamper clamping at 0V

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the diode conducts and the
capacitor charges to Vm with negative polarity at right side of the capacitor. During the negative
half cycle of the input sine waves, the capacitor cannot discharges and the diode does not
conduct. Thus the capacitor act as a DC source of Vm volts connected in series with input signal
source. The output then can be represented as Vo= -V m +Vm sinωt.

Positive clamper clamping at +3V

During one negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through
DC source and diode till (Vm+3) volt with positive polarity of the capacitor at right side .The
charging of the capacitor is limited to (V m+3) volt due to the presence of DC source . The
output then can be represented as Vo= (V m +3) +Vm sinωt.

Positive clamper clamping at -3V

During one negative half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through
DC source and diode till (Vm-3) volt with positive polarity of the capacitor at right side .The
charging of the capacitor is limited to (Vm-3) volt due to the presence of DC source . The
output then can be represented as Vo= (V m -3) +Vm sinωt.

Negative clamper clamping at +3V

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through DC
source and diode till (Vm-3) volt with negative polarity of the capacitor at right side .The
charging of the capacitor is limited to ( V m-3 )volt due to the presence of DC source . The
output then can be represented as Vo= - (V m -3) +Vm sinωt.

Negative clamper clamping at -3V

During one positive half cycle of the input sine wave, the capacitor charges through DC
source and diode till (Vm+3) volt with negative polarity of the capacitor at right side. The
charging of the capacitor is limited to ( Vm+3 )volt due to the presence of DC source . The
output then can be represented as Vo= - (Vm +3) +Vm sinωt.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS, WAVEFORMS AND TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

Clipping circuits

Positive clipper clipping at 0 V

Negative clipper clipping at 0 V

Positive clipper clipping at +3 V

Positive clipper clipping at -3 V

Negative clipper clipping at -3 V

Negative clipper clipping at +3 V

Double clipper clipping at +3 V and -3 V

Slicer slicing at +5 V and +3 V

Slicer slicing at -5 V and -3 V

Clamping Circuits

Positive clamper clamping at 0 V

Negative clamper clamping at 0 V

Positive clamper clamping at +3 V

Result: Clipping and clamping circuits are designed and studied.