PULSE AND DIGITAL

CIRCUIT

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 UNIT 1: LINEAR WAVESHAPING

• Linear elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors

are employed to shape a signal in this linear wave shaping. A
Sine wave input has a sine wave output and hence the non-
sinusoidal inputs are more prominently used to understand the
linear wave shaping.

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 Filters Introduction
Filtering is the process of attenuating the unwanted signal or to
reproduce the selected portions of the frequency components of a
particular signal.
Filters are used extensively in communications applications to
either select a particular frequency of interest or to ignore (reject)
frequencies that may be interfering with your equipment.
• As the image of the antennas on the ship shows there are many
opportunities for interference to occur during the transmitting
and receiving of signals.
• This is where the filter comes in…

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 Filters
• Some Types:
• Passive filters(Linear Element) are those filters composed of series or parallel
combinations of R, L, and C elements.
• Low-Pass
• High-Pass
• Active filters(Non-Linear Element) are filters that employ active devices such
as transistors and operational amplifiers in combination with R, L, and C
elements.

• Some terms:
• Stop Band – are the frequencies that are
rejected.
• Pass Band – are the frequencies which are
accepted into the system.

Stop Band Pass Band

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 Filters
• Any frequency in the pass band will ‘pass’ through to the next
stage of the circuit with at least 70.7% of the maximum output
voltage.
• Recall the use of the 0.707 level to define the bandwidth of a
series or parallel resonant circuit (both with the general shape
of the pass-band filter).

Stop Band Pass Band

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 Low-Pass Filter
• Again, as the name would indicate, a low-pass filter (LPF)
will allow signals of some lower desired frequency to ‘pass’
into the circuit, but at the same time it rejects frequencies
above the cutoff frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which higher frequencies
are rejected.

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum value of Av is

1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
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 Low-Pass Filter
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small
(and thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = 0V in this
case.
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X C f  HighH z   0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very large
(thus acts like an open) and it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this case.
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X C f 0 H z   
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

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 High-Pass Filter
• A high-pass filter (HPF) allows signals of some higher desired
frequency to ‘pass’ into the circuit, but at the same time it
rejects frequencies below the cutoff frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which lower frequencies
are rejected.

RC High-Pass Filter

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum value of Av is

1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
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 High-Pass Filter
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small
(and thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this
case.
1
X C f  HighH z   0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very large
(thus acts like an open) and it can be shown that Vo = 0 in this case.
1
X C f 0 H z   
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

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 Basic Low and High Pass
Filter Design
• For both a low pass and high pass filter response we can find
the inflection point called the cutoff frequency which is
simply: 1
fc 
2 *
• Where τ is the time constant we discussed in RC circuits:

  R *C
• Therefore, to find the cutoff frequency:

1
fc 
2 * RC

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QUESTIONS?

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 Low Pass Filter Example No1

• A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a

capacitor of 47nF is connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate
the output voltage ( VOUT ) at a frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency
of 10,000Hz or 10kHz.
• Voltage Output at a Frequency of 100Hz.

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 Low Pass Filter Example No1

• Voltage Output at a Frequency of 10,000Hz (10kHz).

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 High Pass Filter Example No1

• Calculate the cut-off or “breakpoint” frequency ( ƒc )

for a simple passive high pass filter consisting of
an 82pF capacitor connected in series with
a 240kΩ resistor.

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 Question 1

• A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor

of 4.5Ω in series with a capacitor of 47nF is
connected across a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate
the output voltage ( VOUT ) at a frequency of 200Hz
and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or 20kHz.
• 1. Find The Voltage Output at a Frequency of 200Hz.
• 2. Find The Voltage Output at a Frequency of 20 KHz.

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 Question 2

• Calculate the cut-off or “breakpoint” frequency ( ƒc )

for a simple passive high pass filter consisting of
an 82pF capacitor connected in series with
a 300kΩ resistor.

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 QUESTIONS: 1

Student presentations in the classroom

Topic:
Applications
High Pass Filter and Low Pass Filter

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 The RC Integrator

• An RC integrator is a circuit that approximates the

mathematical process of integration. Integration is a
summing process, and a basic integrator can produce
an output that is a running sum of the input under
certain conditions.
A basic RC integrator circuit is • R
simply a capacitor in series with
a resistor and the source. The VS C
Vout
output is taken across the
capacitor.

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 The RC Integrator

When a pulse generator is connected to the input of

an RC integrator, the capacitor will charge and
discharge in response to the pulses.
Switch closes
When the input R
pulse goes HIGH,
the pulse generator C
acts like a battery The output is an
in series with a exponentially
switch and the rising curve.
capacitor charges.

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 The RC Integrator

When the pulse generator goes low, the small

internal impedance of the generator makes it look
like a closed switch has replaced the battery.

The pulse generator R

now acts like a The output is an
closed switch and C exponentially
the capacitor falling curve.
discharges.

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Examples

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 Charging ta
Percentage of Maximum

Time
RC Value
Constant
Voltage

0.5 time constant 0.5T = 0.5RC 39.3%

0.7 time constant 0.7T = 0.7RC 50.3%

1.0 time constant 1T = 1RC 63.2%

2.0 time constants 2T = 2RC 86.5%

3.0 time constants 3T = 3RC 95.0%

4.0 time constants 4T = 4RC 98.2%

5.0 time constants 5T = 5RC 99.3%

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 Solution

1. Time constant   RC  (100K)(0.001F )  100s

2. Compute the Vout for one time constant
Vout  (0.63)10V  6.3V
3. Time to finish discharging 5  500s

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 The RC Integrator

Waveforms for the RC integrator depend on the time

constant () of the circuit. If the time constant is short
compared to the period of the input pulses, the capacitor
will fully charge and discharge. For an RC circuit,  = RC.
The output will reach 63% of the final value in 1.
R

The output will

reach steady state
What is  if R = 10 k and C = 0.022 F? 220 s
in about 5

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 The RC Integrator

If  is increased, the Vin

waveforms approach the t
average dc level as in the Vout
last waveform. The output
will appear triangular but t
with a smaller amplitude.
Vout
Alternatively, the input frequency t
can be increased (T shorter). The
waveforms will again approach Vout
the average dc level of the input.
t

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 The RC Differentiator

An RC differentiator is a circuit that approximates the

mathematical process of differentiation. Differentiation
is a process that finds the rate of change, and a basic
differentiator can produce an output that is the rate of
change of the input under certain conditions.
C
A basic RC differentiator circuit
is simply a resistor in series
with a capacitor and the source. VS R Vout
The output is taken across the
resistor.

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 The RC Differentiator

• When a pulse generator is connected to the input of an

RC differentiator, the capacitor appears as an
instantaneous short to the rising edge and passes it to
the resistor.
VC = 0
The capacitor looks
like a short to the
rising edge because
voltage across C 0
During this first
cannot change instant, the output
instantaneously. follows the
input.

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 The RC Differentiator

After the initial edge has passed, the capacitor charges

and the output voltage decreases exponentially.

The voltage across

C is the traditional
charging waveform.
The output
decreases as the
pulse levels
off.

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Example

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 Solution

1. Time constant   RC  (15K)(120F ) 

2. tw is bigger than 1.8 s constant 90 us
5 time

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Voltage Function Generator

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Passive Filters (Resistor-Capacitor)

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