Electric Circuit Analysis

Chapter # 4
(Passive Filters)

1
Filters

2
3
Types of Filters

Passive filter Active filter

4
 Passive Filters:

• Passive components consist resistors, capacitors or inductors.

• No active elements (transistors or op-amps)

• 1st order - design is simple (just use standard equations to find resonant
frequency of the circuit)

• 2nd order - complex equations.

• Power supplies are not required.

• Not restricted by the bandwidth limitations of the op-amps.

• Can be used at very high frequencies.

• Can handle larger current or voltage levels than active devices.

• Buffer amplifiers might be required

5
 Active Filters
• They consist of combinations of resistors, capacitors and op amps (need
source).

• They are smaller and less expensive than passive filters because they don’t
require inductors.

• They can provide amplifier gain in addition to providing frequency

response as passive filters.

• They can be combined with buffer amplifiers (voltage followers) to isolate

each stage independently.

• They are less reliable and less stable.

• They operate well below than 100 KHz.

6
Why filtering?

1. Get rid of unwanted frequencies.

2. Highlight signals of certain frequencies.

3. Identify harmonic signals in the data.

4. Correcting for phase or amplitude characteristics of instruments.

5. Prepare for down-sampling.

6. Avoid aliasing effects.

7
8
9
10
Example

Original signal

Low-pass filtered

High-pass filtered

Band-pass filtered

Band-stop filtered

11
1- Low Pass Filter: it is designed to pass all frequencies
from dc (zero f) up to the upper cutoff frequency (low
frequencies).

Cutoff Frequency: the f at which the transfer function

drop in magnitude to 70.7% of its maximum value
12
Passband of a filter: the range of
frequencies that are allowed to
pass through the filter with
minimum attenuation (usually roll-off rate
defined as less than -3 dB of
attenuation).

Transition region: the area

where the fall-off occurs.

Stop-band: the range of frequencies that have the most attenuation.

Cut-off frequency, fc: (also called the critical frequency) defines the end of the
passband and normally specified at the point where the response drops – 3 dB
(70.7%) from the passband response.

13
14
15
• We will start by considering very simple circuits
• Consider the potential divider shown here

– from our earlier consideration of the circuit

– rearranging, the gain of the circuit is

Z2
vo = vi ´
Z1 + Z 2
– this is also called the
transfer function of the circuit

vo Z2
=
vi Z1 + Z 2

16
 RC Low-Pass Filter

• Transposing the C and R gives

1
-j
vo ZC wC = 1
= =
v i Z R + Z C R - j 1 1 + jwCR
wC

• At high frequencies
w is large, voltage gain ® 0
• At low frequencies
w is small, voltage gain » 1

17
 RC Low-Pass Filter
• A similar analysis to before
given:

1
Voltage gain =
1 + (wCR )2

• Therefore, when wCR = 1

1 1
Voltage gain = = = 0.707
1+1 2 wc 1
fc = = Hz
• Which is the cut-off frequency 2p 2pCR
1
20 log10 = -3.01 dB » -3 dB
2 18
 RL Low-Pass Filters
• Low-pass networks can also
be produced using RL circuits
– these behave similarly to the
corresponding RC circuit
– the voltage gain is
vo ZR R 1
= = =
v i Z R + Z L R + jwL 1 + jw L
R
– the cut-off frequency is
wc R
wc =
R 1
= rad/s fc = = Hz
L T 2p 2pL
19
Example-1:

20
21
22
2- High Pass Filter: it is designed to pass all frequencies
that are above its lower cutoff frequency (high frequencies).

Cutoff Frequency: the f at which the transfer function

drop in magnitude to 70.7% of its maximum value

23
24
 RC High-Pass Filter

• Consider the following circuit which is shown

re-drawn in a more usual form

25
• Clearly the transfer function is
vo ZR R 1
= = =
v i Z R + ZC R - j 1 1 - j 1
wC wCR

• At high frequencies
w is large, voltage gain » 1
• At low frequencies
w is small, voltage gain ® 0

26
• the magnitude of the voltage gain is
1
Voltage gain =
2
æ 1 ö
1 +ç
2
÷
è wCR ø

• When 1/wCR = 1
1 1
Voltage gain = = = 0.707
1+ 1 2

• This is a halving of power, or a fall in gain of 3 dB

1
20 log10 = -3.01 dB » -3 dB
2 27
• The half power point is the cut-off frequency of
the circuit
• the angular frequency wC at which this occurs is
given by 1
=1
wcCR

1 1
wc = = rad/s
CR T
• where T is the time constant of the CR network. Also
Ø The critical frequency of a high-pass RC filter occurs when
XC = R and can be calculated using the formula below:

wc 1
fc = = Hz
2p 2pCR 28
 RL High-Pass Filter
• High-pass networks can also
be produced using RL circuits
– these behave similarly to the
corresponding CR circuit
– the voltage gain is
vo ZL jwL 1 1
= = = =
v i Z R + Z L R + jwL 1 + R 1 - j R
jwL wL
– the cut-off frequency is
wc R
fc = = Hz
2p 2pL
R 1
wc = = rad/s
L T
29
 A Comparison of RC and RL Networks

• Circuits using RC and RL

techniques have similar
characteristics
– for a more detailed
comparison, see
Figure in the
course text

30
Example-2:
a. Is this high or low pass filter?
b. Calculate the cut-off frequency?

31
Example-3:

32
33
C-Design a RC Filter that pass all frequency above 14KHz?

34
3- Band Pass Filters: It is designed to pass only the
frequencies that fall between its values of the lower and
upper cutoff frequencies ( fc1 & fc2).

35
Ø A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a band between
a lower-frequency limit and upper-frequency limit and essentially
rejects all other frequencies that are outside this specified band.

Actual response Ideal response

36
37
 center frequency, fo or fr

Ø The frequency about which the pass band is centered is called the
center frequency, fo or fr and defined as the geometric mean of the
critical frequencies.

f o = f c1 f c 2

38
 Ø The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference between the
upper critical frequency (fc2) and the lower critical frequency (fc1).

BW = f c 2 - f c1
39
band-pass filter RL

$
!" = Hz
2&'
40
Example-1:
Design BPF in which the bandwidth is between
1kHz and 30kHz. The resistance is 10kΩ.

41
42
43
 RLC Circuits and Resonance
• Series RLC circuits
– the impedance is given by
1 1
Z = R + jwL + = R + j(wL - )
jwC wC

– if the magnitude of the reactance

of the inductor and capacitor are
equal, the imaginary part is zero,
and the impedance is simply R
– this occurs when
1 1 1
wL = 2
w = w=
wC LC LC
44
• This situation is referred to as resonance.
– The frequency at which occurs is the
resonant frequency.
1 1
wo = fo =
LC 2p LC

– In the series resonant

circuit, the impedance is
at a minimum at resonance.
– The current is at a maximum
at resonance.

45
46
47
48
49
The resonant effect can be measured by the
quality factor (Q)
– The maximum or peak energy stored in the circuit
(reactance) to the energy dissipated (resistance) during
each cycle.
Reactance of inductance at resonance
Qs º
Resistance
2pf 0 L
=
R
1 1
Substitute L = 2 2
from f 0 =
(2p ) ( f 0 ) C 2p LC
1
Qs =
2pf 0CR 50
• The series RLC circuit is an acceptor circuit
• The narrowness of bandwidth is determined by
the Q

Resonant frequency f
Quality factor Q = = o
Bandwidth BW

• Combining this equation with the earlier one

gives X L XC
Quality factor Q = =
R R

1 æLö
Q= ç ÷
R èC ø

R
BW = Hz
2pL 51
Ø The quality factor (Q) of a band-pass filter is the ratio of the
center frequency to the bandwidth.
f0 fo
BW = f H - f L = Q=
Qs BW
Ø The higher value of Q, the narrower the bandwidth and the better
the selectivity for a given value of fo.
Ø (Q > 10) for a narrow-band and (Q < 10) for a wide-band
Ø The quality factor (Q) can also be expressed in terms of the
damping factor (DF) of the filter as :

1
Q=
DF 52
53
Series Resonance Summary:
• For resonance RLC to occur in any circuit it must have at least one inductor and
one capacitor.
• Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored energy is passed from
the inductor to the capacitor.
• Resonance occurs when XL = XC .
• At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance value as Z = R.
• At low frequencies the series circuit is capacitive as: XC > XL , this gives the circuit
a leading power factor.
• At high frequencies the series circuit is inductive as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit
a lagging power factor.
• The high value of current at resonance produces very high values of voltage
across the inductor and capacitor.
• Series resonance circuits are useful for constructing highly frequency selective
filters. However, its high current and very high component voltage values can cause
damage to the circuit.
• Because impedance is minimum and current is maximum, series resonance circuits
are also called Acceptor Circuits.

54
 Example:
For the series resonant circuit of the figure
find:
1-The bandwidth
2- The phasor voltages VR, VC and VL

1 1
f0 = = = 1000 Hz
2p LC 2p (0.15926 H )(0.1592 x10 F )
-6

2pf 0 L 2p (1000 Hz )(0.15926 H )

Qs = = = 10
R 100W
f 1000 Hz
B= 0 = = 100Hz
Qs 10

55
At resonance :
Z L = j 2pf 0 L = j 2p (1000 Hz )(0.1592 H ) = j1000W
1 1
ZC = - j =-j -6
= - j1000W
2pf 0C 2p (1000 Hz )(0.1592 x10 F )
Z s = R + Z L + Z C = 100W

56
 VS 1Ð0 !
I= = = 0.01Ð0 !
Zs 100
VR = RI = (100)(0.01Ð0 ! ) = 1Ð0 !
VL = Z L I = ( j1000)(0.01Ð0 ! ) = 10Ð90 !
VC = Z C I = (- j1000)(0.01Ð0 ! ) = 10Ð - 90 !

57
Example:
The bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is 400 Hz
a. If the resonant frequency is 4000 Hz, what is the value of Qs ?
b. If R = 10 Ω , what is the value of XL at resonance ?
c. Find the inductance L and capacitance C of the circuit ?

58
4- Band Stop (Notch) Filters: It is designed to eliminate all
signals within the stop band while passing all frequencies
outside this band.
59
Stop - Band Filter Response
Ø Band-stop filter is a filter which its
operation is opposite to that of the band-
pass filter because the frequencies within
the bandwidth are rejected, and the
frequencies above fc1 and fc2 are passed.

Actual response Ø For the band-stop filter, the

bandwidth is a band of frequencies
between the 3dB points, just as in the
case of the band-pass filter response.

Ideal response
60
Parallel RLC:

• A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a

capacitance, C will produce a parallel resonance (also called anti-
resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the parallel
combination is in phase with the supply voltage.
• At resonance there will be a large circulating current between the inductor
and the capacitor due to the energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits
produce current resonance.

61
Parallel RLC circuit at resonance:

• At resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at its maximum

value and equal to the resistance of the circuit creating a circuit
condition of high resistance and low current.
• Also at resonance, as the impedance of the circuit is now that of
resistance only, the total circuit current, I will be “in-phase” with the
supply voltage, VS. 62
63
64
 Parallel RLC circuits

1
Zp =
(1 R ) + j 2pfC - j (1 2pfL)
At resonance ZP is purely resistive:

1
j 2pf 0C = j (1 2pf 0 L ) ® f 0 =
2p LC
65
 Parallel Resonance

Quality factor QP

æ Resistance ö
QP º çç ÷÷
è Reactance of inductance at resonance ø
R
=
2pf 0 L
1 1
Substitute L = 2 2
from f 0 =
(2p ) ( f 0 ) C 2p LC
QP = 2pf 0CR

66
• The parallel arrangement is a rejecter circuit
– in the parallel resonant
circuit, the impedance is
at a maximum at resonance
– the current is at a minimum
at resonance in this circuit

æC ö 1
Q=R ç ÷ BW = Hz
èLø 2pRC

67
Parallel Resonance Summary:

• Resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the total

circuit current is “in-phase” with the supply voltage as the two
reactive components cancel each other out.

• At resonance the impedance of the circuit is at its maximum.

• At resonance the current drawn from the supply is at its

minimum and is determined by the value of the parallel
resistance.

68
Passive Filters Types:

69
Example:

For the parallel resonant circuit of the figure

1-What is the Qp of the circuit .
2-Find the phasor currents IR, IC and IL .

I = 10 -3 Ð0! , R = 10kW, L = 159.2µH , C = 159.2 pF

1 6 R 10 4
f0 = = 1x10 Hz QP = = = 10
2p LC 2pf 0 L 2p (1x10 Hz )(159.2µH )
6

70
 -3 ! 4 !
Vout = IR = 10 Ð0 (10 ) = 10Ð0
Vout Vout 10Ð0 ! -3 !
IR = = 4 = = 10 Ð0
R 10 10 4
!
Vout Vout 10Ð0 -2 !
IL = = = = 10 Ð - 90
ZL j 2pf 0 L j10 3

!
Vout Vout 10Ð0 -2 !
IC = = = = 10 Ð90
ZC -j - j10 3

2pf 0C
71
Example:

Design a filter with QS=1 that passes frequency components

higher than 1 kHz and rejects components lower than 1 kHz.
Chose L=50 mH

1 1 1
f 0 = 1kHz = ®C = = -3
= 0.507µF
2p LC (2p ) 2 f 02 L 2 3 2
(2p ) (1x10 ) (50 x10 )
72
 2pf 0 L 2pf 0 L 2p (1kHz )(50 x10 -3 H )
Qs = ®R= = = 314.1W
R Q 1

73
Example:

Design a filter with QS=1 that passes frequency components

lower than 5 kHz and rejects components higher than 5 kHz.
Chose L=5 mH

1 1 1
f 0 = 5kHz = ®C = 2
= -3
= 0.2026µF
2p LC (2p ) f 02 L 2 3 2
(2p ) (5 x10 ) (5 x10 )

74
 2pf 0 L 2pf 0 L 2p (5kHz )(5 x10 -3 H )
Qs = ®R= = = 157.1W
R Q 1

75
Example:

Design a filter that passes frequency components between

fL=45 kHz and fH=55 kHz. Chose L=1 mH

1 1 1
f 0 = 50kHz = ®C = 2
= -3
= 10.13nF
2p LC (2p ) f 02 L 2 3 2
(2p ) (50 x10 ) (1x10 )

76
B = f H - f L = 10kHz
f 0 50kHz
Q= = =5
B 10kHz
2p f 0 L
R=
Q
2p (50kHz )(1x10 -3 H )
= = 62.83W
5

77
Example:
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60Ω, a capacitor of
120uF and an inductor of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 100 volts at all frequencies.

Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and the bandwidth of the
circuit, the circuit current at resonance and current magnification.

78
79
Example:
A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30Ω, a capacitor of
2uF and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies.

Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at resonance, the voltage

across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and the
bandwidth of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding current waveform
for all frequencies.

80
81