Chapter Three part 2

Signal Conditioning and Conversion

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.,

AASTU
Addis Ababa
By Biruk T.
Signal Integration
Example(summing Integrator)
Signal Differentiator
 Voltage-to-Current converter Current-to-Voltage converter

Vout = − IR
Vin
IR =
R

6 NH
 Linearization
Several types of transducer used in measuring instruments have an output that is a non-linear function of the
measured quantity input. this non-linear signal can be converted to a linear one by special operational amplifier
configurations
Example: light intensity transducers typically have an exponential relationship between the output signal and
the input light intensity Vo= 𝑘𝑒 −𝑎𝑄 where Q is the light intensity, V0 is the voltage level of the output
signal, and K and 𝑎 are constants
• If a diode is placed in the feedback path between the input and output terminals of the amplifier the
output voltage is V0 = C loge V1

𝑉𝑖𝑛
+ 𝐼 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑅
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺
𝑅

7
8
 Signal Attenuator
Attenuators are simple but very important instruments. Unlike an amplifier, which is
ordinarily used to increase a signal level by a given amount, the attenuator is used to
reduce the signal level by a given amount.

9
An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the power of a signal without
appreciably distorting its waveform.

10
• One of the simplest types of attenuators is the L type or the ordinary
voltage divider. The voltage gain of this network is the output voltage
divided by the input voltage.

if R1 equals 9 kilo-ohms and R2 equals 1

kilo-ohm the voltage gain equals one-tent.
The L-type Attenuator

 out = iR2
 in R2
 out = R2 =  in
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
out R2
A= =
in R1 + R2
Symmetrical T Analysis Formulas

R2
m=
R1

 in 1 + m + 1 + 2m
a= =
 out m
dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal (power)
Ro = R1 1+ 2m
P2 - output signal (power)
dB from voltage ratio: dB = 20 log10(VI / VO)
Example
• Compute the characteristic resistance and the attenuation of a
symmetrical T attenuator which has R1 = 409Ω
and R2 = 101Ω .
m=
R 2 101
= = 0.247 Ro = R1 1 + 2m = 409 1 + 2(0.247) = 500 ohms 1 + 0.247 + 1 + 2(0.247)
a= = 10
R1 409 0.247

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times.

This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of power)
can be calculated as
 Filtering
• Filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically intended to remove unwanted signal components and/or enhance
wanted ones.
• Filters are used extensively in communications applications to either select a
particular frequency of interest or to ignore (reject) frequencies that may be
interfering with your equipment.
• As the image of the antennas on the ship shows there are many opportunities for
interference to occur during the transmitting and receiving of signals.
 Filters
• Some Types:
• Passive filters are those filters composed of series or parallel
combinations of R, L, and C elements.
• Low-Pass
• High-Pass
• Band-Pass
• Band-Stop
• Active filters are filters that employ active devices such as transistors
and operational amplifiers in combination with R, L, and C elements.
• Some terms:
• Stop Band – are the frequencies that
are rejected.
• Pass Band – are the frequencies which
are accepted into the system.

Stop Band Pass Band

• Any frequency in the pass band will ‘pass’ through to the next
stage of the circuit with at least 70.7% of the maximum output
voltage.
• Recall the use of the 0.707 level to define the bandwidth of a series
or parallel resonant circuit (both with the general shape of the pass-
band filter).

Stop Band Pass Band

 Low-Pass Filter
• Again, as the name would indicate, a low-pass filter (LPF) will
allow signals of some lower desired frequency to ‘pass’ into
the circuit, but at the same time it rejects frequencies above the
cutoff frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which higher frequencies
are rejected.

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum value of Av is

1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
 Low-Pass Filter
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small
(and thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = 0V in this
case.
1
X C f = HighH z = = 0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the

capacitor is very large (thus acts like an open) and
it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this case.
1
X C f =0 H z = = 
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

 High-Pass Filter
• A high-pass filter (HPF) allows signals of some higher desired
frequency to ‘pass’ into the circuit, but at the same time it
rejects frequencies below the cutoff frequency.
• The cutoff frequency is that point at which lower frequencies
are rejected.

RC High-Pass Filter

Av is the normalized value of the ratio of Vo / Vi. The maximum value of Av is

1 and the cutoff frequency is defined at the 0.707 level.
 High-Pass Filter
• At very high frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very small
(and thus acts like a short) and can be it can be shown that Vo = Vi in this
case.
1
X C f = HighH z = = 0
2 fC

• At very low frequencies the reactance (Xc) of the capacitor is very large
(thus acts like an open) and it can be shown that Vo = 0 in this case.
1
X C f =0 H z = = 
2 fC

• To summarize, the magnitude of the ratio of Vo to Vi can be found by:

 Basic Low and High Pass
Filter Design
• For both a low pass and high pass filter response we can find
the inflection point called the cutoff frequency which is
simply: 1
fc =
2 *
• Where τ is the time constant we discussed in RC and RL
circuits:
 = R *C

• Therefore, to find the cutoff frequency:

1
fc =
2 * RC
 Band-Pass Filter
• As the name would indicate, a band-pass filter (BPF) will
allow signals of a desired frequency to ‘pass’ into the circuit,
but at the same time it rejects all other unwanted frequencies.
• The series resonant circuit has a frequency response
characteristic similar to the one appearing in the figure below.
1 1
fL = fH =
2 RH CH 2 RLCL
 Band-Stop/reject filter
• The band-stop filter will reject signals of some specified
bandwidth (i.e. frequency range) from entering the circuit.
• ALL other frequencies (not within the specified bandwidth)
are accepted.
• Also known as a notch filter because it ‘notches out’ (rejects) a
specific frequency.
 Example Problem 1
Design an RC Low Pass Filter for the HF band (3-30MHz) using
a resistor value of 5Ω. Draw the circuit and label the frequency
response curve.
From the problem statement we know that our cutoff frequency (fc) is 30MHz and the
R=5 Ω.
1
fc = ,  = R *C
2 *
1
fc =
2 * R * C
1 1
C= = = 1.06nF
2 * R * f c 2 *5 *30 MHz

R = 5
C = 1.06nF

30MHz