 Aol is the internal voltage gain of the device where

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
 𝐴𝑜𝑙 = 𝑉 𝑖𝑛

 Notice that there are no external component, so Aol is

set by the internal design.
 Open-loop gain can range up to 200,000 and is not
a well controlled parameter.

Vin Vout
  is the voltage gain with external feedback.
 is determined by the external component values.
 can be precisely controlled by external
component values.
 For ideal op amp, the closed-loop gain for
𝑅𝑓
☛ Noninverting amplifier   𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =1 + 𝑅 𝑖𝑛

☛ Inverting amplifier   𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =−
𝑅𝑓
𝑅 𝑖𝑛

𝐴
 For non ideal op amp,   𝐴𝑐𝑙 = 1 + 𝛽𝑜𝑙𝐴
𝑜𝑙
 For noninverting amplifier, the feedback network is simply
a voltage divider.
𝑅1
 The
  feedback voltage is  𝑉 𝑓 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅 2
𝑉 𝑜

 Recall that , hence the feedback fraction,

 
 

Since current through is equal to current

through ,
𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓
 𝑣 −
=
( 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑓 ) 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
( 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑓 ) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 𝑅𝑓
  𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =
𝑉 𝑖𝑛
=
1 + 𝛽 𝐴 𝑜𝑙
=−
𝑅 𝑖𝑛
 All of the voltage gain discussed so far applied to the
midrange gain and were considered independent of
frequency.
 Midrange Aol extends from zero frequency (dc) up to critical
frequency at which the gain is 3dB less than the midrange
value.
 In general, the bandwidth equals the upper critical
frequency minus the lower critical frequency.
 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓 𝑐𝑢 − 𝑓 𝑐𝑙
 Since fcl for an op amp is zero, hence
  𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑢
 3 dB Open-Loop Response
The open-loop gain of an op-amp is determined by the internal
design and it is very high. The cutoff frequency of an open-loop
op-amp is about 10 Hz.
 Notice in the previous slide, that the gain steadily
decreases to a point where it is equal to 1 (0 dB).
 The value of frequency at which this unity gain
occurs is the unity-gain frequency (in this case may
named unity gain bandwidth).
 The RC lag (low-pass) circuits within an op amp are
responsible for the roll-off in gain as the frequency
increases.
 The attenuation of RC lag circuit is expressed as

  𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋 𝐶
=
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 √𝑅 2
+ 𝑋2
𝐶

R
Vin Vout

C
 The critical frequency of an RC circuit is
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅C
 The attenuation of an RC lag circuit in terms of frequency
is:

  𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑓
2

√ 1+ 2
𝑓𝐶
 If an op-amp is represented by a voltage gain
element with a gain of Aol(mid) plus a single RC lag
circuit, the open-loop gain is given by:

  𝐴 𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
𝐴𝑜𝑙 =
2
𝑓
√ 1+ 2
𝑓𝐶
 From basic circuit theory, the phase shift of an RC
circuit is
  𝑅
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑋𝐶 )
 Since
 

  𝑓
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑓𝐶 )
Calculate the phase shift for an RC lag circuit for each of the
following frequencies, and then the curve of phase shift
versus frequency. Assume fc = 100 Hz

(a) f = 1 Hz
(b) f= 10 Hz (c)
f = 100 Hz (d) f
= 1000 Hz
(e) f = 10,000
Hz
 In our previous discussion, op-amp was assumed to have
a constant roll-off of -20dB/decade above its critical
frequency.
 Op-amps that have a constant -20dB/decade roll-off from
fc to unity gain are called compensated op-amps.
 Some op-amp circuits consist of several internal stages.
 Each stage has its own critical frequency.
 An op-amp that has more than one critical frequency is
called uncompensated op-amp.
 Cascaded Amplifier Stages

 Some complex IC op amp may consist of two or more

cascaded amplifier stages.
 The gain of each stage is frequency dependent and
rolls off at -20 dB/decade.
 The total response of an op amp is composite of the
individual responses of the internal stages.
Frequency Response of 3-stage Amplifier
 Phase Response
 In multistage amplifier, each stage contributes to the
total phase lag.
 The phase lag of each stage is less than -45° when the
frequency is below the critical frequency.
 The phase lag of each stage is equal to -45° at critical
frequency, and greater than -45° when the frequency
is above the critical frequency.

  𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑓 ) − tan ( 𝑓 )− tan ( 𝑓 )
𝐶1
−1

𝐶2
−1

𝐶3
A certain op-amp has three internal amplifier stages with the following gains and
critical frequencies:
Stage 1: Av1 = 40 dB, fc1 = 2 kHz
Stage 2: Av2 = 32 dB, fc2 = 40 kHz
Stage 3: Av3 = 20 dB, fc3 = 150 kHz

Determine the open-loop midrange gain in decibels and the total phase lag when f = fc1
 Closed-Loop Response
The effect of negative feedback on bandwidth:

 𝐵 𝑊 𝑐𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑊 𝑜𝑙 ( 1+ 𝛽 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 )

Where β is the feedback factor or feedback attenuation.

 Closed-loop gain compared to open-loop gain.

The gain-bandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at

which the op-amp’s open-loop gain is 0dB (unity-gain bandwidth).
 Gain-Bandwidth Product (GWP)
 An increase in closed-loop gain causes a decrease in
the bandwidth and vice versa.
 The product of gain and bandwidth is a constant.
 This is true as long as the roll-off rate is fixed.
 For example,   𝐴𝑐𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑐𝑙 )= 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑜𝑙 )
 Unity gain bandwidth  ¿ 𝐴 𝑐𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑐𝑙 )
Given A = 106 dB at DC, fT = 2MHz, find A at f = 2kHz,
20kHz, and 200kHz.
fT = A f c
A = 106 dB = 200 000
fc = fT / A = 2MHz/200 000
fc = 10

A at 2kHz = 60 dB
A at 20kHz = 40 dB
A at 200kHz = 20 dB

fT = 2MHz
 Positive Feedback in Stability
 With negative feedback, the signal fedback to the
input of an amplifier is out of phase with the input
signal.
 As long as the feedback is negative, the amplifier is
stable.
 When the signal fedback from output to input is in
phase with input signal, a positive feedback
condition exists.
 With positive feedback, amplifier can oscillates.
 Loop Gain
 For instability to occur,
☛ There must be positive feedback
☛ The loop gain of the closed-loop amplifier must
be greater than 1
 The loop gain is given by:
Loop gain = Aolβ
 Phase Shift

 For inverting amplifier shown above, there is a phase shift

of 180° because of the inversion between input and
output.
 Additional phase shift, θtot, is produced by RC lag circuits
within the amplifier.
 Phase Margin
 Total phase shift around the loop is 180° + θtot.
 The phase margin, θpm, is the amount of additional phase
shift required to make the total phase shift around the
loop 360°.
 
 Phase Margin
 If  the phase margin is positive, the total phase shift is
less than 360° amplifier stable
 If the phase margin is zero or negative, the amplifier
is unstable because the signal fedback is in phase with
the input.
 Let’s consider three example cases in order to
demonstrate the condition for stability.
 Case 1
 The closed-loop gain intersects the open-loop
response on the -20dB/decade slope.
 The midrange closed-loop gain is 106 dB, the closed-
loop critical frequency is 5 kHz.
 The total phase shift at this frequency due to the three
lag circuits is calculated as:

 
 Case 2
 The closed-loop gain is lowered to where it intersects
the open-loop response on the -40 dB/decade slope.
 In this case, the closed-loop gain is 72 dB.
 The closed-loop critical frequency is approximately 30
kHz.
 The total phase shift is:

–176.35°
 Case 3
 The closed-loop gain is further decreased until it
intersects the open-loop response on the -60
dB/decade slope.
 The midrange closed-loop gain in this case is 18 dB.
 The closed-loop critical frequency is 500 kHz.
 The total phase shift is:

–257.43°
 Stability Analysis
 Since most op-amp configurations use a loop gain
greater than 1, the criteria for stability are based on
the phase angle of the internal lag circuit.
 To illustrate the concept of stability, we use a three
stage op-amp with an open-loop response as shown:
 Compensation
 As we have discussed, the cause of instability is
excessive phase shift through an op-amp’s internal lag
circuit.
 When the phase shift equal or exceed 180°, the
amplifier can oscillate.
 Compensation is used to either eliminate open-loop
roll off rate greater than -20 dB/decade or extend the
-20 dB/decade rate to a lower gain.
Effect of Phase Compensation on open-
loop gain

Aol
Uncompensated open-loop gain

With some compensation

With more compensation

f
 Compensating Circuit
 There are two basic methods of compensation for
OpAmp (IC):
☛ Internal and external
 Compensating capacitor is a capacitor that is added
(internally or externally) to the gain stage to shift the
roll-off on additional poles (-40 dB/decade, -60
dB/decade and so on).
 The compensated amplifier has a more constant roll-
off through a wider BW than uncompensated, but
there is a shift on the midband gain.
 Frequency Compensation
 The 741 Op Amp is constructed using internal
compensation.
 With internal compensation, the gain rolls off at a rate
of -20/decade, above the break frequency (between 5
and 10 Hz).
 An example of external compensation is the 709 op
amp.
 The bode plot for this op amp is shown in the next
slide.
 In this case, several closed-loop gain curves are
shown,
along with recommended compensating component
Closed-loop gain frequency response plot for 709 Op Amp