Applications of Operational Amplifier - Non Linear Circuits - Lesson-II Differentiator and Zero-Crossing Detector

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Non Linear Circuits: Lesson-II
Differentiator and Zero-Crossing Detector
Lesson: Applications of Operational Amplifier
Lesson Developer: Dr. Arun Vir Singh
College/ Department: Shivaji College, University of Delhi
Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 1

Table of Contents
Chapter: Applications of Operational Amplifier: Nonlinear Circuits: Lesson II-
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1Basic Differentiator
1.1.2 Frequency Response Of Ideal Op-Amp
1.1.3 Limitations
1.2 Practical Differentiator
1.2.1 Frequency Response Of Practical Op-Amp
1.2.2 Output for Various Input Waveform
1.23 Applications of Differentiator
1.3 Zero- Crossing Detector
1.3.1Inverting Zero-Crossing Detector
1.3.2 Noninverting Zero-Crossing Detector
Summary
Exercise
Glossary
References

1.1Introduction
Op-amp can be used not only for linear circuits like voltage amplifiers, adder, subtractor
amplifier, and current sources but also for nonlinear circuits such as integrator (discussed in
lesson-I), differentiator, wave shapers, and comparators. Output of nonlinear circuits is
different from input signal. In this lesson we shall discuss differentiator and zero-crossing
detector.
Differentiation is the counterpart to integration.Differentiator performs the mathematical
operation of differentiation. This operation is used to (i)extract edges from square waves,
(ii) convert sine waves into cosine waves and (iii)triangular waves into square waves.In
these applications op-amp is used with negative feedback. But in other applications, suchas
comparators, Schmitt Trigger, voltage level detectors and zero-crossing detector op-amp is used in an
open-loop configuration.
1.1.1Basic Differentiator
A basic differentiator is constructed by interchanging the resistor and the capacitor of an
integrator, or itmay alsobe obtainedif the input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1 in a
basic inverting amplifier.Figure 1 shows the differentiator amplifier. We know thata
capacitor does not allow a dc current to pass through it, so time varying sources (sine,
cosine, triangular etc.) is applied to inverting ‘-‘ (pin-2) terminal . Noninverting terminal ‘+’
(pin-3) is grounded.
Fig.1 Basic differentiator

Developed by:ILLL
By applying Kirchhoff’s currentlaw (KCL) at node N.

𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝑓 [1.1]
Since IB is very very small. So the current flowing through the input capacitor (𝐼𝑐 ) is equal to
the current flowing through the feedback resistor(𝐼𝑓 ).So
𝐼𝑐 ≈ 𝐼𝐹 [1.2]
The current through the capacitor is related to voltage by the relation
𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡
[1.3]
𝑉𝑐 is the voltage across the capacitor, given by 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 [1.4]

Substituting for 𝑉𝑐 in Eq.[1.3]
𝑑
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 [1.5]
𝑉2 −𝑉𝑜
Current through the feedback resistor𝐼𝑓 = [1.6]
𝑅𝑓
Substituting Eqs.[1.6] and [1.5] in Eq. [1.2]
𝑑 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑜
𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑓
In the case of ideal op-amp gain (𝐴𝑜 ) is infinite, so𝑉𝟐 = 𝑉𝟏 = 0 can be substituted in the above
equation
𝑑 −𝑉𝑜
𝐶1 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑓
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 [1.7]
Thus output voltage isproduct the negative instantaneous rate of change of the input
voltage or the derivative of the input wave form with 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 .The product 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 is called the
time constant of the differentiator.The negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift
of180o between input and output wave forms.
This differentiator circuit only has current flowing in the input when there is change in V in.
When there is no change in the input voltage, no current will flow and the output voltage V o
will be zero. The basic differentiator circuit only produces an output whenever there is a
change in the input signal.Faster the input voltage changes, larger the magnitude of output
voltage.This is useful in control circuits where rapid response to a change in the control
variable is necessary.
1.1.2 Frequency Responseof Ideal Op-Amp
Applying Laplace Transformation to Eq. [1.7] ,we can write

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) = −𝑆 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆
Expression of frequency response can be obtained by replacing 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) = −𝑗𝜔 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔
Hence the gain (A) of the differentiator is,
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔)
= −𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔
To get the frequency response obtain the magnitude of the gain which is
𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔)
𝐴= = −𝑗𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔
𝐴 = 𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 [1.8]
So at very low frequency such as dc. (f=0) the gain is zero. As frequency increases, gain
also increases. The expression for the gain can be written as
𝑓
𝐴=𝑓 [1.9]
𝑎
1
where𝑓𝑎 = , a constant quantity .
2𝜋𝑅𝑓 𝐶1

Fig. 2 Frequency response of basic differentiator :Developed by :ILLL

Developed by: ILLL
When 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓, in Eq.[1.9], 𝐴 = 1 or 20 log A=0 dB. Hence the frequency at which gain is 0
dB is given by
1
𝑓𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅 [1.10]
𝑓 𝐶1
It is evident from Eq.[1.8] ,that with the increase in frequency gain increases.
The frequency response of an ideal differentiator is shown in figure 2.It can be seen from
𝑓
the response curve that for, 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑎 , the ration𝑓 𝑓𝑎 < 1. Hence 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 is negative. While
𝑓𝑎
at𝑓 = 𝑓𝑎 , the gain becomes 0dB and for frequencies 𝑓 > 𝑓𝑎 gain increases at the rate of 20dB/
decade.
1.1.3Limitations
Gain Instability
Gain of thedifferentiatorincreases with the increase in frequency, see Eq.[1.8]. This makes
the circuit unstable and break into oscillations. There is possibility that op-amp may go into
the saturation.
Noise Magnifier
With the increase in frequency input impedance of capacitor (𝑋𝐶1 ) decreases.So the circuit
becomes very sensitiveto high-frequency noise. After amplification, the noise signals
completely override the differentiated output signal as illustrated in figure 3.
Fig:3 Noise override the differentiated output .

Source: http://www.e-bookspdf.org/download/differentiator-amplifier.html

So shape of the output signal will not be what we have expected. i.e. spikes are produced at
output.Hence the differentiator suffers from the limitations on its stability and noise problem
at high frequencies.
Therefore, it is usually avoided in practice.However, solutions are available to reduce the
limitations without losing the desired wave form.
1.2Practical Differentiator
The basicdifferentiator is not generally usable in its present form [see Fig. 1], because of its
limitations [See.sec 1.1.3].Hence it is necessary to modify the circuit. Figure 4 shows a
practical differentiator circuit that overcomes the limitations of the ideal circuit. There are two
modifications to the circuit (basic differentiator, Fig.1), both of which results in the
formation of frequency filters.In this figure resistor (i)R1 is connected in series with
capacitor C1[1st modification] The effect of this resistor is to act as an attenuator for the
high frequency components, and (ii) a capacitor Cf is connected in parallel with feed-back
resistor Rf(2nd modification).At low frequencies capacitor behaves like an open circuit and
acts as a short circuit at high frequencies, so Cfdoesn’t impact the
Fig.4 Practical differentiator:Developed by :ILLL
operation of the circuit at low frequencies, It acts as ashort in parallel with Rfin the feedback
path for the high frequency components of the input signal.
1.2.1. The Frequency Response Of Practical Differentiator

The frequency response of practical differentiator is illustrated in figure5. It can be seen
that in frequency range f to fb ,the gain increases at the rate of 20dB/decade.
However,adecrease in gain is observed at the rate of 20dB/decadeafter fb. This 40dB/decade

change is caused by the combination of R1C1 andRfCf. fbis known as gain limiting frequency
and is given by
1
𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋 𝑅 [1.11]
1 𝐶1
where 𝑅1 𝐶1 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
Thus the effects of high-frequency input noise and offsets reduces significantly by the
combination of 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 and𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 .Generally, the value of 𝑓𝑏 and in turn 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 and 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 values
should be selected such that
𝑓𝑎 < 𝑓𝑏 < 𝑓𝑐
Fig.5.Frequency response curve of practical differentiator.

Developed by:ILLL
1 1
where 𝑓𝑎 = = 2𝜋𝑅
2𝜋𝑅 1 𝐶1 𝑓 𝐶𝑓
For proper differentiation of input signal, the time period T of the input signal is larger than
or equal to RfC1. That is,
𝑇 ≥ 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1
To use the practical differentiator, the highest frequency expected to be differentiated must
fall into this part of the circuit response. As "a rule of thumb" for designing a practical
differentiator,set fc to be 10 times the highest frequency encountered.

Value addition: Did you know?
1
Gain limiting frequency derivation:𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅
1 𝐶1
Body Text:
𝑉𝑜 (S) 𝑍 (𝑆)
Gain of practical integrator shown in Fig.4 is = − 𝑍𝑓 (𝑆) . (i)
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1
1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑆+1
where 𝑍1 𝑆 = 𝑅1 + = (ii)
𝑆𝐶1 𝐶1 𝑆
1 𝑅
𝑍𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑅𝑓 ‖ 𝑆𝐶 = 1+𝑆𝑅𝑓 (iii)
𝑓 𝑓 𝐶𝑓
Substituting eq.(ii) and (iii) in eq. (i)
𝑉𝑜 (S) 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑆
=−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) (𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑆 + 1) 1 + 𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
If 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑅1 𝐶1 , then
𝑉𝑜 (S) 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑆
=− 2 (iv)
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1+𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓
The frequency (f=fb) at which the frequency response of practical differentiator starts
decreasing 20dB/decade (Fig.5) can be determined by equating the denominator of
equation (iv) to zero. Therefore
2
1 + 𝑆𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 = 0 , where 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑗(2 𝜋𝑓) and f=fa can be negative. Therefore
1
𝑓𝑏 =
2𝜋𝑅1 𝐶1
Since 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑅1 𝐶1
Suggested Reading:
Op-amp and linear Integrated Circuits: Ramakant A. Gayakwad,3rd Edition.
1.2.2 Output Waveforms

(i) Positive Ramp
For simplicity of understanding, assume that the product 𝑅𝑓 𝐶𝑓 =unity.Let the input wave
form is of positiveramp of magnitude of A unit is shown in figure 6a. Mathematically it can
be expressed as

𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Fig.6 .(a) Step input signal (b) Spike output wave form
If 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 =1, then from eqn.[1.7]
𝑑𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑑𝑡
= − 𝑑𝑡 𝐴 = 0 [1.12]
This is because A is constant. Actually the step input takes finite time to rise from zero to A.
Due to this finite time,the differentiator output is not zero and is shown in figure (6b). It is a
negative going spike output.
(ii) Square Wave

The square wave input signal is made of two step inputs (i) a positive step between time
period 0 to T/2 and (ii) a negative step for time period T/2 to T and is shown in figure(7a).
Mathematically it can be expressed as
𝑇
𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑡 <
2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
𝑇
−𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 <𝑡<𝑇
2

Fig: (7a)Square wave input (7b) output spike:Developed by :ILLL
As discussed earlier the output for the positive step input is negative spike so for the
period 0 to T/2 output is negative going spike and for the period T/2 to T output is
positive going spike .Output wave form is shown in figure (7b) and in animation 1.
Animation 1
Animation 1: Differentiated waveform of square wave.

Developed by:ILLL

(iii) Sine Wave

Differentiated waveform of sine wave is shown in animation 2.
Animation 2: Differentiated waveform of sine wave.

Developed by:ILLL
(iv) Triangular Wave

Differentiated waveform of triangular wave is square wave and is shown in animation 3.
Animation 3: Differentiated output of triangular wave.

Developed by:ILLL
1.2.3 Applications of Practical Op-amp

1. In the wave shaping circuits.
2. As a rate of change of detector in F M demodulator.

3. In analog computers and PID controllers.
1.3 Zero-Crossing Detector

A comparator, as the name implies, compares the amplitude of one voltage (signal voltage)
with another fixed voltage (reference voltage). Reference voltage may be positive or
negative or zero. In case of a zero reference voltage comparator is used as a zero-crossing
detector or zero-crossing comparator. Depending upon to which terminals, the input is
applied; the zero-crossing detectors are classified as,
(i) Noninverting and
(ii) Inverting zero-crossing detector.
1.3.1 Basic Principle
Op-amp as a comparator is shown in figure 8.
Fig:8. Op-amp as a comparator
Comparator output is given by expression.
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 [1.13]
where Ao is open loop gain, V1is voltage at noninverting (+) terminal and V2is voltage at
(-) is inverting terminal of op-amp.
If any one of the terminal is grounded or at zero potential, then comparator shown in
Fig.[8] is called zero-crossing detector/ comparator. Output(𝑉𝑜 ) may be saturated at a level
of +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 or -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .

Value Addition: Did you know?
Characteristics of comparators
Body Text:
Output voltage of comparators is given by the expression
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
In this application, these two voltages,V1 (applied at + terminal, pin-3) and V2(applied at –
terminal, pin-2) are compared and output(𝑉𝑜 ) may be +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 or -𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 , depending upon which
input is the larger.Ao is open loop voltage gain.
Noninverting Comparator:For this configuration, time-varying signal (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is applied at

noninverting ‘+’ (pin-3), terminal and a fixed voltageor reference voltage ( 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) is applied to
inverting ‘- ‘(pin-2), terminal.
For positive𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 voltage it is called noninvertingcomparator with positive reference voltage
and if the reference voltage is negativethen it is callednoninverting comparator with
negative reference voltage.
In this case V1=Vin and V2= Vref. Hence output voltage is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
Inverting Comparator:For this configuration, time-varying signal (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is applied at

noninverting ‘-’ (pin-2), terminal anda fixed voltageor reference voltage ( 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) is applied to
inverting ‘+‘(pin-3) terminal.
If reference voltage is positive then it is called invertingcomparator with positive reference
voltage and for negative reference voltage it is calledinverting comparator with negative
reference voltage. In this case V2=Vin and V1= Vref. Hence output voltage is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
The characteristics of these comparators are summarized in the table.
Comparator Ref.Voltage Output (𝑉𝑜 ) for

configuration
Vref Vin< Vref Vin> Vref
Non-inverting positive -Vsat + Vsat
Non-inverting Negative + Vsat -Vsat
Inverting positive + Vsat -Vsat
Inverting negative -Vsat + Vsat
Suggested Reading
Op-amp and linear Integrated Circuits: Ramakant A. Gayakwad,3rd Edition.
Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd,6th Edition

1.3.2 Inverting Zero-Crossing Detector
Fig. 9 Zero crossing detector

Developed by :ILLL
The op-amp in figure 9operates as a zero-crossing detector in which reference voltage

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 is applied to noninverting ‘+’ (pin-3) terminal and sinusoidal input voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is
applied at inverting ‘-’ (pin-2) terminal of op-amp. The input voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is compared with
a reference voltage of 0V 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 .
In figure𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0and𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Substituting for 𝑉1 and𝑉2 in Eq. [1.13], Output ofzero-
crossing detector is
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴0 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 [1.14]
For ideal op-amp Aois very high, so output (𝑉𝑜 )gets saturatedat±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is positive, output will be saturated at −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .i.e (𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) and for negative 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑉𝑜 =
+𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ).The output wave forms along input signal and reference voltage are shown in figure 10 .

Fig:10. The output wave forms along input signal and reference voltage for inverting
zero-crossing detector.
Source: Developed by ILLL
In the regions ‘a to b’ and ‘c to d’, (𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0) input signal passes through zero to
positive direction, the output is driven into –Vsat. Conversely when input signal passes
through zero to negative direction (b to c), the output switches to +Vsat. Output wave is
rectangular and inverted.ie. out of phase with respect to input. This circuit is also called sine
to square wave generator.
1.3.1 Noninverting Zero-Crossing Detector
Noninverting zero-crossing detector is illustrated in figure 11. A triangular wave instead of

sinusoidal input voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is applied to noninverting ‘+’ (pin-3) terminal and reference
voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 is applied to inverting ‘-’ (pin-2) terminal of op-amp. From figure 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
and 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0
Output voltage is obtained by substituting for V1 and V2 in Eq.[1.13].

Fig.11- Noninverting zero-Crossing Detector

Developed by: ILLL
Hence 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛 [1.15]
For ideal op-amp Aois very high, so output (𝑉𝑜 ) will be saturated and is equal to ±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .If 𝑉𝑖𝑛
is positive (𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) and for negative 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 ).Plot of output wave form, input signal
and reference voltage as a function of time is shown in animation 4
Animation 4:.Plot of output wave form, input signal and reference voltage as a function of time
for noninverting zero-crossing detector..
Developed by ILLL

In the regions ‘ a to b’ and ‘c to d’, (𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0)input signal passes through zero to negative
direction, the output is driven into -Vsat. Conversely (𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0)i.e when input signal passes
through zero to positive direction ( b to c,d to e ), the output switches to +Vsat. So a triangular
wave is also converted into square wave.
Output wave is in phase with input wave.
Value Addition: Did you know?

Effect of noise on zero-crossing detector
Body Text : In many practical situations, noise (unwanted voltage fluctuations)

appears on the input line. This noise voltage becomes superimposed on the input
voltage, as shown in figure a, below for the case of a square wave superimposed
over triangular wave.
Figure a: Noise voltage superimposed over triangular wave

Source: Self /Developed by: ILLL
In order to understand the effects of noise voltage, a low-frequency triangular

voltageis applied to the noninverting pin of zero-level detector, as shown in
Fig.[9]. The input signal voltage is drawn both with and without noise in figure b.

Fig:C: Effect of noise on zero-crossing

Developed by :ILLL
In the figure C the resulting output are shown. It can be seen in the time interval
a to c the behavior is as expected as shown (noninverting zero-crossing detector)
in fig.10.But when Vin approaches Vref very slowly or actually hovers close to Vref,
=0 V,( at point d, e, f,g,h and i), Vo can either follow all the noise voltage
oscillations or burst into high frequency oscillation or we can say that the
fluctuationsdue to noise may cause the total input to vary above and below
reference voltage (0 voltage ) several times, thusproducing an erratic output
voltage.
Suggested Reading: Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd,6th Edition.
SUMMARY :After analyzing this section ,you should be able to

 Analyze the operation of differentiator.
 Sketch the output wave forms of a differentiator
 Understand the limitations of basic differentiator.
 Modify the basic differentiator.
 Explain the frequency response of differentiator.
 Discuss the operation of a zero-level detector.
 Discuss how input noise affects zero-crossing detector.
 Name the several types of comparator circuits.

EXERCISES
Question Number Type of question
1 Multiple choice questions
1.In a differentiator, the feedback element is a

(a) resistor (b) capacitor (c) zener diode (d) voltage divider
2.When a triangular waveform is applied to the input of a differentiator, the output is

(a) a dc level (b) an inverted triangular waveform(c) a square waveform (d) the first
harmonic of the triangular waveform
3. The output of a differentiator is proportional to

(a) the RC time constant (b) the rate at which the input is changing(c) the amplitude of the
input (d) answers (a) and (b)
4..Basic differentiator fails to work at (a) low frequency b) high frequency c) medium
frequency
5. In a zero-level detector, the output changes state when the input
(a) is positive (b) is negative (c) crosses zero (d) has a zero rate of
change
Correct answers (1). A

(2). C
(3). D
(4). B
(5).C
2 Fill in the blanks
1. In a practical differentiator, a resistor is connected in ----------with the capacitor.

2. Differentiation of a ramp input produces a --------- output with an amplitude proportional
to the ------.
3.Differentiator is ------ filter.
4. In the case of practical differentiator the gain increases at ----- from frequency f to ----.
5. . The output of a comparator has ------- states

Correct answers (1)series

(2) step., slope
(3) high pass
(4) 20dB/decade, fb or Gain limiting frequency.
(5) two
3 Subjective questions
1. How is the output of a differentiator related to the input?

2. Explain the working of practical differentiator.
3.Draw the output wave forms of differentiator circuit when the input is i) Cosine wave,ii)
Step input and iii) square wave.
4.What are the limitations of basic differentiator?
5.Discuss the frequency response of basic differentiator.
6.What do you mean by bandwidth of a differentiator?
7. What is importance of resistor in differentiator?
8. What is the effect of noise differentiator circuit?
9. What are the applications of differentiating circuit?
10 What is difference between practical differentiator and ideal differentiator?
11.Sketch a zero-crossing detector and describe its theory of operation
4 Unsolved problem
1.For the basic differentiator circuit shown in figure 1(sec-1.1.1). (C1=100μf and Rf=10 kΩ)
Determine (i) expression for output voltage and (ii) the output voltage for the given input
shown below.
0.2V
0.1sec

2.For a basic differentiator, the input is a sine wave with peak to peak amplitude of 4V at
50Hz. Sketch the output wave form.
3.For a basic differentiator circuit, [c1=0.001 μf ,Rf=2 kΩ ], input is a triangular wave shown
below [ t2=2μsec]. Determine the output and sketch its waveform in relation to the input.
4. An op-amp has the following specification (i) open-loop gain of 60,000. (ii) dc supply
voltages ± 15V, (iii) maximum saturated output levels are ± 12V and Vref= 0V.If a
differential voltage of 0.1 mV rms is applied between the inputs, what is the peak-to-
peak value of the output?
5. Draw the output voltage waveform for the circuit in shown below with respect to the
input. Show voltage levels.
Solutions 1.Ans : (i) = − 𝑑 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 (ii) -2V ,For t > 0.1sec,the input is constant so that output
𝑑𝑡
Answers.
voltage is zero.
𝑑
Sol:.𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
𝑖 𝑉𝑜 = −10 × 103 × 100 × 10−6 × 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 (Ans)
(ii)Input signal is straight (increasing) between 0 to 0.1 sec.
𝑑 0.2−0
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = − 0.1 = −2𝑉. (Ans)
For t > 0.1sec,the input is constant so that output voltage is zero. (Ans)

2 Ans :𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋50𝑡)
𝑉𝑜 = −2𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 100𝜋 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (100𝜋𝑡 (Ans)
𝑉𝑝𝑝 4𝑉
Sol:𝑉𝑚 = 2
= 2
= 2𝑉 f=50 Hz, T=0.02 sec, Hence 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋50𝑡)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 == − 2𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛(100𝜋𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑜 = −2𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 100𝜋 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (100𝜋𝑡 (Ans)
3.Ans: (i)
𝑉𝑜 = − 2𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 × 1𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = −2𝑉
(ii)𝑉𝑜 = − 2𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 × −1𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = +2𝑉
Ans. Square wave,of amplitude −2𝑉 to 2V

Sol
Given: 𝐶1 = 0.001𝜇𝑓 ,𝑅𝑓 = 2𝑘𝛺, 𝑡2 = 2𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 .𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1𝑉
𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 = 0.001 × 10−6 ∗ 2 × 103 = 2.0𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑛
(i) Positive going ramp is from 0 sec to t 1 sec i.e ( 1sec)
𝑉 1𝑉
Rate of change = 𝑡 𝑖𝑛 = 1𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1𝑉 𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 −0
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = − 2𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 × 1𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = −2𝑉
(i) Negative going ramp is from t 1 sec to t2 sec i.e ( 1sec)
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 1𝑉
Rate of change is negative =− =− = −1𝑉 𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡 2 −𝑡 1 1𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 × 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = − 2𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐 × −1𝑉/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = +2𝑉
Ans. Square wave,of amplitude −2𝑉 to 2V
4. Ans:𝑉𝑜𝑝𝑝 = ±8.485 𝑉 (Ans)

This is less than the maximum output swing voltage ±12V. So output will not be
saturated. (Ans)
𝑆𝑜𝑙.
𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.1𝑚𝑉, using relation 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
𝑉𝑝 = 0.141𝑚𝑉 , 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 × 𝑉𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = 60000 × 0.141𝑚𝑉 = 8.485𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑝𝑝 = ±8.485 𝑉 (Ans)
This is less than the maximum output swing voltage ±12V. So output will not be
saturated.
5.Ans. Saturated Output .

GLOSSARY
Differentiator:A circuit that produces an output which approximates the instantaneous rate
ofchange of the input functions.
Comparator:A comparatorcompares the amplitude of one voltage (signal voltage) with
another fixed voltage (reference voltage).
Node: A point where two or more circuit elements meet.
Inverting amplifier:A amplifierin which amplified output voltage is inverted with respect to
input voltage .
Noninverting amplifier:Aamplifierin which the input signal is applied to the noninverting
terminal.
Frequency response:Graphical representation of variation of gain with frequency of input
signal.
Gain:The ration of output and input voltage/ current.
Critical frequency:The frequency at which the response of anamplifier is 3 dB less than at
midrange.
Bode plot:A graph of the gain in dB versus frequencyused toillustrate the response of an
amplifier.
Noise:Unwanted voltage fluctuations in the signal.
References/ Bibliography/ Further Reading

Op-Amps and linear Integrated Circuits :Ramakant A. Gayakwad,3 rd Edition.
Electronic Principles :A.P. Malvino ,6th Edition.
Electronics Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert.L Boylestad and L. Nashelsky.,2nd Edition.
Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd,6th Edition.

Applications of Operational Amplifier - Non Linear Circuits - Lesson-II Differentiator and Zero-Crossing Detector

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applications of Operational Amplifier - Non Linear Circuits - Lesson-II Differentiator and Zero-Crossing Detector

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applications of Operational Amplifier: Non Linear Circuits: Lesson-II

Differentiator and Zero-Crossing Detector

Lesson: Applications of Operational Amplifier

Lesson Developer: Dr. Arun Vir Singh

College/ Department: Shivaji College, University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 1

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 2

Fig.1 Basic differentiator

By applying Kirchhoff’s currentlaw (KCL) at node N.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 3

The current through the capacitor is related to voltage by the relation

𝑉𝑐 is the voltage across the capacitor, given by 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 [1.4]

Substituting Eqs.[1.6] and [1.5] in Eq. [1.2]

1.1.2 Frequency Responseof Ideal Op-Amp

Applying Laplace Transformation to Eq. [1.7] ,we can write

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 4

Expression of frequency response can be obtained by replacing 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔

𝑉𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) = −𝑗𝜔 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝜔

Hence the gain (A) of the differentiator is,

𝐴 = 𝜔𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 [1.8]

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 5

Fig. 2 Frequency response of basic differentiator :Developed by :ILLL

Fig:3 Noise override the differentiated output .

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 6

Fig.4 Practical differentiator:Developed by :ILLL

1.2.1. The Frequency Response Of Practical Differentiator

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 7

Fig.5.Frequency response curve of practical differentiator.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 8

Value addition: Did you know?

Substituting eq.(ii) and (iii) in eq. (i)

1.2.2 Output Waveforms

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 9

If 𝑅1 𝐶𝑓 =1, then from eqn.[1.7]

(ii) Square Wave

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 10

Fig: (7a)Square wave input (7b) output spike:Developed by :ILLL

Animation 1: Differentiated waveform of square wave.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 11

(iii) Sine Wave

Animation 2: Differentiated waveform of sine wave.

(iv) Triangular Wave

Animation 3: Differentiated output of triangular wave.

1.2.3 Applications of Practical Op-amp

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 12

3. In analog computers and PID controllers.

1.3 Zero-Crossing Detector

1.3.1 Basic Principle

Op-amp as a comparator is shown in figure 8.

Fig:8. Op-amp as a comparator

Comparator output is given by expression.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 13

Value Addition: Did you know?

Output voltage of comparators is given by the expression

Noninverting Comparator:For this configuration, time-varying signal (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is applied at

Inverting Comparator:For this configuration, time-varying signal (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) is applied at

The characteristics of these comparators are summarized in the table.

Comparator Ref.Voltage Output (𝑉𝑜 ) for

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 14

1.3.2 Inverting Zero-Crossing Detector

Fig. 9 Zero crossing detector

The op-amp in figure 9operates as a zero-crossing detector in which reference voltage

Institute of Lifelong Learning, Delhi University Page 15