ANALOG CIRCUITS 18EC42 (Module - 3)

Analog Circuits [18EC42]
Module -3
Feedback Amplifier:
General feedback structure:
 Figure shows the basic structure of a feedback amplifier.
 Figure shows a signal-flow diagram, where each of the quantities x can
represent either a voltage or a current signal.
 The basic amplifier is unilateral and has a gain A, known as the open-loop
gain; thus its output xo is related to the input xi by
𝒙𝒐 = 𝑨𝒙𝒊
 The feedback network measures or samples the output signal xo and provides
a feedback signal xf that is related to xo by the feedback factor β,
xf = βxo
 The feedback signal xf is subtracted from the source signal xs, which is the
input to the complete feedback amplifier,1 to produce the signal xi, which is
the input to the basic amplifier,
xi = xs -xf
The Closed-Loop Gain:
The gain of the feedback amplifier, known as the closed-loop gain or the gain-
with-feedback and denoted Af, is defined as
𝒙𝒐
𝐀𝐟 ≡
𝒙𝒔
We know that
𝑥𝑜 = 𝐴𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑥𝑠 − 𝑥𝑓
𝑥𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑥𝑠 − 𝛽𝑥𝑜
Rearranging the above expression
𝑥𝑜 + 𝐴𝛽𝑥𝑜 = 𝐴𝑥𝑠
1 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

𝑥𝑜 1 + 𝐴𝛽 = 𝐴𝑥𝑠
We get
𝒙𝒐 𝑨
𝐀𝐟 ≡ =
𝒙𝒔 𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷
The quantity Aβ is called the loop gain.
Properties of negative feedback:
1. Desensitize the gain: that is, make the value of the gain less sensitive to
variations in the values of circuit components, such as might be caused
by changes in temperature.
2. Reduce nonlinear distortion: that is, make the output proportional to the
input (in other words, make the gain constant, independent of signal
level).
3. Reduce the effect of noise: that is, minimize the contribution to the output
of unwanted electric signals generated, either by the circuit components
themselves or by extraneous interference.
4. Control the input and output resistances: that is, raise or lower the input
and output resistances by the selection of an appropriate feedback
topology.
5. Extend the bandwidth of the amplifier.
The Four Basic Feedback Topologies:

Based on the quantity to be amplified (voltage or current) and on the desired
form of output (voltage or current), amplifiers can be classified into four
categories.
1. Voltage Amplifiers
2. Current Amplifiers
3. Transconductance Amplifiers
4. Transresistance Amplifiers
1. Voltage Amplifiers:
 Voltage amplifiers are intended to amplify an input voltage signal and
provide an output voltage signal.
 The voltage amplifier is essentially a voltage-controlled voltage source.
 The input resistance is required to be high, and the output resistance is
required to be low.
 The most suitable feedback topology for the voltage amplifier is the voltage-
mixing, voltage-sampling one shown in Fig.

 Because of the series connection at the input and the parallel or shunt
connection at the output, this feedback topology is also known as series–
shunt feedback.
Fig: Block diagram of a feedback voltage amplifier.
2. Current Amplifiers:
 The input signal in a current amplifier is essentially a current, the output
quantity of interest is current; hence the feedback network should sample the
output current.
 The feedback signal should be in current form so that it may be mixed in
shunt with the source current.
 Thus the feedback topology most suitable for a current amplifier is the
current- mixing, current-sampling topology illustrated in Fig.
 Because of the parallel (or shunt) connection at the input, and the series
connection at the output, this feedback topology is also known as shunt–
series feedback.
Fig: Block diagram of a feedback current amplifier.

3. Transconductance Amplifiers:
 In transconductance amplifiers the input signal is a voltage and the output
signal is a current.
 It follows that the appropriate feedback topology is the voltage-mixing,
current-sampling topology, illustrated in Fig.
 The presence of the series connection at both the input and the output gives
this feedback topology the alternative name series–series feedback.
Fig: Block diagram of a feedback transconductance amplifier.
4. Transresistance Amplifiers:
 In transresistance amplifiers the input signal is current and the output signal
is voltage.
 It follows that the appropriate feedback topology is of the current-mixing,
voltage sampling type, shown in Fig.
 The presence of the parallel (or shunt) connection at both the input and the
output makes this feedback topology also known as shunt–shunt feedback.
Fig: Block diagram of a feedback transresistance amplifier.
The Series–Shunt Feedback Amplifier (The Voltage Amplifier):

Fig: Ideal structure of the series–shunt feedback amplifier
 The ideal structure of the series–shunt feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

 It consists of a unilateral open-loop amplifier (the A circuit) and an ideal
voltage-sampling, voltage-mixing feedback network (the β circuit).
 The A circuit has an input resistance Ri, an open-circuit voltage gain A, and
an output resistance Ro.
 It is assumed that the source and load resistances have been absorbed inside
the A circuit.
 The β circuit does not load the A circuit; that is, connecting the β circuit does
𝑉
not change the value of A (defined as 𝐴 ≡ 𝑜 ).
𝑉𝑖
 The circuit of Fig. (a) Exactly follows the ideal feedback model. Therefore
the closed-loop voltage gain Af is given by
𝑽𝒐 𝑨
𝐀𝐟 ≡ =
𝑽𝒔 𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷
To determine Input resistance (Rif) and Output Resistance (Rof):
 The equivalent circuit model of the series–shunt feedback amplifier is shown
in Fig.

Fig: Equivalent circuit of the series–shunt feedback amplifier.

 Observe that 𝐴𝑓 is the open-circuit voltage gain of the feedback amplifier,
𝑅𝑖𝑓 is its input resistance, and 𝑅𝑜𝑓 is its output resistance.
Expressions for 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :
We know that
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
Af ≡ =
𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝐴𝛽
We know that
𝐴 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜 = × 𝑉𝑠
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Substituting Vo in above equation gives:
𝐴
∴ 𝐴𝑉𝑖 = × 𝑉𝑠
1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑉𝑠
∴ 𝑉𝑖 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
Thus the input current 𝐼𝑖 becomes

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑖 = = =
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑖
Since 𝑰𝒊 is the current drawn from 𝑽𝒔 , the input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑓 can be expressed
as
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 ≡
𝐼𝑖

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 ≡ =
𝑅𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Thus
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑹𝒊 𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷
Thus, as expected, the series-mixing feedback results in an increase in the

amplifier input resistance by a factor equal to the amount of feedback, 𝟏 +
𝑨𝜷, a highly desirable property for a voltage amplifier.
Expressions for 𝑹𝒐𝒇 :

 To determine the output resistance 𝑅𝑜𝑓 of the feedback amplifier in Fig (a),
we set 𝑉𝑠 = 0𝑉 and apply a test voltage 𝑉𝑥 between the output terminals, as
shown in Fig.
Fig: Determining the output resistance of the Series-Shunt feedback amplifier

 If the current drawn from 𝑉𝑥 is 𝐼𝑥 the output resistance 𝑅𝑜𝑓 is
𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ≡
𝐼𝑥
Applying KVL to the output loop, we get the following equations
𝑉𝑥 − 𝐼𝑥 𝑅𝑜 − 𝐴𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑉𝑥 − 𝐴𝑉𝑖
∴ 𝐼𝑥 =
𝑅𝑜
From the input loop we get
𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓
WKT 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 Since 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑥
𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑥
Thus
𝑉𝑖 = −𝛽𝑉𝑥
Substituting 𝑉𝑖 in 𝐼𝑥 equation we get
𝑉𝑥 − 𝐴 −𝛽𝑉𝑥
𝐼𝑥 =
𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥 + 𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑥
𝐼𝑥 =
𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝐼𝑥 =
𝑅𝑜
Substituting 𝐼𝑥 in 𝑅𝑜𝑓
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ≡ = =
𝐼𝑥 𝑉𝑥 1 + 𝐴𝛽 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑅𝑜
𝑹𝒐
∴𝑹𝒐𝒇 =
𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷
Thus, as expected, the shunt sampling (or voltage sampling) at the output results
in a decrease in the amplifier output resistance by a factor equal to the amount
of negative feedback, 𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷 , a highly desirable property for a voltage
amplifier.
The Series–Series Feedback Amplifier (The Transconductance

Amplifier):
Fig: The ideal structure of the series–series feedback amplifier

 The ideal structure of the series–series feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

 The series–series feedback topology stabilizes 𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑠 and is therefore best
suited for transconductance amplifiers.
 Figure shows the ideal structure for the series–series feedback amplifier.
feedback network.
 The A circuit has an input resistance Ri , a short-circuit transconductance
𝐴 ≡ 𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑖 and an output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
 The 𝛽 circuit samples the short-circuit output current 𝐼𝑜 and provides a
feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝐼𝑜 that is subtracted from 𝑉𝑠 in the series input loop.
 The 𝛽 circuit presents zero resistance to the output loop, and thus does not
load the amplifier output.
 Since the structure of series–series feedback amplifier follows the ideal
feedback structure of feedback amplifier, we can obtain the closed-loop gain
𝐴𝑓 as
𝐼𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑓 ≡ =

The equivalent circuit model of the series–series feedback amplifier is shown in
Fig.
Fig: equivalent circuit of the series–series feedback amplifier
 𝐴𝑓 Is the short-circuit transconductance.

We know that
𝐼𝑜 𝐴
Af ≡ =
We know that
𝐴 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖
𝐼𝑜 = × 𝑉𝑠
1 + 𝐴𝛽
Substituting Vo in above equation gives:
𝐴
∴ 𝐴𝑉𝑖 = × 𝑉𝑠
1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑉𝑠
∴ 𝑉𝑖 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
Thus the input current 𝐼𝑖 becomes

𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑖 = = =
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑖
Since 𝑰𝒊 is the current drawn from 𝑽𝒔 , the input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑓 can be expressed
as
𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 ≡
𝐼𝑖
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 ≡ =
𝑅𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑖 1 + 𝐴𝛽
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
Thus
 Because of the series mixing, the input resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝑖𝑓 , will be
larger than the input resistance of the A circuit, 𝑹𝒊 , by a factor equal to the
amount of feedback,

 To find the output resistance 𝑹𝒐𝒇 of the series–series feedback amplifier, we

reduce 𝑉𝑠 to zero and break the output circuit to apply a test current I𝑥 , as
shown in Fig.
Fig: Equivalent circuit to determine the output resistance Rof of the series–
series feedback amplifier.
𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ≡
𝐼𝑥
From the output circuit we get
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑜
From the input loop we get

𝑉𝑖 = −𝑉𝑓
WKT 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝐼𝑜 Since 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑥
𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝐼𝑥
Thus
𝑉𝑖 = −𝛽𝐼𝑥
Substituting 𝑉𝑖 in 𝑉𝑥 equation we get
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 − 𝐴 −𝛽𝐼𝑥 𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐴𝛽𝐼𝑥 𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑜
𝑉𝑥
∴ = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑥
𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝑜𝑓 ≡ = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑥

Hence
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑜
 That is, in this case the negative feedback increases the output resistance.
The Shunt–Shunt Feedback Amplifier (Transresistance

Amplifier):
Fig: Ideal structure for the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier.
 The ideal structure of the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

 The shunt–shunt feedback topology stabilizes 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑠 and is thus best suited
for transresistance amplifiers.
feedback network.
 The A circuit has an input resistance 𝑅𝑖 , an open-circuit transresistance
𝐴 ≡ 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑖 , and an output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
 The 𝛽 circuit samples the open-circuit output voltage 𝑉𝑜 and provides a
feedback current 𝐼𝑓 that is subtracted from the signal-source current 𝐼𝑠 at the
input nodes.
 The 𝛽 circuit presents infinite impedance to the amplifier output and thus
does not load the amplifier output.
 The feedback signal 𝐼𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 is provided as an ideal current source, and thus
the 𝛽 circuit does not load the amplifier input.
 A is a transresistance, 𝛽 is a transconductance and thus the loop gain A𝛽 is a
dimensionless quantity.
 The closed-loop gain of shunt –shunt feedback amplifier 𝐴𝑓 as

𝑉𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑓 ≡ =
𝐼𝑠 1 + 𝐴𝛽

The equivalent circuit model of the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier is shown in
Fig.
Fig: Equivalent circuit of the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier
 The feedback transresistance amplifier can be represented by the

equivalent circuit in Fig.
 𝐴𝑓 Is the open-circuit transresistance.

 The shunt connection at the input of shunt–shunt feedback amplifier causes
the feedback current to subtract from 𝐼𝑠 resulting in a reduced current 𝐼𝑖 into
the A circuit,
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝐼𝑓
 Substituting 𝐼𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 = 𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖 and rearranging, results in
𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖
𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝐴 = 𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑖 =
1 + 𝛽𝐴
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝐴
 𝐼𝑖 Equation indicates that the shunt mixing reduces the input current by the
amount of feedback.
 The input resistance with feedback, 𝑅𝑖𝑓
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 ≡ =
I𝑠 𝐼𝑖 1 + 𝛽𝐴
𝑉𝑖
Where 𝑅𝑖 = Substituting 𝑅𝑖 in above equation we get
𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝐴
 Thus, as expected, the shunt connection at the input lowers the input
resistance by a factor equal to the amount of feedback.

Derivation same as series–shunt amplifier
𝑹𝒐
𝑹𝒐𝒇 =
𝟏 + 𝑨𝜷
The Shunt–Series Feedback Amplifier (Current Amplifier):
Fig: Ideal structure for the shunt–series feedback amplifier.

 Figure shows the ideal structure for the shunt–series feedback amplifier.
feedback network.
𝐼
 The A circuit has an input resistance𝑅𝑖 , a short-circuit current gain 𝐴 = 𝑜 ,
𝐼𝑖
and an output resistance 𝑅𝑜 .
 The circuit samples the short-circuit output current 𝐼𝑜 and provides a
feedback current that is subtracted from the signal-source current 𝐼𝑖 at the
input node.
 The feedback signal 𝐼𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 is provided as an ideal current source, and thus
the 𝛽 circuit does not load the amplifier input.
 the closed-loop current gain of shunt–series feedback amplifier is
𝐼𝑜 𝐴
𝐴𝑓 ≡ =
𝐼𝑠 1 + 𝐴𝛽


The equivalent circuit model of the shunt–series feedback amplifier is shown in
Fig.
Fig: Equivalent circuit of the shunt–series feedback amplifier

𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
1 + 𝛽𝐴

𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑜
For Derivation refer previous topologies

OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS:
Classification of Output Stages:

 Output stages are classified according to the collector current waveform that
results when an input signal is applied.
 They are
1. The Class A Stage
2. The Class B Stage
3. The Class AB Stage
4. The Class C Amplifier Stage
The Class A Stage:

 The class A stage, whose associated waveform is shown in Fig.
 It is biased at a current 𝐼𝑐 greater than the amplitude of the signal current, 𝐼𝑐 .
 The transistor in a class A stage conducts for the entire cycle of the input
signal; that is, the conduction angle is 360°.
The Class B Stage:

 The class B stage, whose associated waveform is shown in Fig.
 It is biased at zero dc current.
 Thus a transistor in a class B stage conducts for only half the cycle of the
input sine wave, resulting in a conduction angle of 180°.

The Class AB Stage:

 The class AB stage, whose associated waveform is shown in Fig.
 An intermediate class between A and B, appropriately named class AB,
involves biasing the transistor at a nonzero dc current much smaller than the
peak current of the sine-wave signal.
 the transistor conducts for an interval slightly greater than half a cycle, as
illustrated in Fig.
 The resulting conduction angle is greater than 180° but much less than 360°.
The Class C Amplifier Stage

 Figure shows the collector-current waveform for a transistor operated as a
class C amplifier.
 The transistor conducts for an interval shorter than that of a halfcycle; that is,
the conduction angle is less than 180°.
 The result is the periodically pulsating current waveform shown.
 To obtain a sinusoidal output voltage, this current is passed through a
parallel LC circuit, tuned to the frequency of the input sinusoid.

CLASS A OUTPUT STAGE:

 The transistor in a class A stage conducts for the entire cycle of the input
signal; that is, the conduction angle is 360°.
Transfer characteristic of class an output stage:

 Figure shows an emitter follower Q1 biased with a constant current I
supplied by transistor Q2.
In the above circuit:

𝒊𝑬𝟏 = 𝑰 + 𝒊𝑳
 The bias current I must be greater than the largest negative load current;
otherwise, Q1 cuts off and class A operation will no longer be maintained.
 The transfer characteristic of the emitter follower of above Fig. is described
by
𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣𝐵𝐸1
 Where 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 depends on the emitter current 𝑰𝑬𝟏 and thus on the load current
𝑰𝑳 .
 If we neglect the relatively small changes in 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 , the linear transfer curve
shown in waveform results.
 The positive limit of the linear region is determined by the saturation of Q1;
thus
𝑉𝑂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸1𝑠𝑎𝑡
 In the negative direction, depending on the values of I and RL, the limit of
the linear region is determined either by Q1 turning off,
𝑣𝑂𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝐼𝑅𝐿
OR

 By saturating Q2 we get
𝑣𝑂𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸2𝑠𝑎𝑡
 The absolutely lowest (most negative) output voltage is that given by above
Eq. and is achieved provided the bias current I is greater than the magnitude
of the corresponding load current,
−𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸2𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐼≥
𝑅𝐿
Signal Waveforms:
Consider the operation of the emitter-follower circuit of below Fig

 For a sine-wave input Neglecting VCEsat, Selecting the proper bias current I,
The output voltage can swing from −VCC to +VCC with the quiescent value
being zero is as shown in Fig. (a).
 Figure (b) shows the corresponding waveform of 𝑉𝐶𝐸1 = VCC −𝑣𝑂 .
 Now, assuming that the bias current I is selected to allow a maximum

negative load current of 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝐿 , that is
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼=
𝑅𝐿
 The collector current of Q1 will have the waveform shown in Fig. (c).
 Fig. (d) shows the waveform of the instantaneous power dissipation in Q1,
𝑃𝐷1 ≡ 𝑣𝐶𝐸1 𝑖𝐶1

Power Dissipation:
 Below waveform indicates that the maximum instantaneous power
dissipation in Q1 is
𝑷𝑫𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 𝐼
 This power dissipation is equal to the power dissipation in Q1 with no input

signal applied, that is, the quiescent power dissipation.
 The emitter-follower transistor dissipates the largest amount of power when
𝑣𝑂 = 0.
 The power dissipation in Q1 depends on the value of RL.
 When 𝑅𝐿 = ∞( output open circuit):
 In this case, iC1 = I is constant and the instantaneous power dissipation in
Q1 will depend on the instantaneous value of vO.
 The maximum power dissipation will occur when vO = −VCC, for in this
case vCE1 is a maximum of 2VCC and PD1 = 2VCCI.
 With an open-circuit load, the average power dissipation in Q1 is VCCI.
 When 𝑅𝐿 = 0( output short circuit):
 With an output short circuit, a positive input voltage would theoretically
result in an infinite load current.
 A very large current may flow through Q1, and if the short-circuit
condition persists; the resulting large power dissipation in Q1 can raise its
junction temperature beyond the specified maximum, causing Q1 to burn
up.
 To guard against such a situation, outputs stages are usually equipped
with short-circuit protection.
 The power dissipation in Q2 also must be taken into account in designing an
emitter follower output stage.
 Since Q2 conducts a constant current I, and the maximum value of vCE2 is
2VCC, the maximum instantaneous power dissipation in Q2 is
PD2=VCC I.
 A significant quantity for design purposes is the average power
dissipation in Q2, which is VCC I.

Power-Conversion Efficiency:
The power-conversion efficiency of an output stage is defined as
Load power 𝑃𝐿
𝜂≡
Supply power 𝑃𝑆
 For the emitter follower circuit, assuming that the output voltage is a
sinusoid with the peak value 𝑉𝑂 , the average load power will be
2 2
𝑉𝑂 2 1 𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝐿 = =
𝑅𝐿 2 𝑅𝐿
 Since the current in Q2 is constant (I), the power drawn from the negative
supply is VCCI.
 The average current in Q1 is equal to I, and thus the average power drawn
from the positive supply is VCCI.
 Thus the total average supply power is
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝑆+ + 𝑃𝑆− = 2𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼
 Substituting 𝑃𝐿 and 𝑃𝑆 in 𝜂 we get
2
1 𝑉𝑂 2
2 𝑅𝐿 1 𝑉𝑂
∴ 𝜂= =
2𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼 4 𝐼𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝐶𝐶
 Rearranging the above equation we get
1 𝑉𝑂 𝑉𝑂
𝜂=
4 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝑅𝐿
 Since 𝑉𝑂 ≤ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑂 ≤ 𝐼𝑅𝐿 , maximum efficiency is obtained when
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝑅𝐿
1
 The maximum efficiency attainable is 𝜂 = = 25%.
4

TRANSFORMER-COUPLED POWER AMPLIFIERS:

 In the previous section we have seen transformer-less Class-A power
amplifiers.
 Transformer-less power amplifier is also known as RC –coupled power
amplifiers.
 The efficiency of RC-coupled Class-A power amplifier is very less, i.e 25%.
 To improve the efficiency we prefer transformer coupled amplifiers.
TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIERS:
(a) (b)
 The schematic diagram of a transformer-coupled class A power amplifier is
as shown in the figure (a).
 In this amplifier a transformer is used to couple ac power to the load.
 By adjusting turn ratio of the primary windings to the secondary windings,
one can match the source and load impedance for a maximum power
transfer.
 This makes transformer coupled power amplifiers more efficient as
compared to RC-coupled power amplifiers, as maximum power transfer can
take place.
 The impedance matching of the transformer can be
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁2
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁1
Where 𝑁1 𝑁2 , 𝑉1 𝑉2 , and 𝐼1 𝐼2 are the number of turns, voltages, and
currents respectively, in the primary (secondary) coil of the transformer.

𝑉1 𝑁1 2 𝑉2
∴ =
𝐼1 𝑁2 𝐼2
𝑉1 𝑉2
Since represents the effective load resistance 𝑅𝐿′ and represents the
𝐼1 𝐼2
output load resistance 𝑅𝐿 , then
𝑁1 2
=𝑅𝐿′ 𝑅𝐿
𝑁2
 The resistor R1 and R2 are used to bias the transistor for class A
operation.
 The dc and ac load lines for the amplifier are shown in the figure (b).
 The dc load line is vertical to VCC, with infinite slope.
 The ac load line is -(1/Rac), where Rac is the ac resistance of the primary
windings.
 The intersection of dc and ac load lines gives the operating point of the
amplifiers.
 Due to counter- emf effect of the transformer, the output signal will
swing from 0v to 2VCC as shown in fig (b).
Efficiency (η) of transformer-coupled class-A power amplifier:

ac power delivered to the load Pac
η= =
dc power supplied Pdc
Pdc = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Pac = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2
From the load line graph, the peak values of output voltage and current are
equal to 𝑉𝑚 =VCC and 𝐼𝑚 =ICQ , respectively.
Pac VCC 2 × ICQ 2 1 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄
∴η= = × 100 = × 100
Pdc 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄 2 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶𝑄
Hence
Pac
η= = 50%
Pdc

CLASS B OUTPUT STAGE:

 Figure shows a class B output stage.
 It consists of a complementary pair of transistors (an npn and a pnp)
connected in such a way that both cannot conduct simultaneously.
Circuit Operation:
 When the input voltage vI is zero:
 Both transistors are cut off and the output voltage vO is zero.
 As vI goes positive and exceeds about 0.5 V:
 QN conducts and operates as an emitter follower.
 In this case vO follows vI (i.e., vO = vI − vBEN) and QN supplies the load
current.
 Meanwhile, the emitter–base junction of QP will be reverse-biased by the
VBE of QN, which is approximately 0.7V.
 Thus QP will be cut off.
 As vI goes negative by more than about 0.5 V:
 QP turns on and acts as an emitter follower.
 Again vO follows vI (i.e., vO = vI + vEBP), but in this case QP supplies the
load current and QN will be cut off.
 The circuit operates in a push–pull fashion: QN pushes (sources) current into
the load when vI is positive, and QP pulls (sinks) current from the load when
vI is negative.

Transfer Characteristic:
 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the class B stage is shown in Fig.
 Note that there exists a range of vI centered around zero where both
transistors are cut off and vO is zero.
Crossover distortion:
 The dead band where both transistors are cut off vO is zero results in the
crossover distortion illustrated in Fig. for the case of an input sine wave.
 The effect of crossover distortion will be most pronounced when the
amplitude of the input signal is small.
 Crossover distortion in audio power amplifiers gives rise to unpleasant
sounds.
POWER-CONVERSION EFFICIENCY:
The power-conversion efficiency of an output stage is defined as
Load power 𝑃𝐿
𝜂≡
Supply power 𝑃𝑆
 To calculate the power-conversion efficiency, η, of the class B stage, we
neglect the crossover distortion and consider the case of an output sinusoid
of peak amplitude 𝑉𝑂 .
 The average load power will be
2 2
𝑉𝑂 2 1 𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝐿 = =
𝑅𝐿 2 𝑅𝐿
 The current drawn from each supply will consist of half-sine waves of peak
𝑉𝑂
amplitude .
𝑅𝐿
 Thus the average current drawn from each of the two power supplies will be
𝑉𝑂
.
𝜋𝑅 𝐿
 It follows that the average power drawn from each of the two power supplies
will be the same,
1 𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝑆+ = 𝑃𝑆− = 𝑉
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝐶
 the total supply power will be
2 𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝑆++𝑃𝑆− = 𝑉
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 𝐶𝐶
 Substituting 𝑃𝐿 and 𝑃𝑆 in 𝜂 we get
2
1 𝑉𝑂
2 𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝑉𝑂
𝜂= =
2 𝑉𝑂 4 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝜋 𝑅𝐿
 The maximum efficiency is obtained when 𝑉𝑂 is at its maximum.
 This maximum 𝑉𝑂 is limited by the saturation of QN and QP to
𝑉𝑂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡 ≅ 𝑉𝐶𝐶
 At this value of peak output voltage, the power-conversion efficiency is
𝜋
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 78.5%
4
 The maximum average power available from a class B output stage is
obtained by substituting 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶
 Substituting in 𝑃𝐿 we get
1 𝑉𝐶𝐶 2
𝑃𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2 𝑅𝐿

Power Dissipation:
 The quiescent power 𝑣𝑂 = 0 dissipation of the class B stage is zero.
 When an input signal is applied, the average power dissipated in the class B
stage is given by
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑆 − 𝑃𝐿
2
2 𝑉𝑂 1 𝑉𝑂
 Substituting for 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and for 𝑃𝐿 = results in 𝑃𝐷 we get
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 2 𝑅𝐿
2
2 𝑉𝑂 1 𝑉𝑂
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 −
 From symmetry we see that half of PD is dissipated in QN and the other half
in QP.
1
 Thus QN and QP must be capable of safely dissipating 𝑃𝐷 watts.
2
 Since PD depends on 𝑉𝑂 we must find the worst-case power dissipation,
𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
 Differentiating 𝑃𝐷 Eq. with respect to 𝑉𝑂 and equating the derivative to zero
gives the value of 𝑉𝑂 that results in maximum average power dissipation as
𝑑𝑃𝐷
=0
𝑑𝑉𝑂
We get
2
2 𝑉𝑂 1𝑉
𝑑 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑂
=0
𝑑𝑉𝑂
2
𝑑 2 𝑉𝑂 𝑑 1 𝑉𝑂
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − =0
𝑑𝑉𝑂 𝜋 𝑅𝐿 𝑑𝑉𝑂 2 𝑅𝐿
2 𝑉𝐶𝐶 1 𝑉𝑂
− ×2× =0
𝑉𝑂 2 𝑉𝐶𝐶
=
𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝑅𝐿
When maximum average power
2
∴ 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉
𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜋 𝐶𝐶
2
Substituting 𝑉𝑂 𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝑉𝐶𝐶 in 𝑃𝐷 we get
𝜋

2𝑉 2 𝐶𝐶
𝑃𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
𝜋 𝑅𝐿
Thus
𝑉 2 𝐶𝐶
𝑃𝐷𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐷𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
𝜋 𝑅𝐿
 At the point of maximum power dissipation, the efficiency can be evaluated
2 𝜋 𝑉𝑂
by substituting for 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 into 𝜂 = we get 𝜂 = 50%.
𝜋 4 𝑉𝐶𝐶
 Figure shows a sketch of PD versus the peak output voltage 𝑉𝑂 .
2
 From the above graph we can observe that: Increasing VO beyond VCC
π
decreases the power dissipated in the class B stage while increasing the load
power.

CLASS AB OUTPUT STAGE:
 Crossover distortion can be virtually eliminated by biasing the

complementary output transistors at a small nonzero current.
 The class AB output stage is shown in Fig.
 A bias voltage VBB is applied between the bases of QN and QP.
 For vI = 0, vO = 0, and a voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐵 2 appears across the base–emitter
junction of each of QN and QP.
 Assuming matched devices,
𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑃 = 𝐼𝑄 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉𝐵𝐵 2𝑉𝑇
 The value of VBB is selected to yield the required quiescent current IQ.
Circuit Operation:
 When vI goes positive by a certain amount, the voltage at the base of QN
increases by the same amount and the output becomes positive at an almost
equal value,
𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣𝐼 + − 𝑣𝐵𝐸𝑁
2
 The positive vO causes a current iL to flow through RL, and thus iN must
increase; that is,
𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑃 + 𝑖𝐿
 The increase in iN will be accompanied by a corresponding increase in vBEN
(above the quiescent value of VBB/2).
 However, since the voltage between the two bases remains constant at VBB,
the increase in vBEN will result in an equal decrease in vEBP and hence in iP.
 The relationship between iN and iP can be derived as follows:
𝑣𝐵𝐸𝑁 + 𝑣𝐸𝐵𝑃 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝑃 𝐼𝑄
𝑉𝑇 ln + 𝑉𝑇 ln = 2𝑉𝑇 ln
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝑃 = 𝐼𝑄2
 Thus, as iN increases, iP decreases by the same ratio while the product
remains constant.
Substituting 𝑖𝑁 = 𝑖𝑃 + 𝑖𝐿 in 𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝑃 = 𝐼𝑄2 we get
𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝑁 − 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼𝑄2
𝑖𝑁2 − 𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼𝑄2
∴ 𝑖𝑁2 − 𝑖𝑁 𝑖𝐿 − 𝐼𝑄2 = 0
 From the equations above, we can see that for positive output voltages, the
load current is supplied by QN, which acts as the output emitter follower.
 Meanwhile, QP will be conducting a current that decreases as vO increases;
for large vO the current in QP can be ignored altogether.
 For negative input voltages the opposite occurs: The load current will be
supplied by QP, which acts as the output emitter follower, while QN conducts
a current that gets smaller as vI becomes more negative.
Transfer characteristic of the class AB stage:
 Figure shows the transfer characteristic of the class AB stage.

 For small vI , both transistors conduct, and as vI is increased or decreased,
one of the two transistors takes over the operation.
 Since the transition is a smooth one, crossover distortion will be almost
totally eliminated.

CLASS C OUTPUT STAGE:

 In the class C amplifier, the transistor is biased such that it remains off for
no-signal conditions and operates in the saturation region when an input
signal is present.
 When the transistor is off, the current through it is very small and hence the
transistor dissipates negligible power.
 Similarly, when transistor operates in saturation region, the voltage across it
is very small, and again the power dissipation is small.
 Therefore, in the class C amplifier, as the transistor dissipates less power, its
efficiency is higher than that of class A amplifier.
 However, drawback of the class C amplifier is, it is highly non-linear and
produces distorted output.
 The drawback is overcome by connecting a low-pass filter at the output.
The Class C amplifier:
Fig (a): THE CLASS C AMPLIFIER
Fig (b): Input and waveforms at the collector terminal of the class C amplifier

 The schematic diagram of class C amplifier is as shown in the figure (a).

 The figure (b) shows the input and the waveforms at the collector terminal.
 When the input signal is positive and above the cut-in voltage of the
transistor, the transistor operates in saturation region.
o During this period, the output voltage is equal to the saturation voltage
of the transistor and remains constant as long as the input voltage is
above the cut-in voltage.
 When the input voltage is less than the cut-in voltage, the transistor remains
off, while the induced emf in the inductor provides the collector voltage as
shown in the graph.

ANALOG CIRCUITS 18EC42 (Module - 3)

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ANALOG CIRCUITS 18EC42 (Module - 3)

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Analog Circuits [18EC42]

1 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Properties of negative feedback:

The Four Basic Feedback Topologies:

2 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Fig: Block diagram of a feedback voltage amplifier.

Fig: Block diagram of a feedback current amplifier.

3 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Fig: Block diagram of a feedback transconductance amplifier.

Fig: Block diagram of a feedback transresistance amplifier.

The Series–Shunt Feedback Amplifier (The Voltage Amplifier):

4 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Fig: Ideal structure of the series–shunt feedback amplifier

 The ideal structure of the series–shunt feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

5 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Fig: Equivalent circuit of the series–shunt feedback amplifier.

Expressions for 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :

Thus the input current 𝐼𝑖 becomes

6 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Thus, as expected, the series-mixing feedback results in an increase in the

Expressions for 𝑹𝒐𝒇 :

Fig: Determining the output resistance of the Series-Shunt feedback amplifier

The Series–Series Feedback Amplifier (The Transconductance

Fig: The ideal structure of the series–series feedback amplifier

 The ideal structure of the series–series feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

To determine Input resistance (Rif) and Output Resistance (Rof):

Fig: equivalent circuit of the series–series feedback amplifier

 𝐴𝑓 Is the short-circuit transconductance.

Expressions for 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :

9 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

Thus the input current 𝐼𝑖 becomes

Expressions for 𝑹𝒐𝒇 :

10 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

 To find the output resistance 𝑹𝒐𝒇 of the series–series feedback amplifier, we

From the output circuit we get

From the input loop we get

11 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

The Shunt–Shunt Feedback Amplifier (Transresistance

Fig: Ideal structure for the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier.

 The ideal structure of the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier is shown in Fig.

 The closed-loop gain of shunt –shunt feedback amplifier 𝐴𝑓 as

To determine Input resistance (Rif) and Output Resistance (Rof):

Fig: Equivalent circuit of the shunt–shunt feedback amplifier

 The feedback transresistance amplifier can be represented by the

Expressions for 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :

Expressions for 𝑹𝒐𝒇 :

The Shunt–Series Feedback Amplifier (Current Amplifier):

Fig: Ideal structure for the shunt–series feedback amplifier.

14 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

To determine Input resistance (Rif) and Output Resistance (Rof):

Fig: Equivalent circuit of the shunt–series feedback amplifier

Expressions for 𝑹𝒊𝒇 :

Expressions for 𝑹𝒐𝒇 :

For Derivation refer previous topologies

15 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS:

Classification of Output Stages:

The Class A Stage:

The Class B Stage:

16 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga

The Class AB Stage:

The Class C Amplifier Stage

17 By: Mahendra Naik, Department of ECE, PESITM Shivamogga