Latitude and longitude

1
 What is the Reason For Seasons?
• The Tilt or Obliquity of Axis of rotation relative to
the plane of the Earth’s Orbit about the Sun
– Primarily responsible for existence of seasons
 What is the Reason For Seasons?
• Eccentricity of Earth’s Orbit is a secondary
factor

Earth’s orbit
is not perfectly
circular, but
has an elliptical
shape

Orbit shaped by
the gravitational
pull of nearby
planets
 Simple Change in Axial Tilt
• No tilt, solar radiation always over equator
– No seasonal change in solar radiation
– Solstices and equinoxes do not exist
• 90° tilt, solar radiation hits poles
– Day-long darkness
– Day-long light
– Extreme
seasonality
Long-term Changes in Axial Tilt
• Change in tilt not extreme
– Range from 22.5° to 24.5°
– Gravitational tug of large
planets
• Changes in tilt have a
period of 41,000 years
– Cycles are regular
• Period
• Amplitude
– Affects both hemispheres
equally
 Effect of Changes in Axial Tilt
• Changes in tilt produce long-term
variations in seasonal solar radiation
– Especially at high latitudes
• Mainly effects seasonality
– Increased tilt amplifies seasonality
– Decreased tilt reduces seasonality
Latitude and longitude

12
Solar Geometry

S
Φ

S’
P’
Latitude (φ):
It is defined is the angle subtended by the radial line joining
the place to the centre of the earth, with the projection of the line on
the equatorial plane

Hour angle (ω):

It is defined as the angle measured in the earth's equatorial
plane between the projection of op’ and the projection of a line from
center of the sun to the center of earth.
- At the solar noon, the hour angle is zero.
Morning: negative and Afternoon: positive
The hour angle expresses the time of the day with respect to solar
noon.
One hour is represented by 2π/24 = 0.262 rad., or
360°/24 = 15° degrees
 Declination angle (δ)
• Solar Declination is the angle between the equatorial
plane and the ecliptic plane
• The solar declination angle varies with the season of
the year, and ranges between –23.45º and +23.45º

• It is the angular distance of the sun's rays north (or

south) of the equator.
Figure shows the sun's angle of declination.
• δ = - 23.5° at winter solstice, i.e. sun's rays would be
23.5° south of the earth's equator
• δ = +23.5 at summer solstice, i.e. sun's rays would be
23.5° north of the earth's equator.
• δ = 0° at the equinoxes

Declination angle (δ) = 23.45 sin [360(284+n)/365]

where, n = day of the year
 Declination angle (δ)
Summer Solstice is at
maximum solar declination
(+23.5º) and occurs around
June 21st –Sun is at Zenith at
solar noon at locations 23.5º N
latitude

Winter Solstice is at minimum

solar declination (-23.5º) and
occurs around December 21st
At any location in the Northern
Hemisphere, the sun is 47º
lower in the sky at noon on
winter solstice than on the
summer solstice – Days are
significantly shorter than nights
 Declination angle (δ)
Equinoxes occur when the
solar declination is zero.
Spring equinox is around
March 21st and the fall
equinox occurs around
September 21st –Sun is at
Zenith at solar noon on the
equator.

Around the equinoxes the

daily [rate of] change is at
maximum as oppose to
change of declination during
the solstices when it is at its
minimum
Sep. 22 Jun. 22 Mar. 22 Dec. 22 Sep. 22