Unit-1-The Sun and Earth Relationship

Unit-1
The Earth and Sun Relationship
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Overview
 The Sun
 Solar Radiation
 Sun-Earth Relationships
 Empirical Equations for Predicting the Availability of

Radiation Measurement
 Solar Radiation Measurement
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The Sun
 The output of sun is 2.8×1023 KW.

 The energy reaching the earth is 1.5×1018 KWH/year.
 When light travels from outer space to earth, solar energy
is lost because of following reasons:
 Scattering: The rays collide with particles present in
atmosphere.
 Absorption: Because of water vapor, there is absorption.
 Cloud cover: The light rays are diffused because of
clouds.
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The Sun
 Reflection: When the light rays hit the mountains present
on the earth surface, there is reflection.
 Climate: Latitude of the location, day (time in the year)

also affects the amount of solar energy received by the
place.
 The above mentioned factors determine the amount of

power falling on the surface.
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Solar Radiation
 The amount of radiation reaching the earth is less than what

entered the top of the atmosphere. We classify it in two
categories:
1. Direct Radiation: radiation from the sun that reaches the earth
without scattering.
2. Diffuse Radiation: radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere

and clouds.
3. Global Radiation: The sum of the beam and diffused radiation is

referred as total or global radiation.
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Solar Radiation
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Insolation
 It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar power

on a unit surface, commonly expressed in units of kW/m2.
 At the earth’s outer atmosphere, the solar insolation on a 1

m2 surface oriented normal to the sun’s rays is called
SOLAR CONSTANT and its value is 1.37 kW/m2.
 Due to atmospheric effects, the peak solar insolation

incident on a terrestrial surface oriented normal to the sun at
noon on a clear day is of the order of 1 kW/m2.
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Insolation
 A solar insolation level of 1 kW/m2 is often called PEAK

SUN. Solar insolation is denoted by ' I '.
 50% of solar energy is in the form of thermal energy.

 Solar PV captures the energy in visible region.
 Solar thermal captures energy in infrared region.
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Irradiance
 It is an amount of solar
energy received on a unit
surface expressed in units of
kWh/m2.
 Solar irradiance is essentially
the solar insolation (power)
integrated with respect to
time.
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Irradiance
 When solar irradiance data is represented on an average

daily basis, the value is often called PEAK SUN HOURS
(PSH) and can be thought of as the number of equivalent
hours/day that solar insolation is at its peak level of 1
kW/m2.
 The worldwide average daily value of solar irradiance on
optimally oriented surfaces is approximately 5 kWh/m2 or
5 PSH. Solar irradiance is denoted by ' H '.
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The inverse square law
 The inverse square law states that irradiance is reduced in
proportion to the inverse square of the distance from the
source.
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Solar Radiation
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Solar Radiation
 Solar Spectrum: most of the

energy received from the
sun is electromagnetic
radiation in the form of
waves.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum is
the range of all types of
electromagnetic radiation,
based on wavelength.
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Solar Radiation
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Solar Radiation
 Air Mass represents, how much atmosphere, the solar
radiation has to pass through before reaching the Earth’s
surface.
 Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun is directly

overhead at sea level. AM = 1/ Cos Өz
 We are specifically concerned with terrestrial solar

radiation that is, the solar radiation reaching the surface of
the earth.
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Solar Radiation
 Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular
location – as the Zenith angle Өz increases, the sun
approaches the horizon. AM = 1/ Cos Өz.
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Solar Radiation
 Solar spectral distribution is important to understanding

how the PV modules that we’re going to utilize respond
to it.
 Most Silicon based PV devices respond only to visible

and the near infrared portions of the spectrum.
 Thin film modules generally have a narrower response

range.
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Solar Radiation
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Solar Radiation Geometry
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 The ecliptic plane is formed by Earth’s elliptical orbit around

the sun.
 In one year, Earth makes a slightly elliptical orbit around

the sun. Perihelion is the point in Earth’s orbit when it is
closest to the sun.
 Aphelion is the point in Earth’s orbit when it is farthest from

the sun. Perihelion occurs around January 3 and aphelion
occurs around July 4.
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 The equatorial plane is tipped 23.5° from the ecliptic plane.

As Earth revolves around the sun, this orientation produces
a varying solar declination.
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 The summer solstice occurs when
the Northern Hemisphere is tipped
towards the sun. The winter solstice
occurs when the Northern
Hemisphere is tipped away from the
sun.
 A solstice is Earth’s orbital position

when solar declination is at its
maximum or minimum. The summer
solstice is at maximum solar
declination (+23.5°) and occurs
around June 21.
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 The Northern Hemisphere is at
its maximum tilt toward the sun.
Days are longer than nights in
the Northern Hemisphere, with
all points south of the Antarctic
circle in total darkness.
 The sun is at zenith at solar
noon at locations at 23.5°N
latitude, known as the Tropic of
Cancer.
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 The fall and spring equinoxes
occur when the sun is directly
in line with the equator.
 An equinox is Earth’s orbital
position when solar declination
is zero.
 There are two equinoxes in a
year. The spring equinox
occurs around March 21 and
the fall equinox occurs around
September 23.
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 At these two points, every

location on Earth has equal
length days and nights.
 The sun is at zenith at noon
on the equator and rises and
sets due east and due west,
respectively, everywhere on
the Earth.
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 Poles of The Earth: The ends of the axis of rotation of the

earth are called poles. One pole is North and other is the
South.
 Equator: It is an imaginary great circle normal to the earth’s
axis, dividing the distance between the earth’s poles along
its surface into two equal parts. The equator divides the
earth into two hemispheres called Northern and Southern
hemispheres.
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 Meridian: The location of Royal Observatory Greenwich,
London has been universally accepted as reference point.
 An imaginary great circle passing through this point and the
two poles, intersecting the equator at right angles, is called
the prime meridian.
 Latitude: It is the angular distance of a place north or south
of the earth's equator, usually expressed in degrees and
minutes.
 Longitude: It is the angular distance of the location,
measured east or west from the prime meridian.
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 Angles useful in solar radiation analysis:
1. Latitude of location(∅)
2. Declination(δ)
3. Hour Angle(ω)
4. Altitude Angle(α)
5. Zenith Angle(θz)
6. Solar Azimuth Angle(γs)
7. Surface Azimuth Angle(λ)
8. Slope (β)
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1. Latitude (∅)
 Angle made by radial line

joining the location to the
center of the Earth and the
projection of that line on the
Equatorial plane.
 It is the angular distance
north or south of equator
measured from center of
Earth.
 It varies from 0o at equator to
90o at the poles.
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1. Latitude (∅)
 The latitude is positive

for northern hemisphere
and negative for
southern hemisphere.
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2. Declination(δ)
 Angular distance of the
sun’s rays north or south of
the equator.
 It is the angle between a line
extending from the center of
Sun to center of Earth and
the projection of this line
upon Earth’s Equatorial
Plane.
 It is positive when measured
above the equatorial plane
in northern hemisphere.
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2. Declination(δ)
 It is due to tilt of Earth’s axis
and it varies between 23.5o
(Summer Solstice : June 22) to
-23.5o (Winter Solstice :
December 22).
 On Equinoxes, Declination is 0.
 It is given by: δ = 23.45º x sin
[(360/365)(284+n)] in degrees.
 Where n is no. of days in a year
counted from 1st January.
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2. Declination(δ)
The variation in the Declination Angle throughout the year

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3. Hour Angle(ω)
 The angle through which the earth must turn to bring the
Meridian of a point directly in line with the Sun’s rays.
 It is an angular measure of the time and is equivalent to 15o
per hour.
 At noon, ω = 0.
 It is measured from noon, based on the Local Solar Time
(LST), +ve before noon and -ve during afternoon.
 Solar noon occurs when the sun is at the highest point in
the sky & ω is symmetric with respect to solar noon.
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Local Solar Time
 Solar time can be obtained from standard time observed on a

clock by applying two corrections:
1. Due to difference in longitude between a location and the

meridian on which the standard time is based: has a
magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference in
longitude.
2. Due to Equation of Time: As Earth’s orbit and rate of rotation

are subjected to small perturbations.
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Local Solar Time
 Solar time: Solar radiation calculations such as the hour angle are
based on local solar time (LST).
 Since the earth's orbital velocity varies throughout the year, the
local solar time as measured by a sundial varies slightly from the
mean time kept by a clock running at uniform rate.
 A civil day is exactly equal to 24 hours, whereas a solar day is
approximately equal to 24 hours.
 This variation is called as Equation of Time (EOT) and is available
as average values for different months of the year.
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Local Solar Time
 The EOT may be considered as constant for a given day. An

approximate equation for calculating EOT given by Spencer (1971)
is:
𝐸𝑂𝑇
= 0.2292(0.075 + 1.868cos𝐵 − 32.077sin𝐵 − 4.615 cos2𝐵 − 40.89 sin2𝐵)
360
 Where 𝐵 = (𝑛 − 1) : n is the day of the year (counted from
365
January 1st)
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Local Solar Time
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Local Solar Time
 LST = Standard Time ± 4 (Standard Time Longitude – Longitude

of Location) + (Equation of Time Correction)
 The negative sign is applicable for Eastern Hemisphere.
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4. Altitude Angle(α)
 It is vertical angle between

the projection of Sun’s
rays on the horizontal
plane on Earth’s surface
and the direction of Sun’s
ray.
 The altitude angle (α) is
maximum at solar noon.
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5. Zenith Angle(θz)
 Complimentary angle of
solar altitude angle, i.e.
vertical angle between
Sun’s rays and a line
perpendicular to the
horizontal plane though the
point, i.e. angle between
the beam from the sun and
the vertical.
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6. Solar Azimuth Angle(γs)
 Solar Angle in degrees

along the horizon east or
west of North.
 It is a horizontal angle
measured from North to
horizontal projection of
sun’s rays.
 It is considered +ve west-
wise.
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7. Surface Azimuth Angle(λ)
 It is the angle in the

horizontal plane between
the line due south and the
horizontal projection of
the normal to the inclined
plane surface.
 It is taken as -ve when
measured from south
towards west.
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8. Slope (β)
 It is the angle between the

inclined plane surface under
consideration and the
horizontal.
 It is +ve for surfaces
slopping towards South & -
ve for surfaces slopping
towards North.
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9. Angle of Incidence (θ)
 When tilted surfaces

are involved.
 It is angle between
Sun rays and normal
to surface under
consideration.
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Sign Conventions
N
 Angles east of south are
negative.
90º -90º
 Angles west of south are
W E
positive.
+
45º -
-45º
S
0º
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General Equation for Angle of Incidence (θ)
cos θ = sin ∅ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos λ cos ω sin β)
+ cos ∅ (cos δ cos ω cos β - sin δ cos λ sin β)
+ cos δ sin λ sin ω sin β ………………………………………....(1)
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Angle of Incidence (θ) for Vertical Surfaces
 For Vertical Surfaces:
 Slope, β = 90o
 So, from Equation (1)
cos θ = sin ∅ cos δ cos λ cos ω – cos ∅ sin δ cos λ + cos δ

sin λ sin ω………………………………………………………...(2)
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Angle of Incidence (θ) for Horizontal Surfaces
 For Horizontal Surfaces:

 Slope, β = 0o, Zenith Angle θ = θz
 Hence,
cos θz = sin ∅ sin δ + cos ∅ cos δ cos ω ………………………(3)
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Angle of Incidence (θ) for Surfaces facing South
 For inclined surfaces facing due South:

 Surface Azimuth Angle, λ = 0o ,
 Hence,
cos θ = sin ∅ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos ω sin β) + cos ∅ (cos
δ cos ω cos β - sin δ sin β)
cos θ = sin δ sin (∅ - β) + cos δ cos ω cos (∅ - β) …………….(4)
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Angle of Incidence (θ) for Vertical Surfaces facing South
 For Vertical Surfaces facing due South:

 Slope, β = 90o , Surface Azimuth Angle, λ = 0o ,
 Hence,
cos θ = sin ∅ cos δ cos ω + cos ∅ sin δ ………………….…...(5)
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Apparent Motion of the Sun
 It will be useful at this stage to describe the apparent motion of the
sun as seen from the earth.
 To an observer on the earth, on any given day, the sun rises in the
east, moves in a plane tilted at an angle of (90°- ϕ) with the
horizontal, and finally sets in the west.
 Thus, the apparent plane in which the sun moves intersects the
horizontal plane in a line pointing east-west.
 However, because of the declination angle this E-W line of
intersection does not coincide with the E-W line passing through
the observer O (Figure).
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 For a location in the northern hemisphere, this line is to the south

in winter (declination negative), to the north in summer (declination
positive) and coincides with the E-W line passing through the
observer on the two equinox days of March 21 and September 22
(declination zero).
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Sunrise, Sunset and Day Length
 Horizontal Surface: The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or
sunset (𝜔𝑠) on a horizontal surface can be found from Eqn. (3) if
one substitutes the value of 90° for the zenith angle.
 We obtain
cos θz = sin ∅ sin δ + cos ∅ cos δ cos ω = 0
 Sun Rise Hour Angle (ωs ) :
cos ωs = -(sin ∅ sin δ ) / (cos ∅ cos δ )
cos ωs = - (tan ∅ tan δ )
ωs = cos-1(- tan ∅ tan δ )………………………………….…….(6)
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 This equation yields a positive and a negative value for 𝜔𝑠, the
positive value corresponding to sunrise and the negative to sunset.
 Since 15° of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, the
corresponding day length (in hours)
2 2
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔 = cos −1 (tan ∅ tan 𝛿)………………………..(7)
15 𝑠 15
 Where 𝜔𝑠 is in degrees.
 Thus, day length is a function of latitude ∅ and solar declination δ.
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 Inclined Surface Facing Due South: The hour angle at sunrise or

sunset as seen by an observer on an inclined surface facing south
(𝛾 = 0°) will also be given by Eq. (6) if the day under consideration
lies between September 22 and March 21, and the location is in
the northern hemisphere.
 This is because during this period, the declination is negative and

the apparent plane of motion of the sun intersects the horizontal
plane in an E-W line which lies to the south of the E-W line passing
through an observer on the inclined plane.
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 However, if the day under consideration lies between March 21 and
September 22, the hour angle at sunrise or sunset (𝜔𝑠𝑡) would be
smaller in magnitude than the value given by Eq. (6) and would be
obtained by substituting 𝜃 = 90° in Eq.(4).
 This yields
𝜔𝑠𝑡 = cos −1 [− tan 𝜙 − 𝛽 tan 𝛿]……………………………………(8)

 Thus, the magnitude of 𝜔𝑠𝑡 for an inclined surface facing south (𝛾 =
0°) is given by
𝜔𝑠𝑡 = min [ cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿) , cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 − 𝛽 tan 𝛿) ]..(9)

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 Inclined Surface Facing Due North: Proceeding in the same manner
as for an inclined surface facing due south, it can be shown by
using Eqs (6) and (1) that
𝜔𝑠𝑡 = min [ cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿) , cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 + 𝛽 tan 𝛿) ]…………(10)
 In general, for a plane surface not symmetrically oriented, hour

angles at sunrise and sunset would be unequal in magnitude apart
from having opposite signs.
 The general procedure would be to calculate 𝜔𝑠𝑡 by substituting 𝜃 =

90° in Eq. (1) and by using Eq. (6).
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 Depending upon the day of the year and the orientation of the
surface, proper judgement would need to be exercised in selecting
the correct values from the solutions thus obtained.
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Empirical Equations For Predicting The
Availability of Solar Radiation
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Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation
 Suggested by Angstrom; Solar Radiation could be estimated by
relating it to the amount of sunshine by a simple linear relation, of
the form:
ഥ𝑔
𝐻 𝑆ҧ
ഥ𝑐
= a + b( ҧ
)……………………………….……….(11)
𝐻 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where,
ഥ𝑔 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a
𝐻
horizontal surface at a location (KJ/𝑚2 -day),
ഥ𝑐 = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a
𝐻
horizontal surface at the same location on a clear day (KJ/𝑚2 -
day),
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𝑆ഥ = Monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at the
location (h),
ҧ
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine
hours per day at the location, i.e., the day length on a
horizontal surface (h),
a, b = Constants obtained by fitting data.
 Because of difficulties in deciding what constitutes a clear day, it
was suggested that 𝐻 ഥ𝑐 be replaced by 𝐻 ഥ𝑜 , the monthly average of
the daily extra-terrestrial radiation which would fall on a horizontal
surface at the location under consideration.
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ഥ𝑔
𝐻 𝑆ҧ
ഥ𝑜
= a + b(ҧ
) ……………………………………...(12)
 Value of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of

measured values of global solar radiation and sunshine duration of
many cities in the world by Lof et al.
 A set of values have been obtained for world and 17 Indian cities
given in Table.
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ഥ𝑜 is the mean of the value 𝐻𝑜
 In the above calculation, the quantity 𝐻
for each day of the month. 𝐻𝑜 is obtained by integration over the
day length as follows:
𝐻𝑜 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 1 + 0.033cos 360𝑛 ∫ (sin∅sin𝛿 + cos∅cos𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔)𝑑𝑡

365
180𝜔
 Now, 𝑡 = where, t is in hours and 𝜔 is in radians.
15𝜋
 Hence,
180𝑑𝜔
𝑑𝑡 =
15𝜋
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Substituting in eqn.,
𝜔𝑠
12 360𝑛
𝐻𝑜 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 1 + 0.033cos න (sin∅sin𝛿 + cos∅cos𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔)𝑑𝜔
𝜋 365 −𝜔 𝑠
24 360𝑛
= 𝐼 1 + 0.033cos (𝜔𝑠sin∅sin𝛿 + cos∅cos𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑠)……...(13)
𝜋 𝑠𝑐 365
ഥ𝑜 has been simplified by Klein , the particular
 The calculations of 𝐻
day in each month on which the extra-terrestrial radiation is nearly
equal to the monthly mean value are: Jan 17, Feb 16, Mar 16, Apr
15, May 15, Jun 11, July 17, Aug 16, Sept 5, Oct 15, Nov 14 and Dec
10.
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 As expected, these dates are close to the middle of the month.
 Average daily global radiation can be calculated at a location when

data on sunshine hours is available and values of a and b are
known for a nearby location with a similar geography and climate.
 The meteorological parameters e.g. cloud cover (amount of sky

dome covered by clouds) and precipitation (the number of days in
the month with precipitation greater than 0.3 mm) have been used
for predicting solar radiation.
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𝑆ҧ
 The sunshine ratio parameter has been found to be the most
𝑆ҧ𝑚𝑎𝑥
reliable predictor.
 Many correlations have been suggested by many investigators
based on data for specific locations and countries.
 Some of these include additional parameters and help to generalize
the applicability of the correlations.
 Gopinathan has suggested the correlation:
ഥ𝑔
𝐻 𝑆ҧ
= 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ………………………………………………..(14)
ഥ𝑜
𝐻 𝑆ҧ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
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 This equation is based on the data of 40 locations around the

world.
 Constants a1 and b1 are related to three parameters, the latitude,
the elevation and the sunshine hours as:
𝑆ҧ
𝑎1 = −0.309 + 0.539𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 0.0693𝐸𝐿 + 0.290
𝑆ҧ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆ҧ
𝑏1 = 1.527 − 1.027𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 0.0926𝐸𝐿 − 0.359
𝑆ҧ𝑚𝑎𝑥
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 ∅ = latitude (in degrees)

 𝐸𝐿 = elevation of the location above mean sea level (in km)
 This equation is recommended for predicting the daily global

radiation at locations all over the world including locations in India.
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Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation
 Based on a study of data for a few countries, Liu and Jordan

showed that the daily diffuse-to-global radiation ratio could be
correlated against the daily global-to-extra-terrestrial radiation ratio.
The correlation was expressed by the following cubic equation
ഥ𝑑
𝐻 ഥ𝑔
𝐻 ഥ𝑔 2
𝐻 ഥ𝑔 3
𝐻
ഥ𝑔
= 1.390 – 4.027 ഥ𝑜
+ 5.531 ഥ𝑜
- 3.108 ഥ𝑜
…..(15)
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
 Where,
ഥ𝑑 = Monthly average of the daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal
𝐻
face(KJ/𝑚2 -day).
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ഥ𝑔
𝐻
 The ratio ഥ𝑇 and is called the
is often denoted by the symbol 𝐾
ഥ𝑜
𝐻
monthly average clearness index.
 Kreith and Kreider have pointed out that this eqn. has been
obtained with a value of 1394 W/𝑚2 for the solar constant.
 As in the case of monthly average daily global radiation, many
investigators have developed empirical eqns.
 For estimating the diffuse-to-global radiation ratio for various parts
of the world, Gopinathan and Soler have examined radiation data
for 40 widely spread locations all over the world in the latitude
range 36°S to 36°N.
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 They have proposed the following eqn. involving the clearness

index and the sunshine ration:
ഥ𝑑
𝐻 𝑆ҧ
ഥ𝑇 - 0.53039
= 0.87813 – 0.33280 𝐾 ……………..…….(16)
ഥ𝑔
𝐻 ҧ
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
 This equation is based on more recent data than that available to

Liu and Jordan and is recommended for use for predicting the daily
diffuse radiation at locations across the world.
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 When available Indian data was analysed, the following linear

equation was obtained by Modi and Sukhatme:
ഥ𝑑
𝐻 ഥ𝑔
𝐻
ഥ𝑔
= 1.411 − 1.696 ഥ𝑜
…………………………….……….…(17)
𝐻 𝐻
 Garg and Garg have examined radiation data for 11 Indian cities
and proposed the equation:
ഥ𝑑
𝐻 𝑆ҧ
ഥ𝑔
= 0.8677 − 0.7365 ҧ
…………………………….…………(18)
 These equation agree well with each other.
2/25/2020 78
 Either one of the equations may be used for Indian locations.
 When compared to Gopinathan and Soler’s correlation, it is

observed that there are significant differences.
 Gopinathan and Soler’s equation predicts values for the diffuse

radiation which are lower than the predictions of Modi’s and Garg’s
equations.
 This is due to the fact that the diffuse component is in fact much
larger in India.
2/25/2020 79
Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation
 A number of studies have also been conducted with the objective

of obtaining relations for predicting the diurnal variation of the
monthly average hourly global radiation at a location.
 Collares-Pereira and Rabl have developed the following relation
𝐼𝑔ҧ 𝐼𝑜ҧ
ഥ𝑔
= ഥ𝑜
(a + b cos𝜔)……………………………….(19)
𝐻 𝐻
 Where,
a = 0.409 + 0.5016sin(𝜔s-60o),
b = 0.6609 – 0.4767sin(𝜔s-60o),
2/25/2020 80
𝐼𝑔ҧ = Monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a

horizontal surface (KJ/𝑚2 -h),
𝐼𝑜ҧ = Monthly average of the hourly extra-terrestrial radiation on
a horizontal surface (KJ/𝑚2 -h)
 This equation has been developed on the basis of the following
facts:
1. Measured data generally show a similarity between the diurnal
variation of 𝐼𝑔ҧ and 𝐼𝑜ҧ .
2. There is a close correlation between the values of the ratios (𝐼𝑔ҧ /𝐻𝑔 )
and (𝐼𝑜ҧ /𝐻𝑜 ).
2/25/2020 81
 Symbol I has been used for denoting an hourly value (kJ/m2-h),
while earlier it was used for denoting an instantaneous value, i.e. a
flux (kW/m2).
 For most situations involving solar radiation, transient processes
occur at a slow pace.
 It is therefore not necessary to make a distinction between the two
quantities.
 Whenever needed, an hourly value (kJ/m2-h) can be calculated from
an instantaneous value by taking instantaneous value (kW/m2) at
the mid-point of the hour and multiply by 3600.
2/25/2020 82
 Gueymard modified equation suggested by Collares-Pereira and

Rabl by incorporating a normalizing factor fc:
𝐼𝑔ҧ 𝐼𝑜ҧ
ഥ𝑔
= ഥ𝑜
(a + b cos𝜔)/𝑓c ……………………….…….…(20)
𝐻 𝐻
𝜋𝜔𝑠
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑠
 Where 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑎 + 0.5𝑏 180
𝜋𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑠− 180𝑠 cos 𝜔𝑠
 Gueymard has reviewed a number of predictive models using a

large data set for 135 locations and has concluded that this equation
is the simplest and most satisfactory correlation for predicting
monthly average hourly global radiation for sites all over the world
within latitudes 65oN to 65oS.
2/25/2020 83
 Satyamurty and Lahiri have tested the predications of Collares-

Pereira and Rabl’s equation against the measured data of 14
locations in India and shown that there is a good correlation
between the two sets of values.
 The rms difference between the predicted and measured values of

𝐼𝑔ҧ
ഥ𝑔
ranged only between 2.6 and 5.5% for 13 of the 14 locations.
𝐻
 A significant difference of 10.4% was obtained only at one

location.
2/25/2020 84
Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation
 Liu and Jordan have suggested the following relation for
estimating the monthly average hourly diffuse radiation
𝐼𝑑ҧ 𝐼𝑜ҧ
=
ഥ
𝐻𝑑 𝐻 ഥ𝑜
 Satyamurty and Lahiri have also tested this predictions against
measured data of 14 locations in India.
 In this case, relatively poor agreement is obtained, the rms
𝐼𝑔ҧ
difference between the predicted and measured values of ഥ𝑔
𝐻
ranging between 5.7 and 13.4%.
2/25/2020 85
Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation
 Therefore Satyamurty and Lahiri suggested the improved relation
ҧ
𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝑜ҧ
ഥ𝑑
= ഥ𝑜
(a’ + b’ cos𝜔)…………………………….…(21)
𝐻 𝐻
𝐻ഥ𝑑 ഥ𝑑
𝐻
 Where 𝑎′ = 0.4922 + {0.27/( ഥ )} for 0.1≤ (ഥ ) ≤ 0.7
𝐻𝑔 𝐻𝑔
𝐻ഥ𝑑 ഥ𝑑
𝐻
Or 𝑎′ = 0.76 + {0.113/( ഥ )} for 0.7< (ഥ ) ≤ 0.9
𝐻𝑔 𝐻𝑔
 And 𝑏’ = 2(1 − 𝑎′)(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑠 − 𝜔𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑠)/(𝜔𝑠 − 0.5 sin 2𝜔𝑠)
2/25/2020 86
Hourly Global, Beam and Diffuse Radiation under
cloudless Skies
 ASHRAE has given a method for estimating the hourly and diffuse
solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface under cloudless skies.
 The equations are based on an exponentially decay model in which

the beam radiation decreases with increase in the distance
traversed through the atmosphere.
 The global radiation 𝐼𝑔ҧ reaching a horizontal surface on the earth is

given by
𝐼𝑔ҧ = 𝐼𝑏ҧ + 𝐼𝑑ҧ
2/25/2020 87
cloudless Skies
 Where,
𝐼𝑔ҧ = hourly global radiation,
𝐼𝑏ҧ = hourly beam radiation,
𝐼𝑑ҧ = hourly diffuse radiation.
 Now,
𝐼𝑏ҧ = 𝐼𝑏𝑛
ҧ cos θ𝑧
 Where,
ҧ = beam radiation in the direction of the rays,
𝐼𝑏𝑛
θ𝑧 = angle of incidence on a horizontal surface, i.e., the zenith
angle
2/25/2020 88
cloudless Skies
 Thus,
𝐼𝑔ҧ = 𝐼𝑏𝑛
ҧ cos θ𝑧 + 𝐼𝑑ҧ ……………………………………………..(23)
 In the ASHRAE model, it is postulated that
𝐼𝑏𝑛 = 𝐴 exp[−𝐵/ cos 𝜃𝑧] and
ҧ
𝐼𝑑 = 𝐶 𝐼𝑏𝑛
 Where A, B and C are constant whose values have been
determined on a month wise basis.
 These constants change during the year because of seasonal
changes in the dust and water vapour content of the atmosphere,
and also because of the changing earth-sun distance.
2/25/2020 89
cloudless Skies
 The values of A, B and C were initially given by Threlkeld and

Jordan and revised by Iqbal.
 The revised values are given further.
2/25/2020 90
cloudless Skies
2/25/2020 91
Solar Radiation On Tilted Surfaces
2/25/2020 92
Beam Radiation
 Most of the solar equipment for absorbing radiation, are tilted at
an angle to the horizontal.
 Therefore, it becomes necessary to calculate the flux which falls
on a tilted surface.
 This flux is the sum of the beam and diffuse radiation falling
directly on the surface and the radiation reflected onto the surface
from the surroundings.
 The ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to
that falling on a horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for beam
radiation. It is denoted by the symbol 𝑟𝑏 .
2/25/2020 93
Beam Radiation
 For the case of a tilted surface facing due south (i.e., γ = 0
degrees),
cosθ =𝑠𝑖𝑛δsin(∅ − β) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠δ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅ − β)

 While for a horizontal surface,
cosθ𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑠𝑖𝑛δ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠δ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔

cosθ sin(∅−β)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿+𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅−β)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔
Hence, 𝑟𝑏 = = ………...(24)
cosθ𝑧 sin ∅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿+𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔
 Similarly, expressions for 𝑟𝑏 can be derived for other situations in

which the tilted surface is oriented in a different direction with γ≠0
2/25/2020 94
Diffuse Radiation
 The ratio of the diffuse radiation flux falling on the tilted surface to
that falling on a horizontal surface is also called tilt factor for
diffuse radiation.
 The value of this tilt factor depends upon the distribution of diffuse
radiation over the sky and on the portion of the sky dome seen by
tilted surface.
 Assuming that the sky is an isotropic source of diffuse radiation,

we have for a tilted surface with a slope β,
𝑟𝑏 = (1+cos β)/2
2/25/2020 95
Diffuse Radiation
 (1+cos β)/2 is the radiation shape factor for a tilted surface with
respect to the sky.
 In reality, the distribution of diffuse radiation over the sky is

anisotropic.
 A small portion of the sky near the sun disc has a larger intensity
of diffuse radiation due to forward scattering of a part of the beam
radiation.
 The intensity of diffuse radiation near the horizon is higher

because of multiply Rayleigh scattering by a larger air mass.
2/25/2020 96
Diffuse Radiation
 For most engineering calculations, it is usual to consider the
distribution of the diffuse radiation to be isotropic.
2/25/2020 97
Reflected Radiation
 Since (1+cos β)/2 is the radiation shape factor for a tilted surface
with respect to the sky, it follows that (1- cos β)/2 is the radiation
shape factor for the surface with respect to the surrounding
ground.
 Assuming the reflection of the beam and diffuse radiations falling

on the ground is diffuse and isotropic, and that the reflectivity is ρ,
the tilt factor for reflected radiation is given by
𝑟𝑟 = ρ(1-cos β)/2
2/25/2020 98
Flux on Tilted Surface
 The flux falling on a tilted surface at any instant is given by
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑑 + (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 ) 𝑟𝑟 ………………………..(25)
 We, thus, obtain the ratio of the flux falling on a tilted surface at
any instant to that on a horizontal surface:
𝐼𝑇 𝐼𝑑 𝐼𝑑
= 1− 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑟𝑑 + 𝑟𝑟 …………………………...(26)
𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔
2/25/2020 99
 One difficulty associated with this equation is that the value of the
diffuse reflectivity ρ is not known for most situations.
 A value around 0.2, generally expected with surfaces of concrete or
grass, can be used.
 The reflected radiation term does not very often contribute much to
the total.
 This equation can be used for calculating the hourly radiation falling
on a tilted surface if the value of 𝜔 is taken at the mid-point of the
hour.
2/25/2020 100
 Monthly average hourly value (𝐼 𝑇ҧ ) can be calculated by modifying
the previous equation
𝐼 𝑇ҧ 𝐼 𝑑ҧ 𝐼 𝑑ҧ
= 1− 𝑟ҧ 𝑏 + ҧ𝐼𝑔 𝑑
𝑟ҧ + 𝑟ҧ 𝑟……………………………..(27)
𝐼 𝑔ҧ 𝐼 𝑔ҧ
 Where 𝑟ҧ 𝑏 = rb on the representative day
𝑟ҧ 𝑑 = rd = (1+cosβ)/2
𝑟ҧ 𝑟 = rr = ρ(1-cosβ)/2
2/25/2020 101
 Liu and Jordan have proposed that the ratio of the daily radiation
falling on such a surface (HT) to the daily global radiation on a
horizontal surface (Hg) is given by:
𝐻𝑇 𝐻𝑑 𝐻𝑑
= 1− 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑟
𝐻𝑔 𝐻𝑔 𝑏 𝐻𝑔 𝑑
 For south facing surface (𝛾 = 0)
𝜔𝑠𝑡 sin 𝛿 sin(∅−𝛽)+cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠𝑡 cos(∅−𝛽)

𝑅𝑏 = ………………..(28)
𝜔𝑠 sin ∅ sin 𝛿+cos ∅ cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔𝑠
𝑅𝑑 = 𝑟𝑑 = (1 + cos 𝛽)/2
2/25/2020 102
𝑅𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 = 𝜌(1 − cos 𝛽)/2
 𝜔st and 𝜔s are the sunrise or sunset hour angles (in radians) for
tilted surface and a horizontal surface respectively.
 Monthly average daily radiation falling on a tilted surface if the
values required are calculated for the representative day of the
month.
ഥ𝑇
𝐻 ഥ𝑑
𝐻 ഥ𝐻
ഥ𝑔
= 1− 𝑅ത 𝑏 + ഥ 𝑑 𝑅ത 𝑑 + 𝑅ത 𝑟………………………..(29)
𝐻 𝐻𝑔 𝐻𝑔
 Where 𝑅ത 𝑏 = Rb and 𝑅ത 𝑑 = Rd and 𝑅ത 𝑟 = Rr
2/25/2020 103
Solar Radiation Measurement
 We know that the atmosphere is made up of ions and other

particles including clouds.
 Hence, when the incident radiation passes through the

atmosphere, some radiation penetrates and falls directly on
to the panel, some radiation diffuses in atmosphere and
travels to the panel and some radiation gets reflected from
the surroundings of the panel and reaches the panel, the
effect being called albedo effect.
2/25/2020 104
 It becomes extremely important to know the amount of

energy that has reached the panel through all the paths.
 There are several factors on which this energy is dependent.

They are as follows
 Latitude and longitude of the geographical location.
 Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water

vapor etc.
 Time of the day.

2/25/2020 105
 Time of the year.
 Angle of tilt.
 Collector design.
2/25/2020 106
 The solar radiation data are measured mainly by the

following instruments:
1. Pyranometer
2. Pyrheliometer
3. Sunshine Recorder
2/25/2020 107
At state-of-the-art
meteorological stations,
equipped with a sun-tracker,
solar radiation (irradiance)
measurements comprise:
 Direct solar radiation (S),
with a Pyrheliometer.
G  Global solar radiation (G)
H with a Pyranometer,
S  Diffuse solar radiation (H)
with a shaded Pyranometer.
2/25/2020 108
 Measurement devices for solar radiation employ thermocouples,

which use the thermoelectric effect.
 Thermocouples contain two dissimilar metal conductors in contact,
which produce a voltage when heated. (Picture credit: M. Mohr).
2/25/2020 109
1. Pyranometer
 Pyranometers are used to measure global and diffuse solar

radiation.
 The thermopile is composed of several thermocouples,
connected in series.
2/25/2020 110
1. Pyranometer
 The output is a voltage
proportional to the
temperature difference
between the black surface
of the sensor element and
the housing as reference.
 Two quartz domes and a

ventilation system minimize
external influences.
2/25/2020 111
1. Pyranometer
 Diffuse solar irradiance

can be measured by
adding a shadowing
device to a Pyranometer,
which blocks the direct
component of total
irradiance.
2/25/2020 112
1. Pyranometer
2/25/2020 113
1. Pyranometer
 Most weather stations don’t have sun-trackers, they (may)

have two (identical).
 Star Pyranometers, one (left) measuring global solar radiation,

the other one (shaded by a shadow ring) measuring (most of
the) diffuse solar radiation.
 The direct solar radiation can only be derived. Star

Pyranometers measure the temperature difference between
black and white sensors (credit: M. Mohr)
2/25/2020 114
1. Pyranometer
 Handheld Pyranometers use

less precise sensors than
precision Pyranometers but
are more suitable for field
measurements.
2/25/2020 115
2. Pyrheliometer
 A Pyrheliometer measures the direct component of solar
irradiance in the field of view of the solar disk (5.7°) which is
important when installing concentrating collectors.
 Sunlight enters the instrument through a long tube and is

directed onto a thermopile which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal voltage is
converted via a formula to measure Watts per square meter.
2/25/2020 116
2. Pyrheliometer
2/25/2020 117
2. Pyrheliometer
2/25/2020 118
2. Pyrheliometer
 As Pyrheliometers only measure the direct radiation
component, they must be pointed directly at the sun and
installed on sun-tracking devices to take measurements of
direct radiation over the course of the day.
 A Pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with

a Pyranometer.
2/25/2020 119
2. Pyrheliometer
2/25/2020 120
3. The Sunshine Recorder
 Solar radiation is focused
onto the green cardboard
strip by the glass ball (an all-
directional magnifying glass).
 A line is charred into the strip

when there are no clouds.
 The strip is marked off in

hours… so “hours of bright
sun” are recorded. The strip
is replaced every day.
2/25/2020 121
2/25/2020 122
2/25/2020 123
2/25/2020 124
References
 Non-Conventional Energy Resources by John B. H. Khan

 Non-Conventional Energy Resources by S. Hasan Saeed and D.K.
Sharma
 Solar Energy by S P Sukhatme and J K Nayak
 Non-Conventional Energy Resources by G.D. Rai
 http://www.slideshare.net/vanitathakkar/solar-radiation-
geometry?utm_source=slideshow02&utm_medium=ssemail&utm_cam
paign=share_slideshow_loggedout
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnM1hXJf4WU&hd=1
2/25/2020 125
Thank You
2/25/2020 126

Unit-1-The Sun and Earth Relationship

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Unit-1-The Sun and Earth Relationship

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Unit-1

The Earth and Sun Relationship

 Empirical Equations for Predicting the Availability of

 Solar Radiation Measurement

 The output of sun is 2.8×1023 KW.

 Climate: Latitude of the location, day (time in the year)

 The above mentioned factors determine the amount of

 The amount of radiation reaching the earth is less than what

2. Diffuse Radiation: radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere

3. Global Radiation: The sum of the beam and diffused radiation is

 It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar power

 At the earth’s outer atmosphere, the solar insolation on a 1

 Due to atmospheric effects, the peak solar insolation

 A solar insolation level of 1 kW/m2 is often called PEAK

 50% of solar energy is in the form of thermal energy.

 When solar irradiance data is represented on an average

 Solar Spectrum: most of the

 Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun is directly

 We are specifically concerned with terrestrial solar

 Solar spectral distribution is important to understanding

 Most Silicon based PV devices respond only to visible

 Thin film modules generally have a narrower response

 The ecliptic plane is formed by Earth’s elliptical orbit around

 In one year, Earth makes a slightly elliptical orbit around

 Aphelion is the point in Earth’s orbit when it is farthest from

 The equatorial plane is tipped 23.5° from the ecliptic plane.

 A solstice is Earth’s orbital position

 At these two points, every

 Poles of The Earth: The ends of the axis of rotation of the

 Angle made by radial line

 The latitude is positive

The variation in the Declination Angle throughout the year

 Solar time can be obtained from standard time observed on a

1. Due to difference in longitude between a location and the

2. Due to Equation of Time: As Earth’s orbit and rate of rotation

 The EOT may be considered as constant for a given day. An

 LST = Standard Time ± 4 (Standard Time Longitude – Longitude

 The negative sign is applicable for Eastern Hemisphere.

 It is vertical angle between

 Solar Angle in degrees

 It is the angle in the

 It is the angle between the

 When tilted surfaces

cos θ = sin ∅ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos λ cos ω sin β)

+ cos ∅ (cos δ cos ω cos β - sin δ cos λ sin β)

+ cos δ sin λ sin ω sin β ………………………………………....(1)

 For Vertical Surfaces:

 So, from Equation (1)

cos θ = sin ∅ cos δ cos λ cos ω – cos ∅ sin δ cos λ + cos δ

 For Horizontal Surfaces:

 For inclined surfaces facing due South:

 For Vertical Surfaces facing due South:

 For a location in the northern hemisphere, this line is to the south

 Inclined Surface Facing Due South: The hour angle at sunrise or

 This is because during this period, the declination is negative and

𝜔𝑠𝑡 = cos −1 [− tan 𝜙 − 𝛽 tan 𝛿]……………………………………(8)

𝜔𝑠𝑡 = min [ cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 tan 𝛿) , cos −1 (− tan 𝜙 − 𝛽 tan 𝛿) ]..(9)

 In general, for a plane surface not symmetrically oriented, hour

 The general procedure would be to calculate 𝜔𝑠𝑡 by substituting 𝜃 =

 Value of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of

𝐻𝑜 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 1 + 0.033cos 360𝑛 ∫ (sin∅sin𝛿 + cos∅cos𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔)𝑑𝑡

 As expected, these dates are close to the middle of the month.

 Average daily global radiation can be calculated at a location when

 The meteorological parameters e.g. cloud cover (amount of sky