SOLAR RESOURCES

A Report for the course

PHOTOVOLTIC POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Submitted to: Submitted by:

SIR Pankaj Yadav Your Name: ANKITA SHARMA
PDPU M-TECH (Solar Energy) Roll No.- 17MSE002
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INDEX
S no. Topic Page No.
1. Solar resources 3
2. Sun’s Energy 3
2.1 Advantages 3
2.2 solar radiation 4
3. Solar radiation at the earth’s surface 4
4. Basic earth-sun angles 6
5. Instrument for measuring solar radiation 8
5.1 Pyrheliometer 8
5.2 Pyranometer 9
5.2.1 Introduction 9
5.5.2 Design of Pyranometer 9
5.5.3 Working principle 9
5.5.4 Advantages 10
5.5.5 Application 10
6. Solar radiation geometry 11
6.1 Basic solar angles 11
6.2 Derived solar angles 12
6.3 Surface angles 14
7. Map of Direct normal irradiance 17
7.1 Annual Average 14
7.2 Monthly average 15
8 Map of global horizontal irradiance 16
8.1 Annual Average 16
8.2 Monthly average 17
9 References 18
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1. What Is solar resources?

The solar energy is the most important source of energy on the earth. The main source of solar energy is sun.
It is important the knowledge of the relationship between earth's and the sun.
It makes one rotation about its axis every 24 hours and completes a revolution about the sun in a period of
approximately 365 1/4 days.
The earth revolves around the sun in a nearly circular path, with the sun located slightly off center of the circle.
Solar energy is pollution free.
All the energy which is available on the earth is derived by the sun.We know that the sun is the large sphere of
hot gases.
The diameter of the sun is 1.39×106km,and the earth is 1.27×106km( 7,900 miles).The mean distance between
the earth and the sun is 1.496×108km.

Fig: 1 solar radiation

2 .Sun’s Energy:-
2.1Advantages:-
These are the following advantages from the sun’s energy:-
➢ Sun is an everlasting, renewable energy source.
➢ Clean energy source.
➢ Sun is the Large source of energy.
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The earth and the sun varies a little through the year because of this the extraterrestrial flux also varies.
Extraterrestrial radiation is the intensity (power) of the sun at the top of the Earth's atmosphere. It’s the value
of solar power intensity which is incident on the earth but does not face the any disturbance from the earth’s
atmosphere.

2.2 What is solar radiation

Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It provides light and heat for the Earth and
energy for photosynthesis. The three relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar radiation spectrum are
ultraviolet, visible (PAR), and infrared.

FIG-2 solar radiation that reaches Earth is made up of visible and infrared light.
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1. Solar radiation at the earth’s surface:-

The radiation which received at the earth’s surface is in the form of attenuated becauseIt is work on the
mechanisms of scattering and absorption.
The atmosphere scatters and absorbs some of the Sun’s energy that is incident on the Earth’s surface.
Scattering of radiation by gaseous molecules (e.g. O2, O3, H2O and CO2), that are a lot smaller than the
wavelengths of the radiation, is called scattering.
Absorption occurs because of the water and ozone vapour in the atmosphere.
Half of the radiation that is scattered is lost to outer space.
The remaining half is directed towards the Earth’s surface from all directions or the radiation received at the

earth’s surface
from all parts the sky is hemisphere as diffuse radiation.

Figure: 3 The effect of the atmosphere on the solar radiation reaching the Earth's Surface.

The scattered radiation is distributed in all directions, some going into space and some going again into the
earth’s atmosphere.
The earth surface is often classified into two types-
➢ An atmosphere without clouds
➢ An atmosphere with clouds
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Beam (or direct) radiation – Coming straight through the atmosphere to hit the plane (very directional);
Diffused radiation – Scattered in all direction in the atmosphere and then some arrives at the plane on the
Earth’s surface (not directional);
Reflected radiation – Beam and diffused radiation that hits the Earth’s surface and is reflected onto the plane.

1. BASIC EARTH-SUN ANGLES

The position of a point P on the earth's surface with respect to the sun's rays is known at any instant if the
latitude, l, and hour angle, h, for the point, and the sun's declination angle, d, are known. Point P represents a
location on the northern hemisphere.

Figure: 4 The earth's revolution about the sun

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Figure 5: Position of the earth in relation to the sun's rays at time of winter solstice

Figure 6: Latitude, hour angle, and sun's declination angle

The latitude, l, is the angular distance of the point P north (or south) of the equator. It is the angle between the
line OP and the projection of OP on the equatorial plane.
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Point O represents the center of the earth. The calculation of the various solar angles, performed later in
this chapter, can be simplified by the adoption of a consistent sign convention.
As part of this sign convention, north latitudes are positive and south latitudes are negative. The hour
angle, h, is the angle measured in the earth's equatorial plane between the projection of OP and the projection of
a line from the center of the sun to the center of the earth.
At solar noon, the hour angle is zero. The hour angle expresses the time of day with respect to solar noon.
One hour of time is represented by ÷ = 1524360 degrees of hour angle. As part of the convention, the hour
angle is negative before solar noon and positive after solar noon. The sun's declination angle, d, is the angular
distance of a sun's rays north (or south) of the equator.
It is the angle between a line extending from the center of the sun to the center of the earth and the
projection of this line upon the earth's equatorial plane.
The declination is positive when the sun's rays are north of the equator and negative when they are south of
the equator. At the time of the winter solstice, the sun's rays are 23.5 degrees south of the earth's equator (d = -
23.5°). At the time of the summer solstice, the sun's rays are 23.5 degrees north of the earth's equator (d =
23.5°). At the equinoxes, the sun's declination is zero.
The declination angle can be calculated by following formula-
360
𝑑 = 23.45 sin[ (284 + 𝑛)]
365

Where,
n is the day of the year. The value of n for any day of the month "D" can be determined easily with the aid of
the following Table -

Table 1 : Variation in "n" throughout the year

2. Instrument for measuring solar radiation

following are the three instrument from which we can measure the solar radiation
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2.1 Pyrheliometer
2.2 Pyranometer

5.1 Pyrheliometer-
The instrument which is used to measure direct normal or beam radiation is referred to as a pyrheliometer.
Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile, which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be recorded.
The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square meter. It is used with a solar tracking
system to keep the instrument aimed at the sun. A pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with
a pyranometer.
It is required tracking device on which it is mounted. The pyrheliometer consists of a long collimating tube with
a detector at the far end.

Figure7: Pyrheliometer for measuring the beam radiation

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5.2 Pyranometer-

I. Introduction

A pyranometer is a type of actinometer that can measure solar irradiance in the desired location and solar
radiation flux density. The solar radiation spectrum extends approximately between 300 and 2800 nm. The
pyranometer only requires a flat spectral sensitivity to help cover this spectrum.

The World Meteorological Organization has adopted this instrument which is standardized with respect to the
ISO 9060 standard. Pyranometers are calibrated based on the World Radiometric Reference, which is
maintained by World Radiation Center, Davos, Switzerland.

Figure 8: pyranometer

II. Design of Pyranometers

The following are the two main components of pyranometers:

• Thermopile – A sensor consisting of thermocouples connected in series and provided with a black
coating for absorbing all solar radiation. It exhibits a near-perfect cosine response and a flat spectrum
that covers 300 to 50000 nm. It is capable of producing a potential that is relative to the temperature
gradient.
• Glass dome – This dome restricts the spectral response from 300 to 2800 nm from a field of view of 180
degrees. This hemispherical glass dome also shields the thermopile from wind, rain and convection.
• Disc – It is used for measuring the diffuse radiation and blocking beam radiation from the surface.
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III. Working Principle

A pyranometer is operated based on the measurement of temperature difference between a clear surface and a
dark surface.

The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbs the solar radiation, while the clear surface reflects it, and
hence less heat is absorbed.

The thermopile is used to measure this temperature difference. The potential difference created in the
thermopile owing to the temperature gradient between the two surfaces is used for measuring the amount of
solar radiation.

However, the voltage produced by the thermopile can be measured using a potentiometer. Radiation data needs
to be integrated by means of an electronic integrator or planimetry.

IV. Advantages

The key benefits of pyranometers are listed below:

• Very small temperature coefficient

• Calibrated to ISO standards
• More accurate measurements of performance index and performance ratio
• Longer response time than a photovoltaic cell
• Integrated measurement of the total available short-wave solar energy under all conditions.

V. Applications

The following are the major applications of pyranometers:

• Predicting insulation requirements for building structures

• Establishment of greenhouse locations
• Designing photovoltaic systems
• Meteorological and climatological studies
• Measurement of solar intensity data.
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6 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

Solar radiation geometry

Solar radiation geometry is the determining factor of heat gain, Shading and the potential of day light
penetration. Direction of beam radiation is useful in establishing geometric relationship between a plane and
incoming beam solar radiation.
Direction of beam radiation can be described in terms of several angles.
Angles useful in solar radiation analysis
(a) Basic solar angles:
I. Latitude angle (ф)
II. Declination angle (δ)
III. Hour angle(ω)
(b) Derived solar angles:
I. Altitude angle(α)
II. Zenith angle ( θz)
III. Solar azimuth angle (γs)
(c) Surface angles:
I. Surface azimuth angle (γ)
II. Slope (β)
III. Incidence (θ)
(1) Latitude angle
(ф): “Angle made by radial line joining the location to the centre of earth and the projection of that line on
equatorial plane”. It varies from 0 equator to 90° at poles (north positive).
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Fig.8: the position of any point on earth.

Fig.9: Basic angles.

(2). Declination angle δ- the angle made by the line joining the sun and the earth with projection of this line on
the equatorial plane, the Earth is tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle varies plus or minus this amount.
Only at the spring and fall equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0°.

360
δ= 23.45 sin[365 (284 + 𝑛)]

Where,n is the day of the year. The value of n for any day of the month "D" can be determined.

(3).Hour angle (ῳ)-it is an angular measure of time and is equivalent to 15°per hour.it also vary from -180° 𝑡𝑜
+180°.this is measuring from the local apparent time(LAT).This LAT is positive in the morning and negative in
the evening.
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Figure 10:- Definition of sun's zenith, altitude, and azimuth angles

Figure 11 : Definitions of surface azimuth, surface tilt, and surface-solar azimuth angles and the relation of the
sun's rays to a tilted surface

SOLAR RESOURCES DATA OF INDIA

The national solar radiation data base is a serially complete collection of hourly and half-hourly values of the
three most common measurements of solar radiation—global horizontal, direct normal, and diffuse horizontal
irradiance and meteorological data. These data have been collected at a sufficient number of locations and
temporal and spatial scales to accurately represent regional solar radiation climates.
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Using these data, it's possible to see the amount of solar energy that was available at a given time and location
anywhere in India. Using the data in models, it's possible to predict the potential future availability of solar
energy in a location based on past conditions.

• Map of Direct normal irradiance-

1. Annual average-This data is updated April 2013.
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2. Monthly average-
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Global Horizontal irradiance-

1. Annual average-
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2. Monthly average-
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9. References-

1. https://www.nrel.gov/rredc/solar_resource.html

2. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66070.pdf

3. Solar energy,3rd edition S P Sukhatme ,J K Narayan

4. Solar photovoltaic Chetan Singh Solanki