Solar Radiations

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UNIT-I SOLAR RADIATION
Sun Earth relationship – Solar radiation components – Measurement –

Estimation of radiation at a given place
Classification of methods for solar energy utilization
1. Sun Earth Relationship

Sun- earth relationship is used to estimate the solar radiation. To understand the
sun-earth relationship the following solar geometry is required.
Latitude, Longitude, declination angle, incidence angle, hour angle, day length,
azimuth angle, zenith angle, altitude angle and tilt angle
A site on earth is identified using its Latitude & Longitude
Latitude (φ) defined as the angular distance of a point (on the surface of the
earth) from the equator.
• Latitude zero is the equator

• Latitude extend upto 90 North and South
• Location north are taken as positive, south negative
• Latitude lines are parallel to each other
• Tropic of Cancer: Latitude 23.5°N
• Tropic of Capricorn: Latitude 23.5°S
Longitude/ Meridian: The longitude angle can be defined as the angle between
the prime meridian and the meridian passing through the location.
• longitude zero (Prime meridian) is at Greenwich, near London, England
• latitude extend to East and West of Greenwich
• usually drawn in multiples of 15 degree (as 15 degree = 1 hour)
• helps in creating time zones
• there is a Standard longitude for a country/region with which standard/
watch times are defines
For India, the standard meridian = 82.5°E
Hence, time difference between Greenwich and India = 82.5/15 = 5.5 hours
ahead of GMT
Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 1 VIT University, Vellore

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Fig.1.1. Principal Latitudes on earth surface
Fig. 1.2 Representation of latitude and longitude at a location on earth
Solar time is based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky.
Solar noon is the time the sun crosses the local meridian of the observer. At solar
noon, the sun will be at zenith of the observer. This is used in all solar energy
calculations. This does not coincide with the local clock time. Hence it is
necessary to convert the standard time to solar time by first adjusting to the

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difference in local and standard meridians and then by applying a correction for
the change in angular momentum of the as the earth moved around the sun.
Movement of the sun is symmetrical about solar noon, to an observer.
Watch time is based on the longitude and depends on standard meridian of that
country. The earth makes a complete rotation on its axis once in 24 hours,
thereby moving across 360° longitude. The rotational speed is therefore, 4
minutes per meridian (longitude) or 15° per hour. So, the time difference between
the local time (based on the local meridian) and standard time (based on
standard meridian) will be 4 (Lst – Llo), in minutes, where Lst is the standard
longitude and Llo is the local longitude.
Fig.1.3 Variation of EoT as a function of n
As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes slightly with respect to
local standard time. This time difference is called the Equation of Time (EoT) and
can be an important when determining the position of the sun for solar energy
calculations. An approximate formula for the equation of time (EoT) in minutes is:
EoT = 9.87 sin 2B - 7.53 Cos B - 1.5 Sin B
where, B = 360 (n-81)/364 (in degrees)
Hence the solar time can be calculated from the watch time, for locations east of
Greenwich (say, Asian, African and Australian locations), as
Solar time = Watch Time - 4 (Lst – Llo) + EoT (in minutes)
While for locations west of Greenwich (say, the Americas) it is
Solar time = Watch Time + 4 (Lst – Llo) + EoT (in minutes)
Example: Calculate the solar time on Feb. 2, 10.30 a.m. at Vellore (79.133 E,
12.933 N)
n = 33 on Feb. 2

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EoT = -13.5 min.

Solar time = 10.30 - 4(82.5-79.133) - 13.5 = 10h 03’
Hour Angle (ω) is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to the rotation of earth on its axis (15 degrees per hour). It tells us
how close (in time) the observer is to solar noon, when the solar radiation
intensity is at maximum. It is considered as –ve in the morning and +ve in the
afternoon. At solar noon, ω = 0.
Fig.1.4 Principle of hour angle

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Fig.1.5 Variation of hour angle
ω = 15 (solar time - 12) (in degrees)
As viewed from earth, the sun is higher in the sky during summer and lower in the
sky as winter approaches.
Declination (δ) is the angular displacement of the sun at solar noon w.r.t. the
plane of equator (or) is the angular distance north (or south) of the equator of the
point, when the sun is at its zenith (or) declination is the angle formed by the line
extending from the center of the sun to the center of the earth and the projection
of this line on the earth’s equatorial plane. Also, when the sun is directly
overhead at any location during solar noon, the latitude of that location gives the
declination.
Elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun

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Figure: The earth as seen from a point further along its orbit. Circles of latitude
0°, ± 23.5°, ± 66.5° are shown. Note how the declination δ varies through the
year, equaling extremes at the two solstices and zero when the midday sun is
overhead at the equator for the two equinoxes (equal day and night on the
equator).
Fig. 1.6 Representation of solstice and equinox
The variation of the declination angle over a year is shown here. The maximum
nd
declination is on summer solstice (June 22 = 23.45°), the minimum on winter
solstice (December 21st = -23.45°) and is equal to zero during the two equinoxes
nd
(March 21st and September 22 ). This indicates that the sun is directly overhead
at locations between 23.45N and 23.45S twice a year and the sun is never
overhead at higher latitudes. In other words, at locations north of the Tropic of
Cancer, the sun always appears in the south, while at locations south of the
Tropic of Capricorn, the sun always appears to the north.

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The declination of the sun varies daily (at every instant) and can be calculated
from the following expression:
⎡ 360(284 + n) ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥⎦ (in degrees)
⎣ 365
where n is the day number since January 1
Fig. 1.7 Variation of declination angle
Zenith angle (θ ) is the angle subtended by a vertical line to the zenith (i.e. the
z
point directly overhead) and the line of sight to the sun. To describe the sun's
path across the sky, one needs to know the zenith angle and the sun's position
relative to the north-south axis, that is, the Azimuth angle.
Solar Azimuth angle (γ ).is the angle on the horizontal plane measured from
s
south to the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays (or) it is the angular
displacement from south of the projection of the beam radiation on the horizontal
plane. Azimuth angle is zero due south, east +ve and west -ve. As the sun's
movement about solar noon is symmetrical, the preferred orientation of a solar
collector (which is designed to receive maximum radiation) would be facing south
(for collectors in the northern hemisphere). In other words, azimuth angle is zero.
For all other azimuth angles, the radiation incident on the collector will be less.

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However, for azimuth angles less than 30° (east or west of south), the reduction
in radiation is estimated to be less than 5%.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.8 (a) Zenith angle, slope, surface azimuth angle, and solar azimuth angle
for a tilted surface. (b) Plan view showing solar azimuth angle
Fig.1.9 Altitude angle
Surface Azimuth Angle (γ) is the angle measured on the horizontal plane from
due south to the horizontal projection of the normal to the surface. It is also given
as the angle between the local meridian and the horizontal projection of the
normal to the surface.

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Altitude angle (α) is the angle on the vertical plane between the sun’s rays and
the projection of the sun’s rays on the horizontal plane.
α = 90 - (θ )
z
Slope or Tilt angle (β) is the angle the surface makes with the horizontal plane.
A south-facing collector tipped up to an angle equal to its latitude is perpendicular

to the sun’s rays at solar noon during the equinoxes
Incidence angle (θ) is the angle between the sun’s direct rays and the normal to
any surface.
The general expression for calculating the incidence angle of the beam radiation
is
Cosθ = Sinδ Sinφ Cosβ
- Sinδ Cosφ Sinβ Cosγ
+ Cosδ Cosφ Cosβ Cosω
+ Cosδ Sinφ Sinβ Cosγ Cosω
+ Cosδ Sinβ Sinγ Sinω
For horizontal surfaces, the tilt angle is zero. Therefore, the incidence angle is
given by the zenith angle.
Cosθ = Cosθ = Sinφ Sinδ + Cosφ Cosδ Cosω
z
Since the altitude angle (α) can be written as, α = 90 - θ
z
Sinα = Cosθ = Sinφ Sinδ + Cosφ Cosδ Cosω
z
For vertical surfaces (walls), the tilt angle is 90°. Therefore,

Cosθ = -Sinδ Cosφ Cosγ + Cosδ Sinφ Cosγ Cosω + Cosδ Sinγ Sinω
Sunrise (and sunset) hour angle (ωsr and ωss) is the hour angle at the time of
sunrise (or sunset) (or) it is the hour angle when the altitude angle is zero.

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Daylength is the time between sunrise and sunset. The relationship for the
sunrise and sunset hour angles and daylength could be obtained from the
relation of zenith angle (θ ), which gives the angle between the sun's rays and the
z
normal to the horizontal surface. Therefore, at sunrise and at sunset, the zenith
angle = 90º and the corresponding hour angles are denoted as sunrise hour
angle (ωst) and sunset hour angle (ωss or simply ωs).
Cosθz = 0 = Cosφ Cosδ Cosωs + Sinδ Sinφ
Therefore, cosωs = - tanδ tanφ (for horizontal surfaces only)

ωs = cos-1(- tan δ tan φ)

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As the daylength will be equal to 2ω and since the hour angle is related to time
s
as 15° = 1 hr, we get,
2
Daylength = ω s (in hours)
15
2
S = cos -1 (- tanδ tanφ )
15
This is the theoretical maximum number of day light hours. Usually, the actual
number of day light hours would be less than this theoretical value due to
cloudiness. The sunrise and sunset hour angles are not exactly the same value
as the sunrise and sunset times that appear in the local paper. The sunrise
reported in the paper will be earlier and the sunset times will be later. The reason
for this difference is that the sunlight is refracted as it moves through the earth's
atmosphere and the sun appears slightly higher in the sky than simple
geometrical calculations indicate. This is the same effect that makes a stick
appear to bend when it is placed in water. During the middle of the day the effect
is small, but during the sunrise or sunset periods, the effect can change the
apparent solar time by about 5 minutes.
Air Mass (m) is the ratio of the optical thickness of the atmosphere through
which beam radiation passes to the optical thickness if the sun were at the zenith.
At sea level, when the sun is at the zenith, m = 1 and when the zenith angle is
60º, m = 2. For zenith angles from 0º to 70º at sea level,
-1
m = (Cos θ )
z
Air mass zero (AM0) corresponds to extra terrestrial radiation, while AM1 and
AM2 represents the air mass when m = 1, 2 respectively. This is the principal
factor which accounts for the variation of solar radiation over the day (hourly
variation) and is due to the rotation of the earth on its own axis. For example, in
the early morning (ie. at large negative hour angle), the sun is at a very low angle
with respect to the horizontal. Therefore, the sun's rays must ‘pass through’ a
much longer path through the atmosphere before it reaches the surface of the
earth as compared to (near) noon (i.e. at very low hour angles), when the sun is
at its zenith and the sun is at a very high angle with respect to the horizontal. At
this position, the sun's rays pass through only a minimum distance through the
atmosphere. The distance that the sun's rays pass through the atmosphere is
given by air mass.

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The air mass ratio m is a measure of the amount of atmosphere the sun’s rays
must pass through to reach the earth’s surface. For the sun directly overhead, m
=1
Fig. 1.10 Air mass

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2. Solar Radiation Components
Spectral distribution of Solar Radiation
Fig. 1.11 Direct beam radiation and diffused radiation
The visible channel is in the region of the electromagnetic spectrum where the
sun emits most of its energy. The radiation received outside the atmosphere of
earth is called extraterrestrial radiation. The extraterrestrial radiation on top of
the earth's surface depends on many factors such as the distance, orientation,
etc. As the earth makes an elliptical orbit round the sun, there is approximately a
3% variation in the amount of solar radiation received on top of the earth's
atmosphere throughout the year. Not entire extraterrestrial radiation reaches the
surface of the earth. The earth's atmosphere attenuates the radiation. That

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incoming energy is attenuated by molecules, clouds, and aerosols. Therefore, the

extraterrestrial radiation on top of the earth's atmosphere could be used as a
reference for various calculations. About 53% of the incoming energy is either
reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere and re-emitted to space. The remaining
energy (about 47%) reaches the earth’s surface where it is either absorbed or
reflected.
⎛ 360n ⎞
I sc′ = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033 cos ⎟
⎝ 365 ⎠
where n is the day of the year.
Direct or beam radiation is the portion of solar radiation that reaches the surface
of earth from the sun without any scattering. Diffuse radiation is created with the
scattering of direct and reflected radiation by molecules, aerosols and crystals in
the air. Global solar radiation is the sum of direct, diffuse and (ground) reflected
solar radiation. Diffuse and reflected radiation during clear weather are less than
direct, but become important in cloudy weather, when there is no direct radiation.
2
Irradiance (G, W/m ) is the rate at which solar radiant energy is incident on a
surface, per unit area of the surface. G is used with appropriate subscripts for
beam and diffuse radiation.
2
Insolation (H, J/m ) is the incident solar energy per unit area of the surface,
found by integration of irradiance over a specified time. The symbol I is used for
insolation for an hour. H and I can be beam, diffuse, or total and can be on
surfaces of any orientation.
Various solar radiation measuring instruments used in the field are briefly
described here.

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3. Measurement of Solar Radiation

3.1 Pyranometer
Pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or diffuse radiation
over a hemispherical field of view. Basically the pyranometer consists of a black
surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature
increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss
by convection, conduction and re-radiation. The hot junctions of a thermopile are
attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are located in such a way
that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an e.m.f. is generated. This
e.m.f. which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded or
integrated over a period of time and is measure of the global radiation.

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A typical pyranometer and a thermocouple
Fig. 1.12 Pyranometer for measuring global radiation
Two concentric hemispheres, 30 and 50 mm in diameter respectively, made of

optical glass having excellent transmission characteristics, are used to protect the
disc surface from the weather. An accuracy of about ± 2 % can be obtained with
the instrument. There are different types of pyranometers, the most common
being those in which sensors are composed of thermopiles or photovoltaic cells.
The photovoltaic sensors are in general much less precise than the thermopiles
due to the fact that the spectral response is not the same in the entire solar
radiation spectrum.
3.2 Shaded Pyranometer

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Fig. 1.13 Shading ring arrangement for the measurement of diffuse radiation
Pyranometer can also be used for the measurement of diffuse radiation. This is
done by mounting it at the centre of a semicircular shading ring. The shading ring
is fixed in such a way that its plane is parallel to the plane of the path of the sun’s
daily movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and the two
glass domes of the pyranometer at all times from direct sunshine. Consequently,
the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky. The
pyranometer is mounted at the centre of the shading ring. Two angle arms are
pivoted about a horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the
rectangular frame and can be adjusted at an angle to the horizontal equal to the
latitude of the station. The movement of the ring up and down the arms allows for
changes in the sun’s declination.
Pyranometer with shading ring is relatively an inexpensive solution for diffuse

solar radiation measurement. However, the data need to be corrected, because
the ring partially obstructs the passage of diffuse radiation. The Pyrheliometer
with a shading disc is a more expensive solution for diffuse solar radiation
measurement. The measured data does not require correction, because the disc
obstructs only the path of direct radiation. On the other hand, this requires a sun-
tracking device which can be of one or two axis.
3.3 Pyrheliometer
Fig. 1.14 Pyrheliometer for measuring beam radiation

B-copper box, T-thermometer, D-blackened silver disc, C-cllimator tube
This equipment is used to measure direct solar radiation. It works in a similar way
as to the pyranometer, but a tube allows only the direct solar radiation to reach

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the sensor. The pyrheliometer is also utilized as a calibration reference of solar

radiation sensors. This uses thermopile sensors to measure solar radiation. A
black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a thermopile attached to it) is located
at the base of a tube. The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with
the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and an alignment indicator. Thus the
black plate receives only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse radiation
falling within the acceptance angle of the instrument.
3.4 Sunshine Recorder
Fig. 1.15 Sunshine recorder
The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine

recorder as shown in figure. The sun’s rays are focused by a glass sphere to a
point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically
with the sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine, the image formed is intense
enough to burn a spot on the card strip. Through the day as the sun moves
across the sky, the image moves along the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose
length is proportional to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.
Estimation of radiation at a given place

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Since measurements of solar radiation are often not available, attempts have
been made by many investigators to establish relationships linking the values of
radiation (global or diffuse) with meteorological parameters like number of
sunshine hours, cloud cover, and precipitation. These equations are generally
valid for cloudy skies.
The estimation of radiation at a given place is in the form of
1. Monthly average daily global radiation, (kJ/m2-day)
2. Monthly average daily diffuse radiation, (kJ/m2-day)
3. Monthly average hourly global radiation, (kJ/m2-h)
4. Monthly average hourly diffuse radiation, (kJ/m2-h)
Annual, daily and hourly curves of measured global radiated power
Monthly average daily global radiation

The terms for average values of solar radiation on a horizontal surface at a
particular location under study:
H g = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at the
location. (kJ/m2-day)
H c = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on the same horizontal surface
at the same location but on clear sky (kJ/m2.day)
H 0 = Monthly average of the daily extra-terrestrial radiation, which would fall on
horizontal surface at the location under consideration. (kJ/m2-day)
Note: H g = is for all the days in the month, H c is for only clear sky days and both
H g and H c refer to a particular month.
S = Monthly average solar day length (sunshine hours), in hours
S max = Longest day, in the month in hours
a, b = Constants in Angstrom’s equation for solar radiation.
Ig = Hourly global radiation.
Ib = Hourly beam radiation.

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Id = Hourly diffuse radiation.
The solar radiation data is collected for various locations in the world on the basis
of
• Solar power calculations with reference to the movement of the sun,
latitude of the location etc.
• Hourly measurements of solar radiation at the location and calculation of
• Daily average global radiation (Hdg) at the location for the month.
(kJ/m2.day)
• Monthly average global radiation (Hmg) at the location for a few years.
(kJ/m2.day)
• The geographical region is divided into climate zones with reference to
solar radiation.
• The solar radiation on a flat horizontal surface at particular location, for a
particular day of the year and for a clear sky can be calculated with the
use of the solar constant and equations based on geometrical
relationships.
• The relationship between the solar radiation on a particular day in a month
can then be calculated with the help of empirical equations.
• In the calculations, the global radiation is further split into beam radiation +
diffuse radiation
Variation with season and latitude of Hh, the daily insolation on a horizontal plane
with clear skies. In summer H is about 25 MJ/m2-day at all latitudes. In winter, H
is much less at high latitudes because of shorter day length, more oblique
incidence and greater atmospheric attenuation. However, see figure to note how
daily insolation varies with the slope of the receiving surface, specially vertical
surfaces such as windows.
From the above mentioned methods, the solar radiation data is obtained for
various cities in the world for various months in a year. The data in terms of

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kJ/m2.day or kWH/m2.day for various days/months/an year can be readily used

for calculating
• Available solar energy at the location
• Determining the surface area of the solar collectors
• Determining rating of solar plant
Angstrom (1924) expressed the average radiation on a horizontal surface in

terms of constants a, b and the observed values of average length of solar days.
The constants a and b are determined for various cities in the world based on
actual measurements and equating the data in the Angstrom’s equation given
below:
Hg ⎛ S ⎞
= a + b⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
Hc ⎝ S max ⎠
Table of constants a and b for many cities of the world.
Constant a and b for Indian cities

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The equation had following limitations:

Different observers have obtained different values of constant ‘b’ related with
clear sky. It is influenced by observer’s judgment regarding clear sky.
H c is calculated on the basis of solar constant and geometrical calculations of
solar ray angles and latitude of the place etc. It depends on clarity factor
assumed in calculations. Hence H c has wide variation.
Hence Angstrom’s equation is modified by use of H 0 in place of H c

H0 is daily average of extra-terrestrial radiation corresponding to the solar
constant and is fairly constant during the complete year.
Modified Angstrom’s equation for daily global radiation,

Hg ⎛ S ⎞
= a + b⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
H0 ⎝ S max ⎠
H 0 is the daily mean value of extra-terrestrial radiation (beyond earth’s
atmosphere) on a unit surface perpendicular to sun rays; corresponding to the
surface on ground under consideration; the daily mean value for the month in
terms of kJ/m2.day.
H0 is obtained by integrating the solar insolation on horizontal surface over a

period of complete solar day (hour angle –ωs to + ωs.).
The average value of H 0 is calculated by averaging for the values of all days in
the month. For month having 30 days
H 01 + H 02 + ....H 030
H0=
30
For individual H01, H02, H03…. are calculated from the equation

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For horizontal surfaces, the tilt angle is zero. Therefore, the incidence angle is
given by the zenith angle.
Cosθ = Cosθ = Sinφ Sinδ + Cosφ Cosδ Cosω
z
⎛ 360n ⎞
⎟ [sin φ . sin δ + cos φ . cos δ . cos ω ]dt
365 ⎠ ∫
H 0 = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
⎝
The integral ∫ dt in the above equation is in terms of hours. It can be changed to
angle ∫ dω in radiations.
dw 180 12
1 hour = 15°. Hence, dt = × = dω
15 π π
Substituting in equation and integrating between sunrise (-ωs) to sunset (+ωs) for
total day light period,
ω
12 ⎛ 360n ⎞ s
⎟ ((sin φ . sin δ + cos φ . cos δ . cos ω )dω
365 ⎠ −∫ωs
H 0 = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝
⎛ 360n ⎞
⎟(ω s sin φ . sin δ + cos φ . cos δ . sin ω s )
24
H0 = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
⎛ 360n ⎞
⎟(ω s sin φ . sin δ + cos φ . cos δ . sin ω s ), kJ / m − day
24
H0 = I sc × 3600⎜1 + 0.033. cos 2
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
The calculation of H0 is simplified by determined the particular day in each month

on which the extra-terrestrial radiation is nearly equal to the monthly mean value.
The dates on which the value of H0 is equal to the average value are as follows:
(January 17, February 16, March 16, April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17, August
16, September 15, October 15, November 14 and December 10.)
As expected, these dates are close to the middle of the month.

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Monthly average daily diffuse radiation

For Indian data, daily diffuse-to-global radiation ratio is correlated against the
daily global-to-extra-terrestrial radiation ratio.
Hd Hg
= 1.411 − 1.696 .
Hg H0
where H d = monthly average of the daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface
(kJ/m2-day).
Hg
Monthly average clearness index, K T =
H0
The above correlation is valid 0.3 < K T < 0.7
Monthly average hourly global radiation

A number of studies have also been conducted with the objective of obtaining
relations for predicting the diurnal variation of the monthly average hurly global
radiation at a location.
Ig I
= 0 (a + b. cos ω )
H g H0
where a = 0.459 + 0.5016 sin (ωs - 60°),
b = 0.6609 – 0.4767 sin (ωs - 60°),
I g = monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface
(kJ/m2-h)
I 0 = monthly average of the hourly extra-terrestrial radiation on a horizontal
surface (kJ/m2-h)
Monthly average hourly diffuse radiation

The following relation for estimating the monthly average hourly diffuse radiation

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Id I
= 0
Hd H0
There is improved relation,
Id I
= 0 ( a '+ b '. cos ω )
Hd H0
Hd Hd
Where a’ = 0.4922 + {0.27/ } for 0.1 ≤ ≤ 0.7
Hg Hg
Hd Hd
or a’ = 0.76 + {0.113/ } for 0.7 ≤ ≤ 0.9
Hg Hg
b’ = 2(1 – a’)(sin ωs - ωs cos ωs)/(ωs – 0.5 sin 2ωs)
Daily and hourly diffuse radiation

A number of correlations have been suggested for predicting the value of the
daily diffuse radiation Hd from a given value of the daily global radiation Hg on an
individual day. These correlations are useful because the daily global radiation is
recorded at many stations, whereas the daily diffuse radiation is not.
Hd
= 0.99 for KT ≤ 0.17
Hg
= 1.188 – 2.272 KT + 9.473 KT2 – 21.856 KT3 + 14.648 KT3
For 0.17 < KT ≤ 0.8
where KT = Hg/H0
In a similar manner, correlations have also been developed for estimating the
hourly diffuse radiation Id from measured values of Ig.
Id Ig
= a−b valid for 0.35 ≤ (Ig/I0) ≤ 0.75
Ig I0
where a = 0.949 + 0.0118 /Φ/
b = 1.185 + 0.0135 / Φ/
and Φ = latitude in degrees
Hourly global, beam and diffuse radiation under cloudless skies (clear
days)
The global radiation Ig reaching a horizontal surface on the earth is given by
Ig = Ib + Id
where Ig = hourly global radiation

Ib = hourly beam radiation
Id = hourly diffuse radiation
Now, Ib = Ibn cos θz

where
Ibn = beam radiation in the direction of the rays, and
θz = angle of incidence on a horizontal surface, i.e. the zenith angle. Thus

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Ig = Ibn cos θz + Id
In the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning

Engineers) model, it is postulated that
Ibn = A exp [-B/cos θz] and
Id = C Ibn
Where A, B and C are constants whose values have been determined on a

month wise basis. These constants change during the year because of seasonal
changes in the dust and water vapor content of the atmosphere, and also
because of the changing earth-sun distance.
Table Values of the constants A, B and C used for predicting hourly solar
radiation on clear days
Solar radiation on tilted surfaces

Most solar equipments (e.g. flat-plate collectors), for absorbing radiation, are
tilted at an angle to the horizontal. It therefore becomes necessary to calculate
the flux which falls on a tilted surface. This flux is the sum of the beam and
diffuse radiation falling directly on the surface and the radiation reflected on to the
surface from the surroundings.

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Angle incidence on any plane
Beam, diffuse and ground reflected ration on a tilted surface
Beam radiation
The ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on a
horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for beam radiation. It is denoted by the
symbol rb. For the case of a tilted surface facing south (i.e. γ = 0°),
cos θ = sin δ sin(φ − β ) + cos δ cos ω cos(φ − β )
While for a horizontal surface
cos θ z = sin φ sin δ + cos φ cos δ cos ω
I cos θ sin δ sin(φ − β ) + cos δ cos ω cos(φ − β )
Hence rb = bn =
I bn cos θ z sin φ sin δ + cos φ cos δ cos ω
Similarly, expressions for rb can be derived for other situations in which the tilted
surface is oriented in a different direction with γ ≠ 0°.
Diffuse radiation
The tilt factor rd for diffuse radiation is the ratio of the diffuse radiation flux falling
on the tilted surface to that falling on a horizontal surface. The value of this tilt
factor depends upon the distribution of diffuse radiation over the sky and on the

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portion of the sky dome seen by the tilted surface. Assuming that the sky is an
isotropic source of diffuse radiation, we have for a tilted surface with a slope β,
1 + cos β
rd=
2
Since (1+cos β)/2 is the radiation shape factor for a tilted surface with respect to
the sky.
Reflected radiation
Since (1+cos β)/2 is the radiation shape factor for a tilted surface with respect to
the sky, it follows that (1+cos β)/2 is the radiation shape factor for the surface with
respect to the surrounding ground. Assuming that the reflection of the beam and
diffuse radiations falling on the ground is diffuse and isotropic, and that the
reflectivity, is ρ, the tilt factor for reflected radiation is given by
⎛ 1 − cos β ⎞
r r = ρ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Flux on tilted surface

The flux IT falling on a tilted surface at any instant is given by
IT = Ibrb + Idrd + (Ib + Id) rr
Dividing both sides by Ig, we obtain the ratio of the flux falling on a tilted surface
at any instant to that on a horizontal surface.
I T ⎛⎜ I d ⎞⎟ I I
= 1− rb + d rb + d rd + rr
⎜
Ig ⎝ Ig ⎠ ⎟ Ig Ig
This equation can be used for calculating the hourly radiation falling on a tilted
surface if the value of ω is taken at the mid-point of the hour. It can also be used
for calculating the monthly average hourly value (I T ) if the calculations are done
for the representative day of the month. The modified form of the equation is
IT ⎛ I d ⎞ I I
= ⎜⎜1 − ⎟r b + d r b + d r d + r r
⎟
Ig ⎝ I g ⎠ Ig Ig
Where r b = rb , r d = rd and r r = rr
The daily radiation falling on a tilted surface is also of interest in many
applications. The ratio of the daily radiation falling on tilted surface (HT) to the
daily global radiation on a horizontal surface (Hg) is
H T ⎛⎜ H d ⎞⎟ H
= 1− Rb + d Rd + Rr
H g ⎜⎝ H g ⎟⎠ Hg
For a south facing surface (γ=0°),
ω sin δ sin(φ − β ) + cos δ sin ω st cos(φ − β )
Rb = st
ω s sin φ sin δ + cos φ cos δ sin ω s
Rd = rd and Rr = rr
ωst and ωs are the sunrise or sunset hour angles (expressed in radians) for the
tilted surface and a horizontal surface respectively.

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The equation can also be used for calculating the monthly average daily radiation
falling on a tilted surface if the values required are calculated for the
representative day of the month
HT ⎛ Hd ⎞ H
= ⎜⎜1 − ⎟R b + d R d + R r
⎟
Hg ⎝ Hg ⎠ Hg
Earth-Sun Relationships Summary
Altitude
• The angle between the horizon and the sun.
• Always 90° or less and never greater than 84° in Gainesville.
• Time of day, day of year, and location on Earth all determine the local sun’s
altitude.
• Zenith angle is (90° – altitude). If the altitude is 45° the zenith angle is 45° (90 –
45).
Subsolar point and Declination
• The subsolar point is the point in which the sun lies directly overhead (90°
altitude).
• Declination is the latitude of the subsolar point (i.e. If the sun is directly
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer then the sun’s declination is 23.5°).
• The subsolar point migrates between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
Factors affecting altitude, declination, and day length…
Revolution
• Earth completes its revolution of the sun in 365.2422 days.
• Earth’s orbit of the sun is not a perfect circle nor does the sun lie in the center of
the Earth’s orbit.
• The Earth is closest to the sun at perihelion and farthest at aphelion.
• The distance from the sun only varies about 3% and has no significant affect on
our seasons.
Rotation
• Earth rotates from west to east or eastward.
• Rotation occurs about the Earth’s imaginary axis which extends through the
Earth from the North pole to the South pole.
• At any given moment half the Earth is in light and half is in darkness.
Tilt of Earth’s Axis
• 23.5° from the perpendicular to the plane of the elliptic.
• It is the reason the Earth experiences seasons.
• If there was no tilt every place on Earth would experience 12 hours of day and
night.
• If a full tilt occurred (I.e. 90° from the perpendicular) we would experience
extreme seasons.
Axial Parallelism
• Throughout Earth’s orbit about the sun its axis remains in the same alignment.
Insolation
• Incoming solar radiation.
• Direct rays concentrate more solar energy (heat) per unit of area.
• Oblique rays spread this energy over a greater area.
Solved Problems

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1. Calculate the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to 13.30 (IST) on July
16, 1998 at Delhi (28°35’N, 77°12’ E). The equation of time correction on July 16
is (-6) minutes. Indian standard time (IST) is the local civil time corresponding to
82.5°E longitude. Also calculate the declination.
2. Calculate the average value of solar radiation on a horizontal surface for June
19, at the latitude of 10° N. The constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are as 0.30 and 0.51
respectively. The average sunshine hours per day are 9.1.
3. Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located at

Madison, WI at 10.30 (solar time) on February 13, if the surface is tilted 45° from
the horizontal and pointed 15° west of south.

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4. Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate
collector on December 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The collector is located
in New Delhi (28°35’ N, 77°12’ E), and is tilted at an angle of 36° with the
horizontal and is pointing due south.
Solution:
For this case, γ = 0°
On December 1, n = 335,
or

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5. Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset on June 21 and December 21
for a surface inclined at an angle 10° and facing due south (γ-0°). The surface is
located in Bombay (19°07’ N, 72°51’ E).
Solution
6. Determine local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to 1430 h (IST) at Bombay

(19°07’ N, 72°51’ E) on July 1. In India, standard time is based on 82.50°E.
Solution:
7. Estimate the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at

Baroda (22°00’N, 73°10’ E) during the month of March if the average sunshine
hours per day is 9.5.
solution
We will assume that the values of a= 0.28 and b=0.48 obtained for Ahmedabad
are valid for Baroda. This is a good assumption since the two cities are fairly
close to each other and their climate is similar. Based on Klein’s
recommendation, we will take H 0 to be equal to the value of H0 on March 16.
Further, we will assume that this recommendation is also valid for the calculation
of S max .
⎡ 360(284 + n) ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥⎦ (in degrees)
⎣ 365
where n is the day number since January 1
On March 16, n = 75.

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⎡ 360(284 + 75) ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ 365
= -2.42°
cos ωs = -tan Φ tan δ
ωs = cos-1(-tan Φ tan δ)
2
S max = cos -1 (- tanφ .tanδ )
15
The sunrise hour angle

ω = cos-1(-tan φ tan δ)
s
= cos-1(-tan 22° tan (-2.42°))
= 89.02° = 1.554 radians
2
Day length, S max = × 89.02 = 11.87h
15
⎛ 360n ⎞
24
H0 =I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
⎛ 360 × 75 ⎞
⎟(1.554 sin 22°. sin(−2.42°) + cos 22°. cos(−2.42°). sin 89.02°)
24
H 0 = 1.367 × 3600⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
= 34206 kJ/m2-day
Hg ⎛ S ⎞
= a + b⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
H0 ⎝ max ⎠
S
⎧ ⎛ 9.5 ⎞⎫
H g = ⎨0.28 + 0.48⎜ ⎟⎬ × 34206
⎩ ⎝ 11.87 ⎠⎭
= 22718 kJ/m2-day
8. Estimate the monthly average daily diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface at

Baroda during the month of March.
Sol:
From the above problem H g = 22718 kJ/m2-day and H 0 = 34206 kJ/m2-day
H g 22718
Monthly average clearness index, K T = = = 0.6642
H 0 34206
Hd Hg
= 1.411 − 1.696
Hg H0
H d = 22718(1.411 − 1.696 × 0.6642) = 6465 kJ / m 2 − day

9. Use the prediction equations, to calculate the monthly average hourly global
and hourly diffuse radiation during the month of April on a horizontal surface at
New Delhi (28°35’ N, 77°12’ E). Time: 0900 to 1000 h (LAT). The average
number of sunshine hours per day is 8.6. Compare the predicted values with the
available measurements.
Sol:
Daily radiation

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The representative day in April is the 15th. On April 15, n = 105.

⎡ 360(284 + n) ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ 365
⎡ 360(284 + 105) ⎤
= 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥ = 9.42°
⎣ 365 ⎦
ω = cos-1(-tan φ tan δ)
s
= cos-1(- tan 28.58° × tan 9.42°)
= 95.18° = 1.661 radians
2 2
S max = ω s = × 95.18° = 12.69 h
15 15
⎛ 360n ⎞
24
H0 = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
Hg ⎛ S ⎞
= a + b⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
H0 ⎝ S max ⎠
⎛ 360n ⎞
I 0 = 1.367⎜1 + 0.033. cos ⎟ cos θ
⎝ 365 ⎠
⎛ 360n ⎞
I 0 = 1.367⎜1 + 0.033. cos ⎟(sin φ . sin δ + cos φ . cos δ . cos ω )
⎝ 365 ⎠

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10. Calculate rb for a surface at latitude of 40°N at a tilt 30° toward the south for
the hour 9 to 10 solar time on February 16.
Solution:
The ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on a
horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for beam radiation. It is denoted by the
symbol rb.
For the case of a tilted surface facing south (i.e. γ = 0°),

cos θ = sin δ sin(φ − β ) + cos δ cos ω cos(φ − β )
While for a horizontal surface

cos θ z = sin φ sin δ + cos φ cos δ cos ω

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cos θ sin δ sin(φ − β ) + cos δ cos ω cos(φ − β )

Hence rb = =
cos θ z sin φ sin δ + cos φ cos δ cos ω
11. What is H0, the day’s solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of
the atmosphere, at latitude 43°N on April 15?
⎛ 360n ⎞
24
H0 = I sc ⎜1 + 0.033. cos
π ⎝ 365 ⎠
12. What is the solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the
atmosphere at latitude 43° on April 15 between the hours of 10 and 11?
= 3.79 MW/m2
The hourly extraterrestrial radiation can also be approximated by writing equation

in terms of I, evaluating ω at the midpoint of the hour. For the circumstances of
Example, the hour’s radiation so estimated is 3.8 MJ/m2. Differences between the
hourly radiation calculated by these two methods will be slightly larger at times
near sunrise and sunset but are still small.

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17. The following hourly values are measured around mid-day on a clear day at
Nagpur (21°-06’ N, 79°03’ E).
Date: June 19, 1968.
Compare these values with values which would be predicted by the ASHRAE
method.
Solution:
On June 19, 1968, n = 171.
⎡ 360 ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ (284 + n)⎥
⎣ 365 ⎦
cosθz = Sinδ Sinφ + Cosφ Cosδ Cosωs
Comparison of predicted and measured values of hourly radiation

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18. The following hourly values are measured on a clear day at VIT, Vellore (21°-
06’ N, 79°03’ E).
Date: June 19, 1968.
time Igl, esti Igl, mea Ib, esti Ib, mea
9.58 9.35 696 684.71 599 536.27
9.83 9.5 736 716.56 638 550.38
10.08 10.05 773 732.48 674 493.93
10.33 10.2 806 764.33 707 620.94
10.58 10.35 837 843.94 737 635.05
Compare these values with values which would be predicted by the ASHRAE
method.
Solution:
On June 19, 1968, n = 171.
⎡ 360 ⎤
δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ (284 + n)⎥
⎣ 365 ⎦
cosθz = Sinδ Sinφ + Cosφ Cosδ Cosωs
Ig = Ibn cos θz + Id
In the ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning

Engineers) model, it is postulated that
Ibn = A exp [-B/cos θz] and
Id = C Ibn
Short answer Questions

1. Enumerate the solar geometry to be studied to understand the sun-earth
relationship.
2. How to convert the watch time into solar time and why it is needed.
3. What is the need of estimation of solar radiation at a given location? Solar
radiation calculations are based on watch time or solar time? Justify your
answer?

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4. For northern hemisphere, during winter the day length is low compared to
summer. Why?
5. Differentiate between solar azimuth angle and surface azimuth angle?
Write the sign conventions to express these angles.
6. What are the instruments used to measure various components of solar
radiation? Explain the functioning of any one of these instruments.
7. Write about extra-terrestrial radiation with its components.
8. Why the solar radiation readings of a pyranometer vary from that of an
instrument using a PV cell as sensor?
9. Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface at Vellore
(79.133 E, 12.933 N) at 4.00 p.m. on 10th July 2008, if the surface is tilted
25º from horizontal and is pointed 15 East of South.
10. Calculate the days of year on which the sun is directly overhead at 1200 h
(LAT) at Vellore (12.933N).
11. Calculate the day length for today for a south facing surface tilted at an
angle of 30° at Vellore. Given γ = 48°
12. Find the sunrise and sunset hour angles at Vellore for today.
13. Calculate the daily clearness index (KT) on February 15 at Vellore
receiving a daily total horizontal surface radiation of 20.32 MJ/m2.
14. Calculate the solar time at VIT on 1st June, 10.30 a.m. clock time.
15. Determine local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to the present time at
your place. In India, standard time is based on 82.5°E.
16. Calculate the day length for today for a south facing surface tilted at an
angle of 30° at Vellore.
Descriptive questions
17. Use the prediction equations, to calculate the monthly average daily global
and diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface at Bhavnagar (21°45’
N, 72°11’E) during the month of January. The monthly average sunshine
hours is 9.8. Data for India, H g = 18511 kg/m2-day, H d = 4198 kg/m2-day.
18. Find the cosine of angle of incidence for the following conditions:
a. Fixed surfaces sloped towards South
b. For vertical surfaces
c. For horizontal surfaces
19. Estimate the average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at
Vellore during the month of March, if the average sunshine hours per day
are 9.5 hours and the Angstrom coefficients “a” and “b” are 0.18 and 0.64
respectively.

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Solar Radiation SolarThermal

UNIT-I SOLAR RADIATION

Sun Earth relationship – Solar radiation components – Measurement –

Classification of methods for solar energy utilization

1. Sun Earth Relationship

A site on earth is identified using its Latitude & Longitude

• Latitude zero is the equator

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 1 VIT University, Vellore

Fig.1.1. Principal Latitudes on earth surface

Fig. 1.2 Representation of latitude and longitude at a location on earth

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 2 VIT University, Vellore

Fig.1.3 Variation of EoT as a function of n

where, B = 360 (n-81)/364 (in degrees)

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 3 VIT University, Vellore

EoT = -13.5 min.

Fig.1.4 Principle of hour angle

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 4 VIT University, Vellore

Fig.1.5 Variation of hour angle

ω = 15 (solar time - 12) (in degrees)

Elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 5 VIT University, Vellore

Fig. 1.6 Representation of solstice and equinox

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 6 VIT University, Vellore

Fig. 1.7 Variation of declination angle

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 7 VIT University, Vellore

Fig.1.9 Altitude angle

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 8 VIT University, Vellore

A south-facing collector tipped up to an angle equal to its latitude is perpendicular

For vertical surfaces (walls), the tilt angle is 90°. Therefore,

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 9 VIT University, Vellore

Therefore, cosωs = - tanδ tanφ (for horizontal surfaces only)

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 10 VIT University, Vellore

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 11 VIT University, Vellore

Fig. 1.10 Air mass

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 12 VIT University, Vellore

2. Solar Radiation Components

Spectral distribution of Solar Radiation

Fig. 1.11 Direct beam radiation and diffused radiation

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 13 VIT University, Vellore

incoming energy is attenuated by molecules, clouds, and aerosols. Therefore, the

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 14 VIT University, Vellore

3. Measurement of Solar Radiation

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 15 VIT University, Vellore

A typical pyranometer and a thermocouple

Fig. 1.12 Pyranometer for measuring global radiation

Two concentric hemispheres, 30 and 50 mm in diameter respectively, made of

3.2 Shaded Pyranometer

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 16 VIT University, Vellore

Pyranometer with shading ring is relatively an inexpensive solution for diffuse

Fig. 1.14 Pyrheliometer for measuring beam radiation

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 17 VIT University, Vellore

the sensor. The pyrheliometer is also utilized as a calibration reference of solar

3.4 Sunshine Recorder

Fig. 1.15 Sunshine recorder

The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine

Estimation of radiation at a given place

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 18 VIT University, Vellore

Annual, daily and hourly curves of measured global radiated power

Monthly average daily global radiation

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 19 VIT University, Vellore

Id = Hourly diffuse radiation.

Prepared by Dr. T.Srinivas 20 VIT University, Vellore

kJ/m2.day or kWH/m2.day for various days/months/an year can be readily used