PHYSICS

is the Science that

deals with the
idea Of idea of
Matter Energy
can be studied can be studied
in terms of their in terms of their

properties relationships relationships properties

with energy with matter

in the fields (not exhaustive) of

General Thermal Waves Electricity & Atomic

PhysiCS physics (including light Magnetism physics
and sound)
 Table 1.1 Sl base quantitiesand units

Name of Symbol
Basic physical quantity base unit for unit
Length metre
Mass kilogram kg
Tlme second s
Electric current ampere
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Out of these seven basic quantities, only five will be covered at your
level. They are length, mass, time, electric current and temperature.
This chapter will focus on the basic physical quantities of length and
time.

ft/ Prefixes for Sl Units

The prefixes listed in Table 1.2 are very useful in expressing some
physical quantities that are either very big or very small. For example.
if we are interested in talking about the distance between air molecules
we are talking about very small distances. In SI units, the distance
betweenair molecules is about 0.000 m. If we have to mention
this quantity a number of times. we must be careful that the number
of zeros is the same each time we mention it. In the prefix fonn.
().000000 01 m is expressed as 0.01 prn the prefix (micro)
represents submultiple 104'. Of course, another conu•nient and acceptable
way is to express it in the standard form sorre 000 01 m = I x
104 m.

Table1.2 Some commonly used Sl prefixes

Prefix Symbol
106 mega
103 kilo
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi C
10-3 milli m
10-4 micro

For example,
one kilometre (km) is I
x 10' m.
one milliampere (mA) is
J x 10
three megajoule (MJ)
is 3 x I(Y'J.
six microcoulomb
WC) is 6 x 104 C.
 metreSJunit for length Is the The Measurementof Length

The SI unit for length is the metre (m). In length measurement, we

must
choose an instrument that is suitable for the length to be
Table 1.3 summarise,s the commonly used instruments and measured
the lengths
which they are suitable for measuring.
Table 1.3 Instruments used for measuring
length
Length to be measured Suitable instrument Accuracy of instruments
several metres (m) measuring tape
several centimetres (cm) to 1 m 0.1 cm
metre or half-metrerule 0.1 cm
between 1 cm and 10 cm vernier calipers 0.01 cm (usually)
less than 2 cm micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm (or 0.001 cm)

The metre rule

Half-metre rul This instrument is commonly used in the laboratory to measurethe
lengths of objects such as wires or the distance between two points.To
use the metre rule, it is best to measure from the I cm mark,andthen
subtract 1.()cm from the reading at the other end. This is becausefor
most metre rules, the zero mark is at the very end of the rule; wearand
Metre ru
tear of the metre rule may render this mark unsuitablefor measuring
purposes.
Measuring tape For accurate measurement, the eye must always be placed vertically
above the mark being read (see Figure 1.3).This is to avoid parallax
errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurement(see Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.2 Metre rule, half-metre rule and
measuring tape.

Accurate length of object = 1.9 cm Inaccurate length of object = 2.1 cm

zero error at object

this end

rtTTTfiTPTTÉITTT
cm 1 2 3 cm 2 3
Figure 1.3 Accurate measurement Figure 1.4 Inaccurate measurement

The vernier calipers

The vernier calipers is most commonly used for accurate measurement
of up to I mm or cm. By means of a vernier scale (see Figure
I .6), the second decimal place in cm can be obtained
without having to
estimate fractions of a division using the eye.
Figure 1.6 shows the vernier calipers being
Figure 1 Vernier calipers
used to measure the
diameter of a ball bearing.
4
 directly
2: Re the main scale
on the vernier
Step zero mark
opposite th case, the reading
inside jaws scale. In th is 3.1 c
main scale
Step 4: The
diameter is
main scale 31 mm found by adding
main scale 0.4 mm the main scale
reading—
+vernierscale 31 4 mm reading to the
vernier scale
reading.
•rmmmmmmmmm•mmmmmmmmmmm—
mm

vernier scale
vernier mark
Step 3: The 4tha marking on
40 coincides with
ball bearing This gives a
30 the main scale. mm or + 0.04
Step 1: Grip the object (in this reading of +0.4 to the main
case, a ball bearing) gently cm to be added
using the outside jaws of the scale reading.
outside jaws calipers.
10

Figure 1.6 Using the verniercalipers

The vernier calipers can measure

Vernier calipers also have a set of insidejaws which are used to
measure the internal diameters of tubes and containers. The procedure
to an accuracy of 0.01 cm.
for reading the main scale and the vernier scale is the same.

Test your ability tr 'vernierscale

at this wens'te.

<http://socraSue edu.sg/schools/
scgs/ntnujav&iä e

The micrometer screw gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is able to give very accurate measurements
of length, up to 25 mm. It has an accuracy of ±0.01 mm (or ±0.001 cm).
Figure 1.7 shows the main features of this instrument and its use.
The procedure for measuring the diameterof an object
(in this case,
the cross-section or diameter of a rod) is shown in Figure
1.8.

Figure 1.7
Micrometer screw gauge
 Step 2: Read the main scale reading at the edge of
the thimble (in this case, it is 8.5 mm).
thimblescale
anvil sleeve thimble
spindle
reading= sleeve reading 8.5 mm
45 +thimble reading 0.40 mm
40
35 8.90 mm
Step 4: The diameteris
ratchet found by adding the
main scale 0 main scale readingto
the thimble reading.
mm 45
5
cross-section datum line Step 3: The thimble
of wire 40 scale has 50 divisions,
each of which is equalto
0.01 mm. Take the
Step 1: Turn the thimble until the anvil and 35
thimble reading opposite
the spindle gently grip the object. Then turn the datum line of the
the ratchet until it starts to click. 30
main scale. In this case,
*he ratchet prevents the user from exerting it is 40 divisions, which
too much pressureon the object. sleeve is marked in gives a value of 40 x
divisions of 0.5 mm 0.01 mm = 0.40 mm,
Figure 1.8 Using the micrometer screw gauge (or micrometer in short)
 '+Uotvtsions,
sleeve is marked in gives a value of which
divisions of 0.5 mm 40
0.01 mm = 0.40
Figure 1.8 mm.
Using the micrometer screw gauge (or micrometerin short)

The micrometer can measure to The micrometer must be checked for any zero error. Beforeplacing
an accuracy of 0.01 mm. the object to be measured between the anvilandthe spindle,turn
thimble until the anvil and spindle meet. If the zero mark on thethimble
scale lies directly opposite the datum line of the main scale (seeFigure
I .9), we say that there is no zero error. If the zero mark on the thimble
scale does not lie directly opposite the datum line of the main scaleas
in Figures 1.10 and 1.11, then we say that the instrumenthas zeroerror.
For Figure 1.10, the zero error is +0.03 mm, that is to say,all
should be reducedby
measurements (such as for the case in Figure 1.8)
datum line Figure 1.8 will thenbecome18.90-
0.03 mm. The value obtained from
zero error of +0.03mm.
(+0.03)] mm = 8.87 mm due to the
Figure 1.9 No zero error Figure 1.11, the zero error is -0.03 mm, that is to say,all
For
(such as for the case in Figure 1.8)shouldbe increased
measurements Figure 1.8 will thenbecome
value obtained from
by 0.03 mm. The mm due to the zero error of —0.03
mm.
= 8.93
5 [8.90 -- (—().03)1mm

datum line Questions

whenmeasuringa
+0.03 mm. All measurements avoid parallax errors
Figure 1.10 Zero error is
0.03 mm (a) How can you metre rule?
should be reduced by length with a read to obtain
the vernier calipers would you
(b) Where on to obtain
read
the vernier calipers wouldyou
(c) Where on
0 reading (in mm) on the
is the smallest possible possible reading?
45 (d) What biggest
What is the
thimble scale?
datum line
measurements
—0.03mm. All
Figure 1.11 Zero error is by 0.03 mm
should be increased