Analysis of bell material from the

Middle Ages to the recent time

K.N. Strafford, R. Newell, K. Audy and J. Audy

Much has been recently published relating to the performance and failure mechanisms of church and
cloister bells. However, there has been no attempt to correlate such data with the microstructure,
chemical composition, design and sound of bells. Thus, some of the published hypotheses and
assumptions have been made with minimal scientific basis. In this article various features relating to the
bell-making process in different centuries are discussed, including information based on metallographic
and chemical analyses of bell material taken from a number of bells cast between 1556 and 1995. We
also consider the implied extent of the scientific knowledge of bell-makers from the Middle Ages and
investigate the validity of some of their generally held theories for the creation of sound, defect-free
artefacts, while recognizing their enormous practical skills.

Bells have been made for about 4000 years
[ 11. It is believed that the art of bell-making
developed in China before it was rediscov-
ered in Europe. Chinese bells are commonly
ellipsoidal in their section, while European
church bells have a circular cross-section.
The earliest church bells were, doubtless, of
poor quality. However, once the bronze-
casting process was rediscovered and mas-
tered in Europe, bigger and better bells
could be produced, commonly by monks in
cloister foundries.
Ken N. Strafford
Is Professor of Metallurgy and Materials
Engineering at the University of South Australia. He
graduated from the University of Manchester. He
has published widely, having research interest in
corrosion and tribology and their control in
engineering practice through advanced surface
engineering technologies.
Ray Newell
Is Senior Lecturer in Metallurgy at the University of
South Australia. He graduated from the University
of New South Wales with B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees
and has over 30 years industrial and teaching
experience in non-ferrous metallurgy.
Katarina Audy
Is a graduate of the Technical University of Kosice,
Czechoslovakia. From 1968 to 1992 she worked as
a project manager at the Institute for Memorial
Protection in Kosice. In 1992 she established a
private business in engineering specializing in the
reconstruction of heritage items. Currently she is a
Ph.D. student at the University of South Australia
studying the metallurgy of ancient artefacts.
Jaromir Audy
Is a graduate of the Technical University of Kosice,
Czechoslovakia. After finishing his degree he
remained at the same university as a research
assistant and senior lecturer. In 1990 he estab-
lished a private business in mechanical engineering
specializing in the reconstruction and restoration ol
metal artefacts. He is currently a Ph.D. student at
the University of South Australia.
The Middle Ages, in general, were a very
important period in the development of both
bell and cannon casting. In the early Middle
Ages, Ireland was a centre of bell produc-
tion [2]. From there, knowledge about
bell-casting technology was spread to
other European countries, principally by
Benedictine monks. Theophil, in the tenth
century, provides evidence of this spread of
knowledge in a handbook for bell produc-
tion [3]. In the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies, the bell-making process was influ-
enced by many changes in the technology of
forming bells. Designs of bells changed and
became more involved, they in turn becom-
ing more complicated sound-generating
devices. Based on the records of Theophil
and Vannocia Biringucci [4], it can be inferred
that these changes in the geometry and
design of bells influenced all aspects of bell-
casting work. The earliest instructions on
the making of cloister and church bells have
been found in a treatise written by Walter
Odyng, as well as in documents of English
monks from the thirteenth century [5].
Bronze casting continued without inter-
ruption from the Roman period to the sec-
ond half of the fourteenth century. The
Black Death (1348-50) and the One
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) in France,
however, caused a labour shortage, wage
crisis and price rises. The decline in
European metal production which devel-
oped as a result of these occurrences also
influenced bell-making. This crisis lasted
until the middle of the following century. In
England it was Ring Henry III, together
with his daughter-in-law Eleonor of Castile,
who markedly supported the work of
English bell-foundries [6].
The greater demand for cast metal objects
(such as bells and cannons) resulted in the
adoption of new methods to prepare form-
ing mixtures - moulding materials - as well
as changes in the bell material itself. There
were also developments in the techniques of
pattern-making, moulding, melting and
pouring. By the time of the early Middle
Ages, established bell-making technology
was largely characterized by empirical
knowledge relating to the metallurgy of bell
materials and essential skills associated
with melting, alloying and casting. There
was also highly developed art decoration,
and an understanding of the acoustic
properties of bells designed for religious
ceremonies. By the sixteenth century the
total art of bell-casting was well established
all over Europe. In spite of the fact that bell-
makers in the Middle Ages had invented the
use of mobile patterns and stable cores for
forming bells, there were no attempts sys-
tematically to modify their acoustic quality.
In fact it took several hundred years before
the design of a pattern suitable for shaping
bells, so that a precise desired note could be
obtained by systematically varying the
thickness of metal as well as the diameter of
the bell. Thus the art of bell-making became
a recognized craft over a period of many
years.
Redevelopments in the fabrication tech-
nology of church bells reached a peak with
the adoption of more mechanized casting
processes in the nineteenth century. At this
time, previous shortcomings in the bell-
making process were avoided, mainly by
improving the quality of the clay mixtures
used for production of the core, bell-shirt
and bell-coat. There were also changes in
the composition of bell-metal. Bell-makers
of the nineteenth century understood the
nature and origin of the vibrations of the
bells which they were designing and,
furthermore, were able to change their tone
through systematic variation in bell geo-
metry, especially in their wall thickness. By
this time, the acoustic principles underlying
bell design were established and under-
stood.

22 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 0160-9327/96/$15.00. PII:SO160-9327(96)10003-X
Some important changes in bell
design and the process of
bell-making from the Middle Ages
to the twentieth century
Tin bronze has been, and continues to be,
the most important alloy for bell fabrication.
The quality of bronze casting is closely
dependent on the individual steps in the
technological process. Sand casting, widely
practised, involves five key operations: pat-
tern-making, core-making, moulding, melt-
ing and pouring. Features of the bell-mak-
ing process practised in different centuries
have been studied by investigating the
sound, design and materials of a number of
European and Australasian bells.
From the irregular shape of the earliest
bronze bells (commonly cast in Europe
before the fifteenth century) it can be
assumed that the mould was made by apply-
ing wet clay to the rotating object - the pat-
tern - maintained in a vertical position. The
surface quality of the mould was rendered
manually, and its final dimensional accu-
racy and finish were dependent on the skill Figure 1 Process of forming and casting bells in the horizontal and vertical positions.
of the master. In general, the quality of the
bells which were made in this way would be
poor. When moulds began to be formed
with the pattern in the horizontal position,
by using methods invented by founders in
the early Middle Ages, the accuracy of the
moulds increased. It is evident, however,
that the vertical and horizontal processes
were equally laborious and suitable only for
the production of small bells. In order to
make large bells, then, it was necessary to
change the process of forming both the core
and the cope of the bell to be cast.
In the late Middle Ages, individual parts
of the bell mould were formed with wooden
templates which rotated vertically on a rib
around the axis of the pattern. Figure 1 is a
photograph of an original engraving held in
the National Technical Museum in Prague
showing the process of forming bell moulds
in the horizontal (details in the left upper
region) and vertical positions (details in bot- Figure 2 Ornamental decoration of Gothic bells cast by F. lllenfeld in the sixteenth century.
tom region). This figure also illustrates the
tools employed in the foundry process
which were used even in the nineteenth cen- Preserved notices [7,8] show that, in Photographs in Figures 2-6 show de-
tury. The diameter of the bell, measured in detail, there were also differences in the tails of bells cast from the sixteenth to the
the bell’s mouth, and its height were two preparation of forming mixtures for the twentieth centuries. The Grecian sirens
major parameters used for defining the bell-core, bell-shirt and bell-coat. The bell- shown in Figure 2 (right) are part of the
bell’s profile, which were subsequently used core was usually prepared from tire clay, ornamental decoration of a Gothic bell
for production of wooden patterns. while a soft moist clay was used for finish- (from Kosice, Slovakia) cast by F. Illenfeld
The complicated shapes of church bells ing the bell-shirt. In the final layer of the in 1.557. These ornaments were made using
required the use of highly accurate wooden bell-shirt, space for inserting wax ribbons a pattern. This is evident from the repetition
patterns and also suitable clay-forming mix- and ornaments was provided. A pattern of the same features of the design, includ-
tures. The preparation of these mixtures was was usually used to make these wax oma- ing mistakes. The escutcheon, shown in
one of the secrets of bell production, and their mental decorations. However, in some cases the same figure (left), comes from a differ-
formulation was different in individual letters and/or ornaments were engraved ent bell from the same town and by the
bell-foundries. The high inherent variability manually into the bell-shirt or bell-coat. same bell-maker. This was engraved manu-
in the composition of the clay mixtures was Before starting to form the bell’s coat, the ally into the shirt of the ‘false’ bell - the
due to the use of other components such as wax elements were placed into these spaces shell mould. Other examples of decora-
animal dung, fur and flax in the clay mix- and connected using hot bands of iron. The tive ornaments made in different centuries
ture. The choice and number of these addi- precision maintained in the preparation of are shown Figures 3-7. They show clearly
tives also influenced the properties of the this master pattern, or false bell, together that the shape of bells, their decoration
mould boxes, which had an effect on the with the properties of moulding mixtures, and inscriptions are uniquely associated
solidifying time of the casting and therefore had a significant effect on the final qual- with the religion and customs of the geo-
also on its final microstructure, so determin- ity of the bell’s surface and decorative graphical areas and period when the bells
ing the sound quality emitted by the bell. ornaments. were made.

23
 and consisted of several cannons of a simple
shape. Over time such cannons were
decorated with heads as shown in Figure 9.
The complicated shape of these cannons in
the bell-crowns required the use of wax
moulds which were formed in clay boxes.
The habit of displaying heads on the
cannons ended with the passing of the
Gothic era in the sixteenth century.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries simple, non-decorative shapes of
cannons were preferred. The bell-founders
of the nineteenth century invented new
cylindrical shapes of bell-crowns. This
method made it possible to simplify the
forming and casting process. Although this
system is currently used by bell-makers,
crowns consisting simply of cannons can
still be seen in some bells cast at the end of
the nineteenth century. Some bells (such as,
for example, the eight bells in St Peter’s
Cathedral in Adelaide, South Australia)
Figure 3 A seventeenth-century bell. Figure 4 An eighteenth-century bell. have no crown.

Figure 5 A bell from the beginning of the
nineteenth century.
Figure 7 A modern bell cast in the Dytrych
bell-foundry.
Figure 6 Decorative ornament from the
beginning of the twentieth century.
When the decoration of the false bell was
finished it was time to form the bell-coat.
The first three layers were prepared from
sticky clay. This soft clay mixture was
applied on the surface of the false bell using
a brush. After drying, succeeding layers
were applied manually and fixed with iron
bands secured with screws. Before casting it
was necessary to take off the false bell, that
is, to separate the bell-shirt from the core.
When this was completed, both the surface
of the core and the inside part of the bell-
coat were painted with a solution of oil
mixed with soot and graphite. Then the bell-
coat was placed and secured to the top of the
bell-core. The carriage with the core was
chocked with wooden blocks so that it could
not move. After this, the mould of the bell-
crown was prepared and situated on the top
of the bell-coat.
The crowns of the bells cast in the earliest
Middle Ages were similar those in Figure 8
Materials in bell-making
History shows that formulations used to
prepare bell material were developed over a
period of several hundred years. Bells were
cast from both ferrous and non-ferrous
materials, so there are many differences in
their chemical composition and metallurgi-
cal structure. Only in some special cases
were cloister and church bells cast from
steel and cast iron. These bells are very rare
and they were cast mainly during wars to
replace bronze bells, since often these cop-
per-based alloys were needed for military
requirements. It is believed that the produc-
tion of Fe-C bells started from about 1857
with the development of cast steel.
(Bessemer developed the bottom-blown
steel-making process in 1863.) Experiments
conducted with Fe-C alloys have shown
that, in general, these alloys are not suitable
for the production of church bells because
of the poor quality of the sound and their
short life [9].
Non-ferrous alloys of copper with tin, also
called tin bronzes, form the basic material
most commonly used for casting bells. The
bronze alloys in which tin is the principal
alloying element also contain other
elements such as nickel, zinc, iron, lead,
arsenic, antimony, silver, sulphur, phos-
phorus and bismuth [lo]. Some of these
elements were deliberately added to the
bronze liquid for alloying purposes, while
others were transferred, particularly as
impurities, through the process of melting
when using charcoal, and especially coke.
Some variation in the chemical composition
of bells can also be caused by impurities
present in the metals themselves used to
prepare tin bronzes.
Metallographic analysis of bell
materials
We have investigated the properties and
characteristics of a number of bells, using
chemical and microstructural analyses. For
this survey a number of 2mm-square

24

Figure 8 The simple crown of a bell.
samples were taken from both bell lips and
cannons. The weight percentages of metal
elements present in the bells were deter-
mined by using a Perkin Elmer 2380
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Variat-
Techtron, Melbourne, Australia), while the
level of sulphur was determined by an iodo-
metric method. Metallography was per-
formed using both optical and scanning
electron microscopy. Metallic and non-
metallic inclusions, as well as casting
defects such as scattered porosity between
grains of dendrites and cracks, were charac-
terized from the unetched surfaces of pol-
ished samples. Samples were etched in a 2%
acid ferric chloride for about 10 seconds to
reveal internal structure.
Chemical analyses of bell materials pro-
duced in the Gothic, Baroque, Empire and
Modem eras are given in Table 1. The large
variation in the weight percentage of el-
ements present in the bell materials shows
that each bell-maker had an essentially indi-
vidual alloy formulation.
It has been known since before the Middle
Ages that tin increases the strength of cop-
per and that lead improves fluidity and cast-
ing characteristics. Together they make the
bell material more easily meltable and
machinable to a precise shape. However, the
influence of these alloying elements on the
quality of the bell material and their effects
on the sound and tone of bells was unknown
until the nineteenth century. The ductility of
tin bronzes increases as the tin content is
TABLE 1 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BELL MATERIALS
BAROQUE, EMPIRE AND MODERN ERAS (%)
Era Period Cu Sn
Gothic =1150-1560 80-82 lo-12
Baroque =1580-1750 80-81 11-15
Empire =1800-1870 79-81 16-18
Modern =1900-1 74-77 23-25
Figure 9 Bell-crown decorated with profiles of heads.
increased up to about Swt.% tin. It then
decreases as the tin content is further
increased and the brittle 6 phase (Cu,,Sn,)
is formed in the structure.
In the Gothic bells investigated the total
amount of tin was about 12wt.%. Bell ma-
terial of this composition has a freezing
range of about 18O”C, which is so high that
it causes the development of microsegre-
gation - structural heterogeneity in castings.
Such bronzes also contains the highest level
of interdendritic porosity.
About 0.06 wt.% silver was found in the
samples taken from the Gothic bells. For
example, the Gothic bell, St John, weighing
about two tons, contained approximately
1.2 kg of silver. This supports the hypothesis
that the bell-makers of the Middle Ages
believed in the magical power of the rare
metals. They also believed that addition of
these elements to the bronze liquid could
improve the sound quality of bells. This
belief was refuted by English researchers
at the end of the nineteenth century [lo].
Silver, as an alloying element, was reduced
with time as knowledge about its actual
harmful effect on the note of bells
increased. In 1923 bell-maker Buchner
commented that ‘rare, precious metals
worsen the behaviour of humans in the
same way as they worsen the note of bells’.
Lead in amounts up to 1 wt.% increases
machinability and resistance to wear of tin
bronzes and also improves the fluidity of
the liquid. However, lead causes a marked
decrease in the quality of the tone of bells.
Lead is not dissolved in copper and is usu-
ally dispersed throughout the structure in
the shape of small regular globules.
PRODUCED IN THE GOTHIC,
Pb Ag Bi, Sb, As, S Ni, Zn, Fe
2.0-3.0 0.2-0.4 3.7-5.5 0.3-0.4
1.5-1.7 0.1-0.2 3.0-3.5 0.9-l .l
0.5-l .8 - 1.0-l .2 1.2-2.5
0.3-2.5 - 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.6
Dishonest bell-makers used it for alloying
the bell material instead of the more expen-
sive tin.
Sulphur, bismuth and phosphorus
markedly reduce the mechanical properties
of bronze castings. Damaged bells with
pieces missing, as shown in Figure 10, nor-
mally contain these elements, which com-
bine with copper to form brittle compounds
such as CuS and Cu,P. In the present
investigation the highest level of these
inclusions was found in the Gothic bells and
their presence in the bell material can prob-
ably be explained through the use of impure
coke and charcoal used to melt the bronze
alloy.
Interest in bells increased in the Middle
Ages. Over time, as the bell-makers tried
many different ways to produce a bell
material of the top quality, they learned how
to produce different alloys. However, their
efforts were sometimes unsuccessful. Often
the smelting operation had a harmful effect
on the resulting metal by introducing im-
purities. Despite the fact that the most suit-
able alloy was not determined until some
time in the middle of the twentieth century.
Table 1 clearly shows that the weight per-
centage of tin in the structure of church bells
systematically increased from about
12 wt.% in the late Middle Ages to about
20wt.% at the present time. This increase
coincided with decreasing amounts of
harmful elements, which were reduced from
about 2.5 wt.% in the late Middle Ages to
about 0.5 wt.% at present. Better (purer)
alloying elements and improved melting
techniques, no doubt, account for such
refinement.
According to the German standard, GBZ,
a modem bell material should be composed
of 74-78 wt.% Cu, 22-26 wt.% Sn. =I wt.%
Pb. =0.2wt.% Sb, ~0.3 wt.% Fe and
0.5 wt.% Ni [ll].
Representative microstructures of four
bells, cast in England in 1857, 1946 and
1947 and in Bohemia in 1992, are shown in
Figures 11-14. The chemical composition
of the bell material is given under each
25
 is markedly limited. For example, London’s
Big Ben (2 m in height, 2.13 m in diameter,
weight 14 tons) was destroyed two months
after its casting because it was struck with a
clapper of the wrong weight [12]. The use
of both the clocking and chiming methods
may also markedly reduce the serviceable
life of bells. Cracks (similar those shown in
Figure 15) develop in the body of bells
through stress concentration and lead to
physical destruction.
The reconstruction of damaged bells is a
Figure 10 Absence of bell material in the
laborious process because all localized
bell-lip caused by presence of brittle
phases CuS and Cu,P.
cracks in the wall of the bell have to be
located and repaired. There are also other
problems associated with the welding
process. The price of reconstruction may be
approximately two-thirds of the total value
necessary for production of a new bell.
Welding does not prevent propagation of
previously formed cracks (see Figures 16
and 17), so this method is recommended
only for reconstruction of historically rare
bells. For bells without any historical value
recasting with the aim of giving them back
their sound is a better option.

micrograph. These micrographs show that

the bell material consists essentially of a
mixture of the o-phase and (CL+ 6) eutec-
toid, in proportions dictated principally by
the weight percentage of tin in the alloy and
the properties of the forming mixtures used
for preparing the bell moulds. These latter
affect the cooling rate which, in turn, influ-
ences the grain size and the nature of the
a-phase (copper-tin solid solution), the
extent of coring, as well as the amount of
(a + 6) interdendritic eutectoid.
The mechanical properties of these alloys
are crucially influenced by these micro-
structures. As the solidified alloy cools it
undergoes a number of eutectoid reactions
resulting in a structure which consists
essentially of grains of (Y solid solution
together with CY+ 6 eutectoid. The 6 phase
is an intermetallic compound of composi-
tion Cu,,Sn,. Increased amounts of 6 in the
structure will lead to increased brittleness in
the bell artefact. This can become problem-
atic if the tin content is too high and/or the
cooling rate of the alloy is decreased pre- Figure 12 The structure of a treble bell
Figure 11 The structure of a bell (73.62% (72.81% Cu, 24.07% Sn and 3.12% Pb)
venting the attainment of more equilibrium-
Cu, 23.18% Sn and 3.48% Pb) cast in from St Peter’s Cathedral, Adelaide, South
like microstructures as indicated in the England in 1857 (original magnification Australia, cast in England in 1946 (original
phase diagram. x100). magnification X 50).
For several hundred years the full poten-
tial of bell-ringing was not understood or
realized. Throughout the ages bell-ringers
had to learn how to strike bells to obtain the
best sound quality. Several ways of ringing
bells are possible. These are recognized as
‘clocking’, ‘chiming’, ‘ringing’ and ‘tool-
ing’. In ‘clocking’ a rope is tied to the flight
of the clapper which is pulled against the
wall of the bells. In ‘chiming’ the sound
bow of the bell is struck with a hammer
whose movements are traditionally con-
trolled by a rope pulled by hand, later
machine-operated. In ‘tooling’ the bell itself
is swung by a rope. The last method is ‘ring-
ing’ and involves pulling the bell from side
to side. The origin of this method dates from
the sixteenth century when tinging using
bells mounted on a whole wheel was
invented. By using this method the bell can
sound with its full note because the clapper
is able to strike the bell with maximum
force. Ultimately, however, the weight of
the bell-clapper should not be greater than Figure 13 The structure of a tenor bell
l/40 of the total weight of the bell for which (73.02% Cu, 26.06% Sn and 1 .OQ% Pb) Figure 14 The structure of a modern bell
the clapper is designed. When the bell is from St Peter’s Cathedral, Adelaide, South (76.05% Cu, 21.55% Sn, 2.4% Pb) cast in
struck with a clapper weighing more than Australia, cast in England in 1947 (original the Dytrych foundry in Bohemia in 1992
this recommended value, the life of the bell magnification X 50). (original magnification X 100).

26
 (East Slovak Museum), Mrs M. Sarudyova
(Technical Museum Slovakia), Mrs I.
Laboutkova and Mr Z. Rasl (The National
Technical Museum, Prague, Bohemia),
Associate Professor J. Cech (Technical
University, Kosice, Slovakia). The authors
have been in touch with many bell-makers
(the Dytrych family in Bohemia, H. Bagot
in Adelaide, South Australia), priests
(R.W. Wrightson, J. Caruana, B. Glass) and
bell-ringers (I. Harris, D. Williams). We
owe them a debt of gratitude.

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181 Unpublished diary of bell-maker A.
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191 Audy, J. and Audy, K. Project to Restore
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Figure 16 Outside of a bell repaired by Figure 17 The same part of the bell Audy, J.. Cech. J. and Beno, J.
welding. showing a high degree of porosity and Composition and Microstructure of
cracks which developed due to the welding Medieval Bells. Pratt MerallogI: 29, 77.
process. 1992.
Conclusions Ingram. T. Bells in England, 2nd edn.
Traditionally bells have been manufactured Frederic Muller. London, 1978.
by casting, and several hundred years ago brought about by compositional variations
skill and know-how were such that, often, in the alloys, as well as through differing
bells with complex geometry and decor- melting and casting techniques. Also, the
ation could be created. Through an appreci- use of purer constituent elements and
ation of the metallurgy of the alloys most improved melting practices has reduced the
commonly used - namely tin bronzes - the levels of undesirable impurities such as
high level of these skills became more evi- phosphorus and sulphur, rendering the bell
dent, enabling the production of intricate less susceptible to cracking and fatigue
castings free from defects such as cracks when struck by the clapper.
and porosity. Because of the lack of this
metallurgical understanding the composi- Acknowledgements
tions of alloys used in earlier centuries are The authors would like to thank the follow-
substantially different from those used ing organizations as well their represen-
today. Metallographic examination of bells tatives with whom the partners have com-
fabricated throughout the century reveals municated and worked over the past few
significant differences in microstructure, years: Mrs H. Dobrova and Mrs V. Kejlova

27