JOURNAL OF

windengineering
Journal of Wind Engineering
ELSEVIER and Industrial Aerodynamics 69 71 (1997) 485 495

Computer simulation of fluctuating wind pressures

on low building roofs
K. S u r e s h K u m a r , T. S t a t h o p o u l o s *
Centre for Building Studies, Concordia Universi~, Montreal, Que., Canada H3G 1M8

Abstract

Efficient simulation techniques are required to generate fluctuating wind pressures on

building surfaces in a generic fashion not only for the evaluation of extreme pressures but also
for fatigue design purposes. Within this context, a general approach for representing Gaussian
as well as non-Gaussian wind pressure characteristics using the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
algorithm is presented. The simulation procedure, which is developed based on several wind
tunnel measurements, requires the knowledge of both Fourier amplitude and phase in order to
generate pressure time histories. The amplitude part is constructed from measured pressure
spectra or fitted empirical expressions for subsequent simulations in a synthetic manner.
A simple stochastic model with a single parameter is suggested for phase simulations. The
computation of the model parameter has been carried out by minimizing the sum of the squared
errors in higher-order statistics such as skewness and kurtosis. The efficiency of this methodo-
logy for generating fluctuating wind pressures on low building roofs has been demonstrated.
Applications of the methodology have also been briefly discussed.

Keywords. Low building roofs; Simulation; Wind pressure

1. Introduction

Wind-induced pressures acting on building surfaces are fluctuating. The impor-

tance of such pressure fluctuations on the design of low building c o m p o n e n t s has been
realized by researchers and designers more than three decades ago and various
attempts were m a d e to incorporate such fluctuating pressures in wind standards and
building codes of practice. However, the devastative effect of long time histories of
pressure fluctuations during storms has received wider attention m o r e recently. The
A S C E m a n u a l of practice for wind-tunnel studies [1] notes that such fluctuating
pressures acting on low-rise building roofs can create stress reversals and m a y lead to
the failure of fasteners or cladding which is a growing concern in low-rise building

* Corresponding author.

0167-6105/97/$17.00 ,,~ 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PI1 S 0 1 6 7 - 6 1 0 5 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 1 7 9 - 7
486 K. Suresh Kumar, T. Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Incl. Aerodyn. 69-7l (1997) 485 495

industry. Though the Australian wind code [2] suggests a fatigue loading sequence for
testing the cladding as well as its connections against stress reversals, such traditional
cyclic loading sequences do not represent the broad-band features of wind pressure
fluctuations [3]. Therefore, it appears that the actual characteristics of pressure
fluctuations on various types of buildings under diverse conditions are required to
provide generalized guidelines for the betterment of building design. This study has
been undertaken to produce a suitable representation for pressure fluctuations on
building surfaces, especially on low building roofs due to their extreme vulnerability
to such fluctuations. This paper refers to only local pressure fluctuations which govern
the design of cladding as well as fasteners.
Wind pressure time series on low building roofs are assumed to be stationary based
on the inspection of many experimental records from several wind-tunnel measure-
ments revealing that, in general, the mean and variance are constant. However, both
Gaussian and non-Gaussian wind pressures have been observed depending on roof
point location and wind direction; mostly, non-Gaussian types are observed on corner
zones as well as on other separated flow regions [4]. A number of methods for
simulating Gaussian as well as non-Gaussian time histories have been developed and
can be broadly classified into (1) fast Fourier transform (FFT) based types and (2) auto-
regressive moving average (ARMA) based approaches. The first method has been
applied widely in engineering applications due to its simplicity and efficiency. Though
this method is limited to the case of Gaussian time series, it can be used for non-
Gaussian time series generation with the help of a non-linear static transformation
procedure [5,6] which is adequate only for weakly non-Gaussian cases. The second
approach is computationally efficient; however, ARMA models are not suitable for
the description of non-Gaussian type of fluctuations [7] and their inefficiency to
predict roof corner pressure fluctuations has been noted [8]. Recently, non-Gaussian
wind pressure fluctuations have been simulated using a novel method that combines
the advantages of both F F T and ARMA models [9]. This model provides thrust in
simulating the phase part of a signal and thereby controlling the higher-order
moments since the non-Gaussian nature of fluctuations strongly depends on the
organization of the phase part of the Fourier transform of the time series [10,11].
However, there is no immediate engineering application for this method unless (1) its
adequacy is shown for different building zones and flow characteristics, (2) the
simulation procedure as well as the parametric estimation procedure is simplified, and
(3) generalization in terms of codification or at least clear design procedure is
provided. The present study describes a general approach to simulation of time
histories of fluctuating pressures and demonstrates its application. The simulation
procedure has used numerous measured pressure spectra from roofs of low-rise
building models.

2. Methodology

Considering the merits and demerits of several simulation techniques, it appears

that the characteristics of wind pressure fluctuations can be more efficiently
 K. Suresh Kumar, ~ Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69-71 (1997) 485-495 487

represented in frequency domain than in time domain. For instance, spectra of

fluctuations in frequency domain, which shows the contribution of different frequen-
cies to the variance, is an important property to be modelled in all signal simulations.
Moreover, recent studies [9-11] showed that the phase part of the fluctuations in
frequency domain has tremendous influence in changing the probability density
function (pdf) from Gaussian to non-Gaussian and vice versa. Therefore, the F F T
approach has been chosen to represent wind pressure fluctuations on building
surfaces. Consequently, time histories of Gaussian and non-Gaussian pressure fluctu-
ations can be generated with the help of the following discrete Fourier transform
(DFT) equation [12],
n-1
Zt=n-1 ~ ~ei4keiZ~kt/,, t = 0 , 1 ..... n - - l , (1)
k=O

in which, x/Ik corresponds to Fourier amplitude, ~bk corresponds to Fourier phase,

Zt corresponds to time series, n corresponds to time series length, and the term 2~k/n
is the integer multiple of the fundamental frequency 2~/n known as Fourier frequency.
In order to simulate a time history of pressure fluctuations using Eq. (1), knowledge of
both Fourier amplitude and Fourier phase are required. Fourier amplitude can be
easily constructed from spectra which is the traditional representation of fluctuations
in frequency domain. The deterministic nature of such spectra from various wind-
tunnel measurements provides the possibility of empirical modelling as will be
discussed in next section. However, Fourier phase consists of random numbers
ranging from - ~ to ~z and does not hold any deterministic structure.

3. Representation of spectra

Spectra exhibit frequency characteristics of the zero-mean fluctuations in time

domain. The variance of the time series, given by the total area under the spectrum, is
related to the amplitude part of the D F T regardless of the phase part. Therefore, the
second-order characteristics of the fluctuations such as variance and autocorrelation
can be achieved by adopting the desired spectrum.
In the present study, several pressure spectra were measured at various roof
locations on a variety of low building models in two types of terrain for various wind
directions. The atmospheric surface layers for open as well as suburban terrain
conditions have been simulated in the boundary layer wind tunnel of the centre for
building studies (CBS), where the measurements were carried out with a wind speed of
approximately 11 m/s at gradient height. The boundary-layer scale is approximately
1 : 400. Pressure fluctuations were measured with SETRA 237 pressure transducers
(0.1 psd range) using a scanivalve. Conventional restricted tube system with a flat
frequency response up to 100 Hz was used as the transfer medium between the tap and
Setra transducer. Pressure data were acquired in blocks of 8192 samples each at
a sampling rate of 500 Hz using a waveform analyzer (DATA-6000) after it was being
passed through a low-pass filter with a 250 Hz cut-off frequency. At a length ratio of
488 K. Suresh Kumar, Z Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69 71 (1997) 485 495

1 : 400 and mean velocity ratio of about 1 : 3.5, the resulting time history of approxim-
ately 16 s providing statistically stable mean and variance corresponds to 30 rain in
full-scale. At the end of each sampling period, the measured pressure signals were
converted to pressure coefficient signals by dividing them by the reference dynamic
pressure at building height. Simultaneously, the pressure coefficient spectrum (Sp(fk))
was also evaluated with the help of DATA 6000 analyzer. Smoothening of the spectra
has been done by ensemble averaging Sp(fD for 16 records. Further, ensemble
averages of the statistics such as mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis based on 16
records were also estimated and stored. Both pressure signals and pressure spectra
used herein stand for pressure coefficient signals and pressure coefficient spectra,
respectively.
A common feature found in all measurements is that the amplitude of spectrum dies
out as the frequency increases. Deterministic spectral curves can be represented by
empirical equations which can be used for generating amplitude in Eq. (1) in a syn-
thetic manner. Though spectral shapes of pressure fluctuations at various taps appear
generally similar, the variances of the corresponding fluctuations are significantly
different depending on the location of these spectra. In order to simplify the empirical
modelling as well as to get standard spectral shapes, all spectra have been normalized
by their variance. Thereafter, traditional curve-fitting techniques have been employed
to extract a suitable empirical equation for spectra. Several functions representing
approximately the same shape as the target spectra have been attempted and tradi-
tional optimization methods to estimate the optimum parametric values by minimiz-
ing the sum of the squared residuals were employed. Finally, the following expression
fitting all types of pressure spectra was found:
Sr(J;,)/a 2 = ale ,.,r~ + aze-,.e,f~, fk = kA,[i 1 <~ k <~ n/2, (2)
in which, Sv(J;,) is the spectral ordinate, a e corresponds to variance, fk corresponds to
frequency, Af corresponds to frequency resolution, i.e. inverse of the period of time
series =,L/n, f~ is sampling frequency, n is number of samples, al and a2 are the
position constants and cl and c2 are the shape constants. Eq. (2) corresponds to
physical spectrum that computes only the first-half of the spectral amplitudes in the
positive frequency range and Af = ~ is used as the frequency resolution. However,
the mathematical spectrum (Sm(fk)), which is symmetric about the midpoint and
ranges both in positive and negative frequencies, is required for computational
purposes. The desired format of mathematical spectra can be estimated by
{ Sp(fk)12, J'k = kA f, 1 <~ k <~ n,
t7 .L
S,,(fk) = Sp(fk)/2, fk = (n -- k)AJ; ~ + 1 ~< k ~< n - 1, (3)
o, A=0.
Then, the Fourier amplitude (x/Ik) can be evaluated using

~ = n ,~fk) Af (4)
A detailed analysis of the above formulation (Eqs. (3) and (4)) can be found
elsewhere [13]. Here, since the zero-frequency component of the amplitude part
 K. Suresh Kumar, T. Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69 71 (1997) 485-495 489

representing the first-order characteristics of fluctuations (mean) has been kept zero,
the mean of the corresponding fluctuations can be added to the non-zero mean signal
simulated using Eq. (1).

4. Representation of phase

The phase part of Gaussian time series can be represented by uniformly distributed
random numbers ranging from - ~ to ~, which can be easily generated using
commonly available algorithms. However, in the case of non-Gaussian time series, the
phase part cannot be replaced by uniform random numbers [10] and stochastic
models might be more appropriate to represent it. In the present study, the proposed
model for phase representation is based on the following assumptions [10,11]: (1) the
phase part does not affect the spectral amplitude characteristics of time series, (2) the
spikes in the time domain, responsible for non-Gaussian nature, are strongly depen-
dent on the phase part of the Fourier transform in the frequency domain, (3) the
sharpness and overall pattern of the spikes are not sensitive to the change in the
amplitude of the Fourier transform, (4) the overall pattern of spikes is intermittent and
exponentially distributed, and (5) the spikes can be transferred from one signal to the
other through the phase part of the Fourier transform without disturbing the spectral
amplitude characteristics. Based on (1) and (2) the amplitude and phase parts can be
modelled separately. Since the non-Gaussian nature of the fluctuations such as
frequency and intensity of sharp spikes can be controlled through the phase part of the
DFT as per (3), the parametric control of non-Gaussian statistics has been attempted
in the proposed model for phase. Based on (4) and (5), an arbitrary signal named
skeleton signal having intermittent, exponentially distributed spikes would be suffi-
cient for the simulation of phase.
Consequently, the exponential peak generation (EPG) model has been used for the
generation of this skeleton signal from which the required phase can be drawn. The
EPG model takes the form
Yt = 0 with probability b,
E, with p r o b a b i l i t y l - b , 0 ~ < b < 1, (5)
where, Yt corresponds to skeleton signal, b corresponds to probability parameter that
controls the intensity as well as the frequency of spikes in the signal, and Et corre-
sponds to an exponential random variable. The Fourier phase (~bk) required for the
simulation in Eq. (1) can be obtained by taking the phase part of the DFT of skeleton
signal (Yt), i.e.,
n-1
~t=-o Y, sin(2~kt/n)
-

~bk = arctan ~ _ ~ Yt cos(2~kt/n) ' - ~ <<"cPk <~ ~. (6)

The proposed simple and efficient model (Eq. (5)) for phase simulation is different
from the model suggested in Ref. [9] where three parameters are used to control the
spike characteristics. Contrary to the cumbersome three-dimensional figure, showing
490 K. Suresh Kumar, ?2 Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. hM, Aerodyn. 69 71 (1997) 485 495

a non-Gaussian property of simulated signal as a function of the parameters, used for

the selection of parameters in Ref. [10], a simple technique has been applied in the
present work for parametric estimation. Considering the complexity of evaluating
higher-order statistics, only skewness and kurtosis are considered as the target
non-Gaussian statistics to be preserved by the model. The parameter b which induces
the desirable non-Gaussian statistics (see Eq. (5)) has been obtained as follows:
a signal with specified target spectra is generated using Eq. (1) with the help of Eqs. (5)
and (6) for each value of b selected from the defined range, 0 to 1. Thereafter, skewness
and kurtosis of the simulated and target signals are compared before selecting the next
value of b. This procedure will be continued until the optimum value of b is found. For
convenience, a computer code is written to draw the optimum value of parameter
b from the range, 0~l, to satisfy the desired non-Gaussian statistics in least-square
sense. The sum of the squared errors (SSE) in skewness and kurtosis are calculated for
each value of b and the value which gives the least SSE is chosen as the optimum one.

5. Example simulations

A number of simulations on various types of roofs have been performed during this
investigation and only representative results are presented here. A typical example,
which demonstrates the various stages involved in the proposed simulation methodo-
logy, is shown in Fig. 1 for the suctions on the corner of a monoslope roof for oblique
wind direction. The measured pressure signal shown in Fig. la appears non-Gaussian
due to its negatively skewed nature. Fig. l b shows the measured pressure spectra
along with the fitted curve of Eq. (2) as a function of reduced frequency, F =fkh/V,
where h is the mean height of the building and V is the velocity at building height.
With the help of Eqs. (3) and (4), the Fourier amplitude (x/~k) part shown in Fig. lc is
evaluated by taking ~r2 = 0.187,fs = 500 Hz, and n -= 8192 from experimental obser-
vations. The simulated skeleton signal using Eq. (5) is shown in Fig. ld. The optimum
value of b required for the simulation of skeleton signal has been estimated based on
target non-Gaussian statistics as previously discussed. Fig. le shows the estimated
phase (~bk)part using Eq. (6). Thereafter, Eq. (1) is used to obtain the simulated signal
shown in Fig. lf, where the amplitude and phase correspond to Fig. lc and Fig. le,
respectively, and the actual mean value has been added. The statistics (mean, variance,
skewness and kurtosis) as well as peak (maximum suction) of the simulated and target
signals are compared in Table 1, which also shows typical simulation results conduc-
ted for additional typical cases. Results indicate the capability of the proposed model
to represent the most pertinent statistics in a simple manner; four different cases,
which include three roof types, two tap locations, two wind directions and two
surroundings have been included. Each peak value reported in Table 1 corresponds to
the maximum suction of the corresponding 16 simulated or measured records.
Considering the sensitivity of the peak values compared to the statistics, simulated
and measured peak values are rather close.
Though the simulations shown are restricted to a limited number of cases, general-
izing the modelling part in terms of building geometry, terrain conditions and
 h[ Suresh Kumar, 72 Stathopoulos/~ Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69-71 (1997) 485-495 491

(a) (d)
0 0

-2
-2
e~
-4
-4
-6 - b = 0.88
Skeleton signal (Eq.(5))

-6 J -8 I I I I

0 5 10 15 2000 4 0 0 0 6000 8000

Time (sec.) Data points
(b) (e)
l0 °
Eq. (2)
10-~
2
10-2
% -e-
10.3
e-
10-4 t~
-2
lO-S
10 .6 I I I r -4
1 0 .4 1 0 .3 1 0 -2 1 0 -I 100 10 l
2000 4 0 0 0 6000 8000
Reduced Frequency,F = fkh/V Data points

(c) (0
300

~ 200 -2

~ 100 -4
<
Simulated

-6
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 5 10 15
Data points Time (see.)

Fig. 1. Pictorial representation of the proposed simulation methodology.

s u r r o u n d i n g s is possible. This would help the user simulate u n l i m i t e d a m o u n t s of

pressure d a t a on a n y type of roof u n d e r various c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t carrying out
extensive m e a s u r e m e n t s in a wind tunnel. Z o n i n g of roof with respect to spectra of
pressure fluctuations c o r r e s p o n d i n g to tap location, roof geometry a n d wind direction
is possible. Spectral p a r a m e t e r s (cl, c2, al a n d a2) a n d model p a r a m e t e r (b) can be
492 K, Suresh Kumar, "I~ Stathopoulos/'.L Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69 71 (1997) 485 495

Table 1
T y p i c a l s i m u l a t i o n results

No. Geometry and b Coefficients for Description Target Simulated

o r i e n t a t i o n I x w x h (mm), ct spectra

["'1 a l = 0.00775 Mean - 1.75 - 1.75

-] Variance 0.19 0.19
a2 = 0.19250 Skewness - 1.31 - 1.41
1 4_~,~ 0.88 cl = 0.02467 Kurtosis 7.21 7.00
c2 = 0.28120 Peak - 6.75 - 6.72
152 x 48 x 36.5, 15 °
M o n o s l o p e roof
open terrain

[~ a l = 0.02152 Mean -- 0.95 -- 0.95

0,.. [-- ] Variance 0.05 0.05
2 ~_] 0.33 a2 = 0.11090 Skewness - 0.82 - 0.87
c1 = 0.02539 Kurtosis 4.67 4.61
152 x 48 x 36.5, 15 ° c2 = 0.59200 Peak - 2.90 -- 2.85
M o n o s l o p e roof
open terrain

I 1 a l = 0.01364 Mean - 1.78 - 1.78

Variance 0.31 0.30
3 0°"~ 0.55 a2 = 0.12750 Skewness - 0.83 - 0.80
c~ = 0.02310 Kurtosis 4.20 4.19
108 x 108 x 37.5 F l a t c2 = 0.32390 Peak - 5.80 - 6.23
roof S u b u r b a n terrain
a l = 0.01309 Mean - 0.38 - 0.38
I I
Variance 0.16 0.16
a2 = 0.05268 Skewness - 1.06 - 1.35
4 0.76 c~ = 0.02377 Kurtosis 6.35 6.28
4~.~ c2 = 0.11670 Peak - 3.66 - 4.68
152 x 98 x 38.5, 19 °
G a b l e roof S u b u r b a n
terrain

Note: b = p a r a m e t e r ; 1 = length; w = width; h = m e a n height; ct = roof angle.

provided for simulating long time histories of pressure fluctuations depending on the
case. Note that the mean and variance of the fluctuations for the corresponding case
required for the simulation have been obtained from wind tunnel tests.

6. Application

It is appropriate at this point to present an application of this simulation methodo-

logy in building design. This method can be used to derive the number of peaks
required to carry out an extreme value analysis. This analysis results in producing
 K. Suresh Kumar, T. Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69-71 (1997) 485 495 493

peak pressure coefficients versus probability of exceedance, i.e., design risk level. Such
representations are important for reliability-based design which is not available in
most current codes of practice. A typical example is shown in Fig. 2 for the corner of
the monoslope roof for oblique wind direction. Prior to carrying out extreme value
analysis, it is of interest to show the effectiveness of the proposed methodology to
represent the pdf of the time series. The time histories of the corresponding target
and simulated signals are shown in Fig. la and Fig. if respectively. The pdf is plotted
for pressure coefficient after subtracting its mean (Cp.... ) and normalized by its root-
mean-squared value (Cprms). The non-Gaussian character of the fluctuations is evident
from Fig. 2 since the pdfs corresponding to target and simulated signals are negative-
ly skewed and have high kurtosis. The pdfs of the simulated and target signals appear
similar and the same trend is noted in other cases. Fig. 3 shows the extreme values
of peak pressure coefficients for this case. In this analysis, simulated peak pres-
sure (suction) coefficients are obtained as follows: 16 records of 8192 values each
were simulated and the peak value from each record was selected and plotted against

0.6 0 Target
+ Simulated
-- Gaussian .~
45~z<
.= 0.4

0.2

-10 -5 0 5
(Cp - Cp mean )/Crms

Fig. 2. Probability density functions of pressure fluctuations.

0 o0
O0 0 +
0 +++

-5 4~ o o ° ? + ++
& ® e~+ ++
13.
[o +
-6
O Target
~o + Simulated
-7 i r i i
0 20 40 60 80 I00
Probability of exceedance (%)

Fig. 3. Extreme values of pressure coefficients (Cppo.O.

494 K. Suresh Kumar, T. Stathopoulos/J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 69 7l (1997) 485-495

the relevant risk level; measured data were also obtained in the same format. The
comparison shows that the simulated suction peaks are somewhat higher than the
measured values. Differences up to _+ 15% have also been found in other cases and
can be tolerated. Diagrams such as that of Fig. 3 can be used to establish design-
pressure coefficients according to any desirable risk level, presumably consistent with
reliability-based design.
The proposed methodology for the simulation of local pressure fluctuations can
also be used to evaluate fatigue strength of cladding as well as fasteners. The successful
reproduction of pressure fluctuations using test rigs such as B R E R W U L F [14] yields
considerable amount of optimism for the application of this method in fatigue
analysis. In addition, the fatigue strength of building components can also be drawn
with the help of finite element analysis where the simulated time series is taken as the
forcing function. Moreover, this methodology can be used in a wide variety of
engineering problems which encounter random processes of similar nature, as noted
in Ref. [6].

7. Conclusions

The paper shows that the F F T approach is suitable for the representation of
Gaussian as well as non-Gaussian fluctuations commonly observed on building
surfaces. Both Fourier amplitude and phase, which are required for the simulations,
have been modelled individually. The measured pressure spectra have been used to
construct the Fourier amplitude part. While an empirical model is suggested for the
representation of spectra, a stochastic model is proposed for the phase. In the present
study, the criterion for successful modelling is set to preserve the first four moments
(mean, variance, skewness and kurtosis) and spectra of the corresponding pressure
fluctuations. The efficiency of the methodology has been demonstrated using the
measured pressure spectra from various low building roofs. Further work is necessary
(1) to generalize the simulation methodology in terms of tap location, building
geometry, wind direction and surroundings in order to apply it in extreme value
analysis and fatigue design, and (2) to tackle the non-stationarity of the time series
observed in full-scale measurements.

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