IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—II: EXPRESS BRIEFS, VOL. 57, NO.

8, AUGUST 2010 577

Event-Driven Data Acquisition and

Digital Signal Processing—A Tutorial
Yannis Tsividis

Abstract—Event-driven analog-to-digital conversion and associ-

ated digital signal processing techniques are reviewed. Such tech-
niques, still in the research stage, have the potential to significantly
reduce the consumption of energy and bandwidth resources in
several important applications.
Index Terms—Continuous-time (CT) digital signal processing,
event-driven analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion, event-driven sig-
nal processing, level crossing.

I. I NTRODUCTION
Fig. 1. (a) Event-based sampling. (b) Corresponding ADC and DSP power

C ONVENTIONAL data acquisition and signal processing

techniques utilize uniform sampling, with the sampling
frequency determined by the highest expected spectral fre-
dissipation.

quency. When the input signal properties are more relaxed

(lower frequency content, or even long periods of silence), the
high-frequency sampling simply wastes power. This situation
is far from optimum in many new and emerging applications,
which rely on scarce energy resources. A promising alternative
is event-based sampling, in which a sample is produced only
when something significant (an “event”) occurs in the signal.
Event-based sampling originated a long time ago in the context
of control systems [1]–[4], where it took a long time to mature
due to the lack of systematic design techniques. Its applica-
tion in analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital signal
processors (DSPs) is much more recent and is reviewed in
this brief.
The event-based approach results in nonuniform sampling
[5]. An example is shown in Fig. 1(a); samples are generated
only when the input changes enough to cross a level, thus saving
dynamic power in the ADC and following DSP, as illustrated Fig. 2. (a) Input signal, level-crossing samples, and quantized signal.
(b) Digital representation of quantized signal. (c) Delta-mode version of (b).
in Fig. 1(b). In addition, bandwidth resources saved when the
signal is inactive can profitably be used by other more active riods of silence. Finally, event-based sampling seems naturally
signals in the system. This approach can benefit many applica- suited to applications in which the data speed varies, such as
tions powered by a very small battery or by energy scavenging magnetic and optical disk readers and Doppler-shifted signals.
and which involve “bursty” signals with varying activity over Event-based sampling relies on maintaining information on
time, possibly including long periods of silence. An example is the precise sampling instants. The advent of VLSI makes higher
intelligent sensor networks; individual nodes in them need only and higher time resolution possible and, thus, makes event-
transmit information when the environmental quantity being based sampling more and more feasible and attractive.
sensed changes significantly [6]. The same is true for signals This brief reviews event-driven analog-to-digital conversion
involved in wearable, implantable, and digestible biomedical and associated digital signal processing, expanding on an earlier
devices [7]. Speech signals are also bursty, interrupted by pe- conference publication [8].

Manuscript received December 25, 2009; accepted December 31, 2009.
Date of publication June 28, 2010; date of current version August 13, 2010.
This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under
Grant CCF-07-01766. This paper was recommended by Associate Editor
T. C. Carusone.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia
University, New York, NY 10027 USA (e-mail: tsividis@ee.columbia.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCSII.2010.2056012
II. E VENT-BASED DATA ACQUISITION
A. Level-Crossing Sampling
One way to achieve event-based sampling is the so-called
level-crossing sampling [9]–[11], already introduced in Fig. 1
and further illustrated in Fig. 2(a). A continuous-time (CT)

1549-7747/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE

578 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—II: EXPRESS BRIEFS, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2010
Fig. 3. Output and its spectrum with a sinusoidal input, with (a) quantization
only and (b) sampling and quantization.
input signal x(t) is compared with a set of discrete amplitude
levels (broken lines); samples are taken when such levels are
crossed. The pairs (tk , x(tk )) form a representation of the
signal. No sampling clock is present. Low-frequency and low-
amplitude inputs are sampled less densely in time than high-
frequency and high-amplitude inputs, and periods of silence
are not sampled at all. No aliasing occurs; this can be traced
to the fact that the signal samples itself [12]–[14]. However,
the resulting average sampling rate can be very high if many
levels are used. Ways to reduce this problem are discussed later
on. The amplitude levels can be optimized according to the
properties of the signal, or even made adaptive [15]–[17].
Hardware and system considerations may include a mini-
mum sampling interval [3], [4] or an input filter to limit the
maximum rate of change of the input, and the insertion of
extra samples if the signal is in between levels for a long time
[3], [4]; also, the inclusion of hysteresis for noise immunity
[3]. For simplicity, such considerations are not included in our
discussion.
B. CT Quantization
Consider now a CT signal passed through a CT quantizer
(without sampling), as shown in Fig. 3(a), with decision thresh-
olds coinciding with the broken-line levels in Fig. 2(a). The
output of the quantizer is the staircase signal xq (t) in Fig. 2(a).
When a level is crossed, this output goes to the closest quantized
value midway between the levels. There is no clock in the
system. It is clear from Fig. 2(a) that the quantizer output
inherently contains all the information contained in the level-
crossing samples and that the latter can be reproduced from
the former. Depending on how the level-crossing samples are
utilized, the two techniques can give identical results. To dis-
cuss the spectrum of the resulting signal, consider a sinusoidal
input as an example, as shown in Fig. 3(a). The quantized
signal will be periodic and can thus be represented by a Fourier
series; it will therefore contain only harmonics, with no error
spectral components in between. As many of these harmonics
fall outside the baseband of the following DSP, as suggested by
a broken-line frequency response in Fig. 3, the in-band error
can be significantly lower than in classical systems involving
uniform sampling plus quantization [Fig. 3(b)], typically by
10–20 dB [12]–[14], [18].
C. Other Event-Based Sampling Techniques
Various other event-based sampling techniques have been
proposed; in them, an event is considered to occur when an
error exceeds a predefined amount. In one technique, the error
is taken to be the difference between the input and its latest
sample [2], [3]; this is related to level-crossing sampling. Other
errors in use involve the integral of the above difference [19],
[20] or the difference between the input and a prediction of it,
typically first order [2], [21]. As such approaches are not known
to have been used for signal processing, we will emphasize
level-crossing sampling below; however, much of what will be
discussed is applicable to other event-based approaches as well.
D. Reconstruction
Reconstruction of an event-based sampled signal need be no
different from reconstruction of other types of nonuniformly
sampled signals and can be done in several ways [5], [22],
[23]. The most obvious one is to construct a piecewise-constant
waveform from the samples, something that the quantizer
inherently does in Fig. 2(a). Better performance is possible,
albeit with increased computational effort (not in real time);
if the average sampling rate exceeds twice the bandwidth of
the signal, exact reconstruction is in principle possible [5],
[22], [23]. In [24], weighted sinc interpolation functions [22]
have been used for postprocessing; with only 16 levels (4-bit
quantization), the error was lower than −100 dB compared with
the signal. Intuitively, the reason for this is that, even with a few
levels in Fig. 2(a), the sample values are exact.
E. Reducing the Average Sampling Rate
The above observations offer hope for reducing the average
sampling rate. The results of such efforts are likely to depend on
the reconstruction used. With piecewise-constant reconstruc-
tion, it has been shown in [25] that, where the local sampling
rate is high [e.g., in the high-slope portion in Fig. 1(a)], one can
skip certain samples; the corresponding error spectral energy
increase is mostly out-of-band, with practically no effect in-
band. A reduction of average sampling rate by a factor of 5 has
been demonstrated with speech signals [25]. This both makes
hardware more viable and saves transmission bandwidth and
processing power dissipation. Much more can be done in this
direction. Sampling rate reduction using other techniques is
currently a very active research topic (see, for example, [26]).
F. Amplitude Coding
The levels of the quantized or level-crossing-sampled signal
in Fig. 2(a) can digitally be represented as in Fig. 2(b); this can
be accomplished, for example, by a flash ADC without a clock
[12], [27]. The binary signals shown in Fig. 2(b) are functions
of continuous time. Alternatively, one can indicate the time a
level is crossed, plus the direction of crossing, as shown in
Fig. 2(c) (this information can be encoded using two bits); this
is the so-called asynchronous delta modulation [28]–[32]. The
original signal values can be obtained from this signal by using
TSIVIDIS: DATA ACQUISITION AND DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
Fig. 4. (a) CT FIR analog filter. (b) Corresponding CT digital filter.
an accumulator and an initial value [33], [31]. Dithering can be
used for improved spectral properties at the expense of average
sampling rate [34].
G. Time Coding
The times tk , or rather the intervals Δk = tk − tk−1 , can be
encoded into digital words as well, and stored, if the time axis
is quantized [9]–[11]. This is referred to as “time coding” [10].
Once time is quantized, spectral components appear in between
the harmonics in Fig. 3(a); their amplitude becomes larger as
the quantization is made coarser. As will be shown later, digital
signal processing can be performed without time quantization.
III. E VENT-BASED D IGITAL S IGNAL P ROCESSING
A. Principle
It has been shown that level-crossing-sampled, or equiva-
lently CT-quantized signals, can digitally be processed [12].
One can do this by keeping the time continuous [12] or by
quantizing the time [35]. The description below can be thought
of either as representing true CT operation or as representing
clocked operation with very fine time quantization, so that
the extra spectral components that result (Section II-G) are of
negligibly small amplitude.
Consider a CT finite-impulse response (FIR) analog struc-
ture, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The coefficient multipliers, the sum-
mer, and the delay lines are all CT; no clock is employed. This
structure is used, for example, in high-frequency equalizers.
An input x(t) can be processed with this structure, resulting

in an output y(t) = K k=0 ak x(t − kτ ), where τ is the delay
of each delay element, and ak are the desired transfer function
coefficients. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of this
equation, we find the transfer function H(s) = Y (s)/X(s);
setting in this s = jω, we obtain the frequency response, which
can be seen to be periodic with period 2π/τ :

K
H(jω) = ak (ejωτ )−k .
k=0
The same structure can in theory also be used to process
the approximation of x(t), i.e., xq (t), in Fig. 2(a). If now
xq (t) is replaced by the digital representation in Fig. 2(b), the
processor can be converted to a DSP, as shown in Fig. 4(b)
[12]–[14]. All elements in this processor can remain CT (or can
579
be discrete time with very fine time quantization) but handle
only 0s and 1s. The time intervals are not explicitly coded; the
samples are just transmitted in CT, and they are thus implicitly
present in the signal representation. This CT processing of
binary signals often strikes people as strange, since “digital” has
been associated with discrete time for a long time. However, it
is perfectly legitimate; for a detailed proof, the reader is referred
elsewhere [13], [14]. The system can be followed by a CT
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) to produce an analog signal.
A simple output or input analog filter is needed to attenuate the
periodic frequency response lobes outside the band of interest,
as in conventional systems.
The CT delay lines can be implemented digitally, using
techniques reported elsewhere [36]. Jitter must carefully be
considered [36]. Digital tuning using delay-locked loop tech-
niques can keep the delay values matched and fixed. A clock
reference can be used for this and turned off when not needed;
the clock is employed only to tune the value of the delays and
plays no role in the signal processing.
If the signal is delta-mode encoded, as shown in Fig. 2(c), it
can be followed by an accumulator to produce the digital input
in Fig. 4(b). The accumulation operation can be combined with
the coefficient multipliers, simplifying the design [37].
The design and evaluation of a test chip is described in
[38]; an 8-bit ADC/DSP/DAC CT voice band system achieved
a signal-to-noise-plus-distortion ratio of 47–62 dB, depending
on input frequency, and a power dissipation that decreases
with decreasing signal activity by a factor of 3. This factor is
likely to be significantly improved in future event-based DSP
generations.
The above techniques can be extended to infinite-impulse
response filters [18], [39].
B. Difference From Asynchronous DSP
The DSP described above differs from conventional asyn-
chronous DSPs, such as that in [40]. The latter are discrete-
time systems, processing sequences of data; the time intervals
between samples do not normally represent important infor-
mation. In contrast, in an event-based DSP, the timing infor-
mation is essential and must carefully be preserved. Thus, the
name “asynchronous” is inadequate in this case. Nevertheless,
asynchronous circuits can profitably be used for computation in
event-based processors [35], [38].
C. Properties
In addition to the dynamic power dissipation and better
quantization error spectral properties, event-based DSP has
several other attractive features; these are now summarized.
Since level-crossing sampling does not suffer from aliasing
(1) (Section II-A), the entire system (ADC/DSP/DAC) is free of
aliasing if implemented in CT; a comparison to the discrete-
time case is shown in Fig. 5. CT DSPs immediately react to
input changes, unlike classical systems that may not catch such
changes until the following sampling instant. This makes them
particularly well suited to very fast digital control loops [41].
Finally, the fact that there is no clock in the system means low
electromagnetic emissions.
580 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—II: EXPRESS BRIEFS, VOL. 57, NO. 8, AUGUST 2010
Fig. 5. Frequency response, spectra with an input in the baseband, and spectra
with an input in a higher lobe of the frequency response. (a) For a CT digital
filter. (b) For a discrete-time digital filter.
D. CT Versus Quantized Time
As mentioned, the above description applies to both CT
and discrete-time techniques, if in the latter the time axis is
finely quantized. However, the finer the quantization, the more
difficult the problem becomes, due to increased storage require-
ments and increased demands on the performance of the clock.
It is interesting that, whereas infinitely fine time quantization is
infinitely difficult, it is equivalent to not quantizing time at all,
which is rather easy: it just implies CT operation, which uses no
clock and is thus truly event based [12]–[14]. Such operation
is best suited for real-time applications where no storage is
needed; nevertheless, following such operation, the signal can
be sampled and stored if desired.
In discrete time, one can also use an adaptive sampling rate,
in which uniform sampling is used with different sampling
rates in different signal segments, thus piecewise optimizing the
sampling rate to the signal rate of change [42], [43].
E. Versatility of Event-Based DSP in Processing Time-Coded
Binary Signals
Over the past several decades, many techniques have been
developed for encoding information onto the transition times
of digital signals. These go by various names. The name
“time coding” [10] has been used in relation to level-crossing
instants as discussed above. Couch [44] defines “pulse time
modulation” as a class of techniques that “encode the sample
values of an analog signal onto the time axis of a digital
signal,” and discusses two members of that class, i.e., pulse
width modulation and pulse position modulation. A different
type of time coding, named “click modulation,” is described
in [45]. Asynchronous sigma–delta modulation, using a self-
oscillating loop involving an integrator and a Schmidt trigger
[46]–[48], also belongs to this category; the recovery of the
resulting signals has been discussed in [49]. Yet a different
representation of signals using only timing is discussed in [50].1
Although CT DSP has been discussed above in the context of
level-crossing sampling, it can be used to process any time-
coded binary signal, such as the ones mentioned above, with
desired information in certain frequency bands. In fact, it can
do so whether the signal is event-based or not, asynchronous
or synchronous; this is because CT DSP looks at all time, and
the method used to produce a binary signal to be processed is
irrelevant to it.
IV. C ONCLUSION
Event-based data acquisition and digital signal processing
offer several attractive properties, notably absence of aliasing,
low quantization error, fast response, and a power dissipation
which decreases with decreasing input activity. Both CT and
discrete-time versions of such systems are possible. Progress
needs to be made on several fronts. On the hardware front,
higher performance ADCs are needed, as are ways to imple-
ment delays with very low power. On the theory front, ways are
needed to reduce the number of samples per unit time. Efforts
so far in both directions are highly encouraging. It is felt that
the field of event-driven data acquisition and signal processing
holds promise in applications where energy and bandwidth
resources are scarce.
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