Kamakura period

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The Kamakura period (鎌倉時代, Kamakura jidai, 1185–1333) is a period
of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate,
officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shōgun, Minamoto no
Yoritomo. The period is known for the emergence of the samurai, the warrior caste,
and for the establishment of feudalism in Japan.
The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shogunate and the
short re-establishment of imperial rule under Emperor Go-Daigo by Ashikaga
Takauji, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige.

Contents

 1Shogunate and Hōjō Regency

 2The Expansion of Buddhist Teachings
o 2.1"Old Buddhism"  (Kyū Bukkyō)
o 2.2"New Buddhism" (Shin Bukkyō)
o 2.3Legacy of Kamakura Buddhism
 3Mongol invasions
 4Civil war
 5Events
 6Notes
 7References
 8Further reading

Shogunate and Hōjō Regency[edit]

The Kamakura period marks the transition to land-based economies and a
concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting
class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of
their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule.
Once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new
government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (幕
府, tent government), but because he was given the ancient high military title Sei-i
Taishōgun by Emperor Go-Toba, the government is often referred to in Western
literature as the shogunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house
government and had an administrative board Mandokoro (政所), a board of
retainers Samurai-dokoro (侍所), and a board of inquiry Monchūjo (問注所). After
confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointed stewards for the
estates and constables for the provinces. As shōgun, Yoritomo was both the steward
and the constable general. The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime,
however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance
to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Northern Fujiwara, but
never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However,
the 4th leader of the Northern Fujiwara Fujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by
Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old
court resided in Kyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while
newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.
A famous Japanese wooden kongorikishi statue of Tōdai-ji, Nara. It was made by Busshi Unkei in 1203.

Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his

family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the
Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his
authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Minamoto no
Yoriie became shōgun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to
control the other eastern warrior families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency
had been established for the shōgun by Hōjō Tokimasa—a member of the Hōjō clan,
a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. The head of
Hōjō was installed as a regent for the shōgun; the regent was termed
the Shikken during the period, although later positions were created with similar
power such as the Tokusō and the Rensho. Often the Shikken was also the Tokuso
and Rensho. Under the Hōjō, the shogun became a powerless figurehead.
With the protector of the Emperor (shōgun) a figurehead himself, strains emerged
between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 the Jōkyū War broke out between the
Cloistered Emperor Go-Toba and the second regent Hōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces
easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the
shogunate. The shōgun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was
obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of
political power, the court retained extensive estates.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency.
In 1225 the third regent Hōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing
opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at
Kamakura. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form
of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—
the Goseibai Shikimoku—in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to
militarized society. While legal practices in Kyoto were still based on 500-year-
old Confucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that
stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land
disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise,
stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and parts of it remained in
effect for the next 635 years.
As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the
period. The Hōjōki describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist
concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike
monogatari narrated the rise and fall of the Taira, replete with tales of wars and
samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of
poetry in the Shin Kokin Wakashū, of which twenty volumes were produced between
1201 and 1205.

The Expansion of Buddhist Teachings[edit]

Head of a Guardian, 13th century. Hinoki wood with lacquer on cloth, pigment, rock crystal, metal. Before
entering most Japanese Buddhist temples, visitors must pass large and imposing sculptures of ferocious
guardian figures whose role is to protect the premises from the enemies of the religion. The aggressive
stances and exaggerated facial features of these figures stand in sharp contrast to the calm demeanor of
the Buddha enshrined inside. Brooklyn Museum

During the Kamakura period six new Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as
"New Buddhism" or Shin Bukkyo) were founded:

 Hōnen (1133–1212) founded the Japanese Pure

Land school or Jōdo-shū.
 Shinran (1173–1263) founded the Jōdo Shinshū sect.
 Eisai (1141–1215) founded the Rinzai school of Zen.
 Dōgen (1200–1253) founded the Sōtō school of Zen.
 Nichiren (1222–1282) founded the Nichiren school.
 Ippen (1239–1289) founded the Ji-shū branch of Pure
Land Buddhism.
During this time the pre-existing schools of Tendai, founded by Saichō (767–
822), Shingon, founded by Kūkai (774–835), and the great temples of Nara,
collectively classified by scholars as "Old Buddhism" or Kyū Bukkyo, continued to
thrive, adapt, and exert influence.[1]:24–25 For example, all of the above six reformers
had studied at the Tendai Mt. Hiei at some point in their lives.[2]:562
"Old Buddhism" (Kyū Bukkyō)[edit]
Throughout the Kamakura period older Buddhist sects including Shingon, Tendai,
and the Nara temple schools such as Kegon, Hossō, Sanron, and Ritsu continued to
thrive and adapt to the trend of the times. [2]:561–563
At the start of the Kamakura period, the Mount Hiei monasteries had become
politically powerful, appealing primarily to those capable of systematic study of the
sect's teachings. The Shingon sect and its esoteric ritual continued to enjoy support
largely from the noble families in Kyoto.[3] However, with the increasing popularity of
the new Kamakura schools, the older schools partially eclipsed as the newer
"Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government, and
its samurai.[citation needed].
The times that gave way to the Kamakura period were marked by political and
military conflict, natural disasters, and social malaise attributed to the perceived
arrival of the Latter Day of the Law. The new social order of a declining aristocracy
and ascending military and peasant classes resulted in new forms of religion, both
indigenous[4]:12 and Buddhist while Indian and Chinese influence continued. [2]:556–
557[4]:11,13[5]
 Furthermore, the Shōen manor system which had taken root in this era
resulted in the increased prosperity and literacy of peasants which in turn provided
more financial support for Buddhist teachers and their studies. [4]
"New Buddhism" (Shin Bukkyō)[edit]
The first originators of Kamakura Buddhism schools were Hōnen and Shinran who
emphasized belief and practice over formalism. [2]:546
In the latter part of the 12th-century Dōgen and Eisai traveled to China and upon
their return to Japan founded, respectively, the Sōtō and Rinzai schools of Zen.
Dōgen rejected affiliations with the secular authorities whereas Eisai actively sought
them.[2]:574 Whereas Eisai thought that Zen teachings would revitalize
the Tendai school, Dōgen aimed for an ineffable absolute, a pure Zen teaching that
was not tied to beliefs and practices from Tendai or other orthodox schools [2]:566 and
with little guidance for leading people how to live in the secular world. [2]:556
The final stage of Kamakura Buddhism, occurring some 50 years after Hōnen, was
marked by new social and political conditions as the aristocracy declined, the military
class asserted new influence, and Buddhist-infused local kami practice among
peasants flourished. These changing conditions created a climate that encouraged
religious innovation. Nichiren and Ippen attempted at this time to create down-to-
earth teachings that were rooted in the daily concerns of people. [2]:555–556 Nichiren
rejected the focus on "next-worldly" salvation such a rebirth in a Pure Land and
instead aimed for "this-worldly" personal and national liberation through a simple and
accessible practice.[2]:557 Ippen emphasized a popularized form of nenbutsu recitation
with an emphasis on practice rather than concentrating on an individual's underlying
mental state.[2]:559
Legacy of Kamakura Buddhism[edit]
As time evolved the distinctions between "Old" and "New" Buddhisms blurred as they
formed "cultic centers" and various forms of founder worship. The medieval
structures of these schools evolved into hierarchical head temple-branch temple
structures with associated rituals and forms of worship. This culminated in the state-
sanctioned formalized schools of the Tokugawa period.[1]:36–37

Mongol invasions[edit]
Main article: Mongol invasions of Japan
The repulsions of two Mongol invasions were momentous events in Japanese
history. Nichiren had predicted these invasions years earlier, in his Rissho Ankoku
Ron, a letter to the regency. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in
the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of late Tang dynasty China and the
turning inward of the Heian court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with
the Southern Song dynasty of China in later centuries, but Japanese pirates made
the open seas dangerous. At a time when the shogunate had little interest in foreign
affairs and ignored communications from China and the Goryeo kingdom, news
arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol regime in Beijing. Its leader, Kublai Khan,
demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan dynasty and threatened
reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyoto raised the diplomatic
counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Mongol demands, dismissed the
Korean messengers, and started defensive preparations.

Japanese samurai boarding Mongol ships in 1281

After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274.
More than 600 ships carried a combined Mongol, Chinese, and Korean force of
23,000 troops armed with catapults, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In
fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who
were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces at Hakata, on
northern Kyūshū, defended against the advantageous mainland force, which, after
one day of fighting was destroyed by the onslaught of a sudden typhoon. Kublai
realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces'
failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took
place in northwestern Kyūshū before another typhoon struck, again destroying the
Mongol fleet, which was mostly composed of hastily acquired, flat-bottomed Chinese
ships especially vulnerable to powerful typhoons.
Although Shinto priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind"
or kamikaze[6], a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep
impression on the shogunate leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to
Japan were reinforced. The victory also convinced the warriors of the value of the
shogunate form of government.
The Mongol war had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied
to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused
disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the
Mongols. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such
disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a
decline of the Kamakura bakufu. Additionally, inheritances had divided family
properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support.
Roving bands of rōnin further threatened the stability of the shogunate.

Civil war[edit]
The Hōjō reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the
various great family clans. To further weaken the Kyoto court, the bakufu decided to
allow two contending imperial lines—known as the Southern Court or junior line and
the Northern Court or senior line—to alternate on the throne. The method worked for
several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne
as Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the shogunate, and he openly
defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the shogunate exiled Go-
Daigo, but loyalist forces, including Kusunoki Masashige, rebelled. They were aided
by Ashikaga Takauji, a constable who turned against Kamakura when dispatched to
put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time, Nitta Yoshisada, another eastern
chieftain, rebelled against the shogunate, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hōjō
were defeated.
In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-
century Confucian practices. This period of reform, known as the Kenmu
Restoration, aimed at strengthening the position of the Emperor and reasserting the
primacy of the court nobles over the warriors. The reality, however, was that the
forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hōjō, not on
supporting the Emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a
civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long War
Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was
driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who
established a new line of shoguns.

Events[edit]
 1185: the rival Taira clan is defeated at sea at the Battle
of Dan-no-ura by Yoritomo's brother Minamoto no
Yoshitsune,[7]
 1192: The Emperor Go-Toba appoints Yoritomo
as shōgun (military leader) with a residence
in Kamakura, establishing the bakufu system of
government
 1199: Minamoto no Yoritomo dies
 1207: Hōnen and his followers are exiled from Kyoto or
executed. This inadvertently spread the Pure
Land doctrine to a wider audience.
 1221: The Kamakura army defeats the imperial army in
the Jōkyū Disturbance, thereby asserting the supremacy
of the Kamakura shogunate (Hōjō regents) over the
emperor
 1227: The Sōtō sect of Zen Buddhism is introduced to
Japan by the monk Dōgen Zenji
  1232: The Jōei Shikimoku code of law is promulgated to
enhance control by the Hōjō regents
 1271: Nichiren is banished to Sado Island
 1274 & 1281: The Mongols of Kublai Khan try to invade
Japan but are repelled by a typhoon.
 1293: On May 27, a major
earthquake and tsunami hit Sagami Bay and Kamakura,
killing 23,034 people.[8] It followed a 1241 and 1257
earthquake/tsunami in the same general area, which
both were magnitude 7.0.
 1333: Nitta Yoshisada conquers and destroys
Kamakura during the Siege of Kamakura ending
the Kamakura shogunate.[9]

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:    Dobbins, James C. (1998).  "Envisioning Kamakura
a b

Buddhism". In Payne, Richard K. (ed.). Re-visioning Kamakura

Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i
Press. ISBN 0824820789.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j Osumi, Kazuo; Dobbins, James C.
(1999).  "Buddhism in the Kamakura Period". In Hall, John Whitney
(ed.).  Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University. ISBN 9780521223546.
3. ^ Kitagawa, Joseph M. (2010). Religion in Japanese History.
Columbia University Press. p.  65. ISBN 9780231515092.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Payne, Richard K. (1998). Re-visioning "Kamakura"
Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-
8248-2078-9.
5. ^ Anesaki, Masaharu (1930).  The History of Japanese Religion.
London: Trench, Trubner & Company. p.  167.
6. ^ Hane, Mikiso (2015). Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey.
Perez, Louis (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
p. 95.  ISBN  9780813349701.  OCLC 895428280.
7. ^ Varley, P. (1994) p. 82.
8. ^ NOAA Earthquake Database Query
9. ^ McCullough, Helen Craig (1959): pp. 285–311.

References[edit]
  This article incorporates public domain material from
the Library of Congress Country
Studies document: "Japan".

Further reading[edit]
 Varley, P., Warriors of Japan, University of Hawaii
Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-8248-1601-8.
  McCullough, Helen Craig (1959). The Taiheiki. A
Chronicle of Medieval Japan. 1959. Charles E. Tuttle
Company, Tokyo, ISBN 0-8048-3538-1.
 Sansom, George (1963). A history of Japan 1334–1615.
Eight Printing (1993). Charles E. Tuttle Company,
Tokyo, ISBN 4-8053-0375-1
 Yamamura, Kozo (1990), The Cambridge History of
Japan, The Cambridge History of Japan, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 9780521223546

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