Optimal Capacitor Placement in Radial Distribution
System
Department of Electrical Engineering
atulkrj132@gmail.com, rsibhatia@yahoo.co.in
Abstract-This paper presents the optimal placement of capacitor
banks in radial distribution system. For the purpose, capacitor
placement optimized based upon the cost, size and location. In
the past research work it has been noticed that the power factor
correction improve the stability and efficiency of electrical power
delivery. Also, in most of the research work the objective function
is the reduction of power losses and the improvement in voltage
profile. The reduction in power loss and the system voltage
profile further depends upon the size and location
capacitor placement. In this paper the capacitor placement is
optimized based upon the methods for cost, size and location of
capacitor bank to be installed in order to compensate for the
reactive power demand by the load. For the purpose of capacitor
placement in radial distribution system ETAP tool is to be used,
which will optimize the capacitor placement
maximum cost saving and is computationally
proposed method is to be demonstrated on a standard IEEE-IO
bus radial distribution system.
Keywords-Optimal capacitor placement, power loss, voltage
profile, optimization techniques.
I. INTRODUCTION
Substantial research has been carried out on the solution of
optimal capacitor placement planning in the distribution
systems for the purpose of power factor correction, voltage
profile improvement and loss reduction. Especially, industrial
plant with variable load conditions has large inductive loads
and its power factor is very poor. These industries benefit most
from capacitor banks. These capacitor banks provide improved
power factor, improved voltage profile and minimize the
electric utility bills. In most of the cases, the main reason for
installation of capacitor banks by consumer is to avoid penalty
in the electricity bill. The installations of the capacitor in
distribution system need to pay a very sincere effort to optimize
the size and location using different methods. Therefore, in past
the researcher has given the different methods to optimize the
capacitor placement problem by which the customer and the
power utilities both are get benefitted simultaneously. Reactive
power compensation devices are discrete in nature in the real
scale system, so optimal capacitor placement is a nonlinear
programming problem with integer (discrete) variables.
Srinivas Rao [1] presented an approach for OCP in RDS,
which consists of two parts: in the first part loss sensitivity
factors are calculated to determine the optimal candidate
locations for capacitor placement and in the second part a new
algorithm which employs Plant Growth Simulation Algorithm
(PGSA) is used to determine the optimal size of capacitors to
978-1-4799-6046-0114/$31.00 ©2014 IEEE
Atu\ Kumar, R. S. Bhatia
NIT Kurukshetra
Haryana, India
be placed at candidate buses. It handles the constraints and the
objective function separately, and avoids the difficulty to
determine the barrier factors. It doesn't require any external
parameter. The proposed method has a guiding search direction
which changes continuously as the objective function changes.
Murthy [2] presented a real and reactive combined power
loss sensitivity (PLS) index-based approach to determine the
of the optimal locations for capacitor placement in the radial
distribution system (RDS). This approach provides better
result as compared with the existing methods of index vector
(IV) and power loss index (PU). Load growth factor is
essential for planning and expansion of existing system which
is considered in this approach. PLS provides best results in
problem for
terms of power loss and overall cost benefit.
efficient. The
Kannan [3] presented an enhanced approach for capacitor
placement in radial distribution feeders to reduce the power
loss and to improve the voltage profile. The optimal capacitor
placement method involves two steps, one is to identify the
optimal candidate bus location for capacitor placement and the
other is to determine the optimal size of the capacitor to be
installed at the optimal candidate location. The optimal
location for capacitor placement is decided by a set of rules,
after that the sizing of the capacitor banks is modelled as an
optimization problem.
Tzong Su [4] proposed a relatively new metaheuristic
approach for difficult combinational optimization problems.
This approach is based on population that uses exploration of
positive feedback and greedy search. By simultaneously
operating the population of agents, the process stagnation
problem can be effectively prevented. This approach gives an
optimal solution like as the exhaustive search but with little
computational burden.
Van Xu [5] proposed a method for deployment of shunt
capacitor banks in a RDS to reduce the power loss and to
provide additional benefits. The net present value (NPV)
criterion is used to determine the cost saving of the capacitor
placement. Mixed-integer-programming (MIP) model is used
to maximize the NPV of the optimal capacitor placement based
on certain constraints. It uses commercial MIP package
GUROBI to solve the optimization model. The proposed
method has been implemented in Macau distribution system.
This method is computationally efficient and provides a
considerable positive NPV for optimal capacitor placement.
M.A.S. Masoum [6] proposed a fuzzy approach for optimal
capacitor placement in RDS in the presence of harmonic.
Fuzzy set theory optimizes the combination of objective
function and constraints for capacitor placement problem in the
presence of harmonics.
Diana P. Montoya [7] presents a heuristic approach for
OCP and a deterministic technique for network
reconfiguration. A Genetic Algorithm (GA) is used for OCP
and a Minimwn Spanning Tree Algorithm (MST) is used for
reconfiguration to achieve the minimum losses and maximum
cost saving. These two techniques provide complimentarily
quite efficient results. It shows that after the reconfiguration,
capacitor placement is not necessary under some conditions for
greater savings. MST algorithm is deterministic and is easy to
apply.
Sudha Rani [8] presents a recently developed Harmony
Search Algorithm (HSA) for OCP. It achieves a perfect state of
harmony using musical search. This approach employs self­
adaptive harmony search algorithm and loss sensitivity factors
for OCP in RDS. It provides better results as compared with
Plant Growth Simulation Algorithm (PGSA) and Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.
In this paper optimal capacitor placement (OCP) in a 10 bus
radial distribution system is done using ETAP. It place
capacitors on optimal nodes and provides minimal losses and
maximwn cost saving. The result obtained from the proposed
method is compared with the result obtained with fuzzy
reasoning approach [9]. Proposed method gives more loss
reduction and also gives more cost benefit as compare to the
fuzzy reasoning approach.
C. Imposing the gestation period
In particular load demand the where the load operates in
defined period for very short span of time the capacitor
placement becomes important in terms of the return or
gestation period. Therefore, the relationship for installation
cost of capacitor versus saving, defined as gestation period
(GP), can be expressed as:
Cost of Installation
Gestation Period (GP) =
(3)
Cost of Savings
Higher the gestation period more will pay the customer or
utilities in terms of the interest on the installation cost.
D. Imposing the cost ofinstallation and demand charge
This criterion basically depends on the cost of power as
charged to consumers. Considering tariff to the conswner is Rs
A per kVA + Rs. X per kWh and the load is P kWh at
corresponding power factor of cos<l>\. The power factor is to be
improved to COS<l>2 to effect reduction of maximum kVA
demand. Reduction in maximum demand when the power
factor is changed from cos<l> , to COS<l>2
P P
-- - -- kVA
cos<P1 cos<P2
(4)
The size of the power factor improvement apparatus will be
corresponding to the reduction in reactive power of the load is:

II. PROBLEM FORMULATION

Q reduction = P * (tan CP1 - tan CP2) (5)
The problem is to determine the best capacitor size and
location in a radial distribution system by minimizing the costs Further, if the apparatus for the purpose incurs an annual
incurred by power loss and capacitor installation. The basic cost of Rs. B per kVA, the net savings by the apparatus can be
formulae [10] can be derived as follow; obtained as,
A. Imposing the correction limits
To improve our power factor from a certain low value to
desired value the correction limits is to be decided and the
A (_P-1 - _P_2) - BP(tancp1 - tancp2)
C05<1> C05<1>
(6)
corresponding size of the capacitor can be calculated as
follow: The savings will be maximum when the differentiation of
"(6)," with respect to <1>2 is zero and it is given by:

V Ar = P * (tan CP1 - tan CP2) (1)

-A * P sec CP2 tan CP2 + B * P sec CP2 =
0 (7)
Here, P is the active power at the respective node, <1>, is
initial power factor angle and <1>2 is improved power factor Therefore, the limit of the improvement in power factor of
angle at the same node. the load is given can be obtained as from "(7),"

B. Imposing the power flow limit B

A-.
'+' (8)
In power distribution system the power flow in the line Sill
•
2 = -
A

depends upon the active and reactive power characteristics of

the load. Therefore, to limit the resultant power flow in the
Thus from "(8)," the maximwn economic limit for power
line the following relation has been derived:
factor improvement depends upon the costs of installation of
Amount of kVA reduced is given by the capacitor and the demand charge in the region for
particular time of operation i.e. if the demand charge varies the
optimal size of the capacitor can vary at the same location.
PFnew Therefore, the improvement in power factor to unity is not the
kVAnominal = kVAoriginal (1 - PForg ) (2)
only choice to improve the system power factor always.
E. Imposing the constraint by developing Indices
In power distribution the method of capacitor placement by
developing the indices depends upon the overall improvement
in the system parameters. These parameters may be considered
as voltage profile or resultant power loss of the system under
consideration. Further, the implementation of these index
based techniques do requires the imposition of constraint to
fmd the size and location of the capacitor to be installed. The
constraint could be voltage limit at particular node or in a
group of node or the partial system configuration e.g.
Considering the voltage profile,
Improvement in voltage profile of the nodes
OR
Maximizing the power loss reduction,
Subject to:
Vi min<Vi<Vi max and
, ,
Ii<Ilimit
Imposing the constraints considered above the optimal size
or location of the capacitor placement may vary from one node
to another node in the system considered.
III. METHODS OF CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
In power distribution system the optimal capacitor
D. Automatic capacitor banks
It is installed at the motor control centre at the service
entrance. This bank will closely maintain a preselected value
of power factor. This is accomplished by timing a controller
switch step of kVAR on, or off, as needed. Automatic
switching ensures exact amount of power factor correction,
eliminates over capacitance and resulting over voltages.
IV. SELECTION CRITERION FOR OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
AND RESULT DISCUSSIONS
The sample system under study is a 23kV, IEEElO-node
radial distribution network as shown in Fig. 1. The data of the
system are obtained from [9] and given in Appendix-A. The
substation voltage is maintained at 1l.01 p.u. The network is to
be analyzing using different optimization techniques for size,
location and cost of installation. The loading is considered
fixed, and the following assumptions are made: a) At
distribution level of voltage the effect of shunt capacitance is
considered negligible. (b) The balanced radial distribution
system can be represented by a single line diagram. (c) The
substation feeder is capable of supplying the load demand for
the network considered. (d) All the calculations are obtained
considering that the losses in the line are negligibly small as
compare to the load.
,"" ,"" Bus4
BuiS Bus6 Bus' BusS
Bus9 BuslO

23kV 23kV
placement based upon the problem formulation can be Ul Bud 23kV
23kV 23kV 23kV 23kV 23kV Z3kV

"�mmm
obtained considering the size, location and cost of the
installation to benefit the most, subject to the operating
constraints. Therefore, in order to compensate the reactive
power demand of load there are four methods of capacitor
l�:\!VA ��� ���
2 3 LU».p4 L U».pS
installation [11] as follows: 1 IWA 1 IWA Z .
LUJ.p6
43 7IWA L718IWA O
L1J.llP1 LUJ.p8 LWlP9
.7881WA1.152 IWAO.989IWA l.6S2 IWA

A. Capacitor at load end

Install a single capacitor at each motor and energize it Fig. I. IEEE-lO bus radial distribution system
whenever the motor is in operation. This method usually offers
A. On the bases of location
the greatest advantage for all, and the capacitors can be placed
either before or after the starter of the loading arrangement. In the 10 bus RDS as shown in the Fig. 1 we have to
Normally placement after the starter is used for most of the determine the optimal locations for capacitor bank installation.
motor applications and placement before is preferred only In the proposed method there is an option to select the
when motors are plugged, jogged or reversed; for multi-speed candidate node for capacitor placement, based on which it
motors, as reduced voltage start motors. determines the most optimal solution for capacitor placement
in RDS.
B. Fixed capacitor banks
Install a fixed capacity of kVAR electrically connected at TABLE I. CAPACITOR BANKS PLACED AT CANDlDATE NoDES
one or more locations in the plant's electrical distribution Candidate Buses No. of Banks Total kVAR
network, and energize them at all times. This method is often Placed
used when the system has few motors of variable size Bus2 5 335
horsepower to which capacitors can economically be added. Bus4 2 134
But it has certain disadvantages that when the system is lightly Bus 5 28 1876
loaded, and the amount of kVAR supplied by the capacitor Bus 6 8 536
Bus 7 I 67
banks is too large, the voltage can be so high that the motors,
Bus9 I 67
lamps, and other controls equipment can burn out. Bus 10 4 268
Total 49 3283
e. Combination ofmethods
Since no two electrical distribution systems are identical,
each must be carefully analysed to arrive at the most cost From the data in Appendix-A for the said system it is given
effective solution, using one or more combination of the that initial power factor is 0.92 at swing bus. Further, this is
method considered that the improvement in power factor above 0.95 is
required at particular location. The corresponding reactive TABLE TIT. ACCUMULATIVE PROFIT TN 5 YEAR PLANNING PERIOD

power demand is calculated at each candidate node and Capacitor Accumulative

Loss reduction 1 st year profit
tabulated in Table-I. From the observation it is noticed that the size profit
(Rs) (Rs)
reactive power demand at each node differ from each other. (kVAr) (Rs)

67 1841546 806266.5 6996449

On the observations of data at each node it is very clear that
at node '5' there is maximum demand of reactive power. As
these demands of reactive powers are to be fulfilled by using
capacitor bank it can be noticed that there is maximum
reduction of reactive power flow from the supply in case of
node '5', so it is better to install a capacitor bank at node '5'
for the maximum loss reduction in the line of supply side.
Here we can see that overall 49 capacitor banks are placed at •
six different nodes which will provide maximum cost benefit I''''
and minimum losses.

TABLE II. OPTIMAL CAPACITOR PLACEMENT RESULTS FOR 67 KYAR

Total losses No. of

Capacitor size Total
Capacitor
(kVAR) kVAR
kW kVAR Bank

Fig. 2. Profit during planning period

00 783.8 1036.7 00 00

67 702.7 913.9 49 3283

8000000
7000000
Now as far as location of capacitor bank is concerned, the 6000000
• Loss reduction
best location should be as near as possible to the load for the 5000000
maximum power factor improvement of the load. Sometimes,
4000000
capacitor banks are installed to act as group correction i.e. it is c2 • Yearly profit
connected with the main bus bar and the main bus has many 3000000
feeders, since it not always economical to install the capacitor 2000000 • Accumulative
for individual feeders. For example, if the motors of different 1000000 profit
rating are installed, many capacitors of different ratings will be
needed resulting in increase in cost. The another important o

point, which should be taken care of, is that the improvement Year Year Year Year Year
takes place only from point of application towards the source 1 2 3 4 5
of power and not in the opposite direction. Therefore, it is
always advantageous to place the capacitor bank near the load Fig. 3. Bar diagram analysis for OCP cost report
for the load power factor improvement that reduces the losses
in the circuit between the load and the supply feeder and thus Table-III shows that the capacitor placed at different
improves the voltage profile. location provides a significant loss reduction and 151 year cost
benefit and subsequently the accwnulative profit of
B. On the bases ojcost
Rs.6996449 over five year planning period. Though, the cost
The upper limit of power factor improvement depends upon of installation at each node is same but the reactive power
the installation cost & gestation period. Gestation period is demand at candidate node causes the gestation period varied
defined as the period after which the investor completely for different sizes of capacitor placements.
recovers his investment and obtains the first return. From
section II and part D it is observed that the optimal capacitor C. On the bases ojSize
placement depends upon the cost of installation and the In distribution system the loads at each node may vary and
demand charge, therefore, considering the candidate locations the corresponding reactive power demands. In case the
the size of capacitor can be calculated using "(8),". reactive power demand by the load at particular location is
very high then capacitor placement based upon the size will
One example is taken here considering the tariff of the
becomes the ultimate choice.
consumer is Rs.5/- per kVA and the cost of installation is
Rs.20/- at an annual rate of interest of 10%. TABLE IV. : POWER FACTOR OF SWING Bus (Bus I) ON OCP
B 2
.
SIn A.
'1-'1 = = "5 = 0.40
A Capacitor
MW MVAr MVA PF(Lagging)
size(kVAR)
<1>2=23.6°,
00 13.152 5.223 14.151 0.9294
COS<l>2= 0.9165 67 13.071 2.120 13.242 0.9871
 Table-IV shows the power factor of swing bus on OCP in As a result of optimal capacitor placement in RDS the
radial distribution system. Here it is shown that for a particular voltage drop in the line impedance will reduce, voltage profile
size of capacitor bank unit we will get optimal power factor will improve (see Fig. 6) and the power factor will also get
with minimal losses and maximum cost saving. Here on improve.
placing capacitor banks of 67 kVAR size improves the power
Comparison of power loss and percentage voltage drop is
factor of swing bus to 0.9871 from 0.9294.
shown in the Table-VI. The minimum and maximum voltages
V. RESULTANDANALYSIS before capacitor installation are 0.8375 p.u (bus 10) and
0.9929 p.u (bus 2), and after capacitor installation are 0.8623
For the test feeder average energy cost is selected to be p.u (bus 10) and 0.9953 p.u respectively.
Rs.2.7/ (kW-hr), capacitor purchase cost Rs.213/ kVAR [11],
installation cost Rs.6000 at each node and capacitor bank
operation cost Rs.6000/ (Bank-year).
105
OCP results in the improvement of power factor of each and
individual node, as a result of this the overall power factor of 100
the swing bus get improved. The power factor before capacitor �
95 +-----""'�-
----- - Compensated
placement and after capacitor placement is shown in Table-V. �
v 90 voltage
OJ:
'"
TABLE V. % POWER FACTOR OF EACH INDIVIDUAL NODE .::::
0 85 +------------"....:-
. - Un­
>
Buses
Before capacitor After capacitor 80 compensated
placement pf placement pf voltage
Busl 0.929 0.987 75
Bus2 0.933 0.998 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bus3 0.930 0.945 Bus No.
Bus4 0.936 0.985
Bus5 0.929 0.998
Bus6 0.981 0.997 Fig. 6. Voltage profile of lO bus system
Bus7 0.992 0.998
Bus8 0.993 0.999 TABLE VI. BRANCH LOSSES AND % VOLTAGE DROP
Bus9 0.991 0.997
BuslO 0.993 0.100 ID Before capacitor placement After capacitor placement
% Voltage % Voltage
Loss (kW) Loss (kW)
drop drop
ZI 46.7 0.71 40.9 0.47
SUMUi\RY OF TOTAL GENERATION . LOADING & DE.\HND Z2 4.0 0.55 3.4 0.23
Z3 177.2 2.40 151.7 1.74
lIW Mnr lIVA �HF
Z4 114.4 1.54 95.6 1.21
s� (S�ing Bu:-�): 1l.152 5.223 14.151 gl.94 Lagging Z5 190.2 3.08 175.9 2.75
Z6 47.8 1.00 44.9 0.93
Total o.m..d : 13.152 5.223 14.151 �.94 I.a;ging
Z7 75.7 1.82 71.2 1.71
- Z8 88.5 3.03 82.4 2.80
Total Motorl..o3d: 12.36& 4.1&6 13.05i 94. I.a;ging
Z9 39.3 2.12 36.5 1.93
Total St.a1icl..o3d: 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 783.8 702.7
."'tLo!�: O.i&4 l.On

TABLE VII. COMPARISON OF RESULT OBTAINED

Fig. 4. Summary for total generation, loading and demand without Without Fuzzy
Proposed
capacitor placement compensation Reasonin2 [11
Active power
783.77 702.7 704.883
loss (kW)
% Active power - 10.34 10.065
SllM!.-Li\RY OF TOTAL GENERATION • LOADING & DE.\HND Ul-lu. l,oadj, loss reduction
Reactive power -
lIW lInr MVA �HF 1037 914
loss (kVAR)
S""", (S�i.ngBU!."): 13.0il 2.120 13242 9&.il I.a;ging % Reactive
power loss - 11.86 -
Total o.m..d : 13.0il 2.120 13242 9&.il I.a;ging
reduction
Total Motorl..o3:l : 12.36 8 4.1&6 1l.0;i 94. i2 I.a;ging Total kVAR - 3283 4950
placed
Total Static l..o3:l : 0.000 -2.9&0 2.9&0 0.00 I.a;ging
Annual Profit - 806266 269514
App3r'!IltLo",,;: 0.i03 0.914 (Rs.)
Accumulative - 6996449 5660971
Profit (Rs.)

Fig. 5. Summary for total generation, loading and demand with capacitor
placement
 Thus, the overall OCP programme analysis of the system
implies that, the optimal capacitor placement result is obtained
for the capacitor size of 67 kVAR, which places 49 capacitor
banks in lO bus RDS and thus improves the power factor to
0.9871 from 0.9294. There is a real power loss reduction to
702.7kW from 783.8 kW and Reactive power loss reduction to
914kVAR from 1037kVAR (see Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). The result
is compared with the existing fuzzy reasoning approach in the
Table-VII.
It also reduces the loss by an amount RS.1841546 per year,
provides an annual profit of Rs.806266.5 and an accumulative
[3] S.M. Kannan, "Optimal capacitor placement and sizing using combined
fuzzy-HPSO method," International Journal of Engineering,Science and
Technology,vol. 2,no. 6,pp. 75-84,2010.
[4] Tzong Su, "Optimal capacitor placement in distribution systems
employing ant colony search algorithm," Taylor and Francis Journal of
Electrical Power Components and Systems,vol. 33,pp. 931-946,2005.
[5] Yan Xu" Zhao Yang Dong, Kit Po Wong, Evan Liu and Benjamin Yue,
"Optimal capacitor placement to distribution transformers for power loss
reduction in radial distribution systems," IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems,vol. 28,no. 4,pp. 4072-4079 November 2013.
[6] MAS. Masoum, "Fuzzy approach for optimal placement and sizing of
capacitor banks in the presence of harmonics ", IEEE Transactions in
Power Delivery,vo1.19,no. 2, pp. 822-829,2004.

profit of Rs.6996449 for a planning period of 5 years. Thus
this method is observed to provide an enhanced cost saving
over its planning period.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
From the test results it can be observed that the improvement
in power factor up to unity is not always economical. Also, it
can be noticed that the power factor correction is the size,
location and cost of installation dependent. The optimum
value of the capacitor depending upon the any of the criterion
chosen does not guarantee that relative parameter in the
system configuration under consideration will improve
simultaneously.
[7] Diana P. Montoya,Juan M. Ramirez,"Reconfiguration and optimal
capacitor placement for losses reduction ", Transmission and
Distribution: Latin America Conference and Exposition (T&D-LA),
sixth IEEE/PES,ppl-6,2012
[8] Sudha Rani, N. Subrahmanyamand M. Sydulu, "Self adaptive harmony
search algorithm for optimal capacitor placement on radial distribution
systems," International Conference onEnergy Efficient Technologies for
Sustainability (ICEETS), pp.1330-1335,2013.
[9] Tzong Su , "A new fuzzy-reasoning approach to optimum capacitor
allocation for primary distribution systems," IEEE International
Conference on Industrial Technology, pp. 237-241,1996.
[10] Atul, "Economics of power factor correction in radial distribution
systems," International Journal of Applied Engineering Research
(I JAER),vol.8,no.7,ISSN:0973-4562,pp. 52-56,2013.
[II] ABB Group,Technical papers on power factor correction,Issue 3,2008.

Therefore, it can be concluded from the test results that the

main advantages of power factor improvement is reduction in ApPENDTX-A

kVA demand, which results in reduced per unit power cost. In

addition, the losses in the system get reduced and a saving in TABLE VHl. LINE DATA OF IEEE-IO Bus RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

energy is realized. But as compared to saving which is Se Re QLin

R, in ohm X, in ohm PLin kW
obtained in KVA charges, it may be small and installation of kVAR
capacitor bank just for saving due to reduction in losses is not I 2 0.1233 0.4127 1840 460
justified. It should always be looked as additional benefit e.g. 2 3 0.0140 0.6057 980 340
improvement in system loadability so that the maximum
3 4 0.7463 1.2050 1790 446
consumers can be served from the same feeder and this will
reduces the addition cost of installation of the power structure. 4 5 0.6984 0.6084 1598 1840

5 6 1.9831 1.7276 1610 600

VII. REFERENCES
6 7 0.9053 0.7886 780 110
[I] R. Srinivasas, "Optimal capacitor placement in radial distribution
system using plant growth simulation algorithm," Elsevier Journal of 7 8 2.0552 1.1640 1150 60
Electrical Power and Energy Systems,vol. 33, pp. 1133-1139,2011.
8 9 4.7943 2.7160 980 130
[2] Murty, "Comparison of optimal capacitor placement methods in radial
9 10 5.3434 3.0264 1640 200
distribution system with load growth and ZIP load model," Research
Article in Springer- Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, vol. 7(2), pp. 197-213, Power factor = 0.9294, Base kV= 23kV, Se-sending end node, Re-receiving end node, R - Line
2013. resistance, X - Line reactance, PL- Active load power, QL - Reactive load power