MA313 Real and Complex Analysis

Lecture 2.2

Uncountability of (0, 1) 2
Uncountability of (0, 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cantor’s Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Cantor’s Argument ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Cantor’s Argument ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
R is uncountable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Theorem (Dedekind) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Completeness of R 11
Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Max and Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
lub and glb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Note Well. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Completeness [Supremum] Property of R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Theorem: Uniqueness of lub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Theorem: Uniqueness of glb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Applications of the Sup Property 27

sup(a + S) = a + sup S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
sup A ≤ inf B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Bounded functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Theorem: Archimedean Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Corrollaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Theorem: Density of Q in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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Proof of (i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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Uncountability of (0, 1) 2 / 36

Uncountability of (0, 1)
The interval (0, 1) is uncountable.

Note Well.
• Every real number x ∈ (0, 1) has a decimal expansion

x = 0.a1 a2 a3 a4 . . . ,

where each ai is an integer between 0 and 9.

• Each decimal expansion corresponds to a different number, except for expansions

ending in 0’s, which correspond to numbers that can be represented by expansions
ending in 9’s.

1
For example, can be written as 0.5000 . . . or as 0.4999 . . . .
2
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Cantor’s Argument
Suppose (0, 1) is countable. Then there exists a bijection f : N → (0, 1).

Denote
x(n)
j

the jth integer in the decimal expansion of f (n).

(1) (1) (1) (1)
f (1) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
(2) (2) (2) (2)
f (2) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
..
.
(n) (n) (n) (n)
f (n) = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . .
..
.
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3
 Cantor’s Argument ...continue...
Let
x = 0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . xn . . .
where:
◮ x1 is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to x(1)
1
;
(2)
◮ x2 is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to x2 ;
..
.
◮ xn is any integer between 2 and 8 that is not equal to xn(n) ;
..
.
The decimal expansion of x ∈ R is unique and 0 < x < 1 since it doesn’t end in 0’s or 9’s.
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Cantor’s Argument ...continue...

Thus:
⊲ x , f (1) since x differs in the first place of the decimal expansion.
⊲ x , f (2) since x differs in the second place of the decimal expansion.
..
.
⊲ x , f (n) since x differs in the nth place of the decimal expansion.
..
.
That is, x , f (n) for all n and hence

x < ran( f ),

a contradiction. Therefore (0, 1) is not countable.

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Example
Same diagonal argument can be used to show that [0, 1] is uncountable. ,
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 R is uncountable
Enough to show that
card(R) = card((0, 1)).
To see this, consider the bijections
   
f : (0, 1) → − π2 , π2 and g : − π2 , π2 → R

defined by  
f (x) = π x − 21 and g(x) = tan x,
respectively. Then
g ◦ f : (0, 1) → R
defined by   
(g ◦ f )(x) = tan π x − 21
is a bijection.
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Theorem (Dedekind)
A set S is infinite if and only if there exists A ⊂ S such that card(A) = card(S).

Proof. Omitted. 
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Example
R is infinite since (0, 1) ⊂ R and card((0, 1)) = card(R). ,
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Completeness of R 11 / 36

Bounds
The set S ⊂ R is said to be
• bounded above if there exists a real number M such that

s≤M for all s ∈ S;

the number M is called an upper bound of S.

• bounded below if there exists a real number m such that

m≤s for all s ∈ S;

the number m is called a lower bound of S.

• bounded if it is bounded both above and below.
• unbounded if it is not bounded.
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Max and Min

If S , ∅ is finite, then S is bounded; among the members of S there must be a largest,
denoted by max{S} (the maximum of S), and smallest, denoted by min{S} (the
minimum of S). Both the maximum and minimum of S are in S. Infinite sets may or may
not have a maximum and/or minimum.
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lub and glb

• Let S ⊂ R be bounded from above. A real number a is the least upper bound, or
supremum, for S if a is an upper bound for S having the property that if b is an upper
bound for S, then a ≤ b; we write

lub S = a or sup S = a.

• Let S ⊂ R be bounded from below. A real number a is the greatest lower bound, or
infimum, for S if a is lower bound for S having the property that if b is a lower bound
for S, then a ≥ b; we write

glb S = a or inf S = a.
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 Example
Let A = [0, 2], B = (0, 2), C = [0, +∞), D = (−∞, 0]. Then
• min A = min C = 0,
• max A = 2, max D = 0,
• lub A = lub B = 2,
• lub D = 0, glbA = glbB = glb C = 0,
• C does not have a maximum and a least upper bound,
• and D does not have a minimum and a greatest lower bound. ,
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Example
b = lub(a, b) = lub[a, b] and a = inf(a, b) = inf[a, b]. ,
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Example
For the set of natural numbers N,

inf N = 1 and sup N = +∞.

,
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Example
Let n o n o
n+2
S= 3n−1
: n ∈ N = 32 , 45 , 85 , 116 , . . . .
Clearly,
n+2 1
→ as n → ∞.
3n − 1 3
Therefore
1 3
inf S = and sup S = .
3 2
,
RSH MA313L2.2 – 18 / 36

Note Well
• If M is an upper bound for S then any number greater than M is also an upper bound.
• If m is a lower bound for S then any number less than m is also a lower bound.
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 Lemma
A number u is the supremum of a nonempty subset S of R if and only if u satisfies the
conditions:
(1) s ≤ u for all s ∈ S,

(2) if v < u, then there exists s′ ∈ S such that v < s′ .

Proof. Exercise. 
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Lemma
The following conditions are equivalent.
(i) An upper bound u of a nonempty set S ⊂ R is the supremum of S.

(ii) If for every ε > 0 there exists sε ∈ S such that u − ε < sε .

Proof. Discuss in class. 

RSH MA313L2.2 – 21 / 36

Theorem
Let S be a subset of R.
(i) If S has a smallest element, then this smallest element is the infimum of S.

(ii) If S has a greatest element, then this greatest element is the supremum of S.

Proof. (i) Let m be the smallest element of S. Then m is a lower bound of S since m ≤ s
for all s ∈ S. Suppose that m′ is a lower bound of S. Then m′ ≤ s for all s ∈ S. Thus
m′ ≤ m and hence m = inf S.

Exercise: Prove (ii). 

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The Completeness [Supremum] Property of R

Every nonempty set of real numbers that has an upper bound also has a supremum.

N.B.
1. This is a fundamental property of R, which is normally adopted as an axiom.
2. This is also known as the Least Upper Bound Principle.
3. The completeness property for infima can be deduced from this statement. How?
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 Theorem: Uniqueness of lub
The least upper bound, if it exists, of S ⊂ R is unique.

Proof. Exercise. 
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Theorem: Uniqueness of glb

If S ⊂ R is a nonempty and is bounded below, then it has a unique greatest lower bound.

Proof. Exercise. 
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ACTIVITY
Refer to Bartle–Sherbert’s Introduction to Real Analysis (3rd Edn).

 Read Section 2.3

 Do Exercises 2.3: 1–15 (odd)

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Applications of the Sup Property 27 / 36

sup(a + S) = a + sup S
Let S ⊂ R be nonempty. We write a + S := {a + s : s ∈ S}. We prove that
sup(a + S) = a + sup S by showing that

(i) sup(a + S) ≤ a + sup S and (ii) a + sup S ≤ sup(a + S).

u = sup S ⇒ s ≤ u for all s ∈ S

⇒ a + s ≤ a + u for all s ∈ S
⇒ a + u is an upper bound for a+S
⇒ sup(a + S) ≤ a + u = a + sup S

v any upper bound of a + S ⇒ a + s ≤ v for all s ∈ S

⇒ s ≤ v − a for all s ∈ S
⇒ v − a upper bound of S
⇒ u = sup S ≤ v − a
⇒ a+u≤ v
⇒ a + u ≤ sup(a + S)
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 sup A ≤ inf B
Let A, B be nonempty subsets of R with the property that

a≤b for all a ∈ A and all b ∈ B.

Then
sup A ≤ inf B.
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Bounded functions
Let f : D → R. We say that f is:

• bounded above if f (D) is bonded above in R.

• bounded below if f (D) is bounded below in R.

• bounded if f (D) is bounded above and below in R.

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Example
Let f, g be real–valued bounded functions with common domain D ⊆ R.
(a) If f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ D, then sup f (x) ≤ sup g(x).

Question: What about sup f (D) and inf g(D)?

(b) Take f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x in D = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}; f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ D. Then

f (D) = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and g(D) = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}.

Here sup f (D) ≤ sup g(D), so (a) is OK but sup f (D) ≥ inf g(D).

(c) If f (x) ≤ g(y) for all x, y ∈ D, then sup f (D) ≤ inf g(D).
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Theorem: Archimedean Property

If x ∈ R, then there exists n ∈ N such that x < n.

Proof. Sketch (Contradiction)

• Suppose that n ≤ x for all n ∈ N.
• Then x is an upper bound of N.
• By the Completeness Property, N has a supremum u ∈ R.
• u − 1 (being less than u) cannot be an upper bound.
• So there exists m ∈ N such that u − 1 < m < u.
• Thus, u < m + 1 ∈ N, a contradiction. 

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RSH MA313L2.2 – 32 / 36

Corrollaries
1
1. For any real number t > 0, there exists n ∈ N so that 0 < < t.
n
1
 
2. If S = : n ∈ N , then inf S = 0.
n
3. If y > 0, then there exists n ∈ N such that −n ≤ y ≤ n.

Proof. Exercise. 
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Theorem: Density of Q in R
Let x, y ∈ R be such that x < y. Then there exists q ∈ Q such that

x < q < y.

Proof. There are three cases to consider.

(i) 0<x<y
(ii) x<y<0
(iii) x<0<y
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Proof of (i)
Assume 0 < x < y. Then, by Corollary 1 to the Archimedean Property, there exists n ∈ N
such that
1
0 < < y − x ⇒ 0 < nx < ny − 1. (1)
n
Furthermore, there exists m ∈ N such that
m
m − 1 ≤ nx < m ⇒ x< . (2)
n
Finally, by (1) and (2),
m
m − 1 < ny − 1 ⇒ < y. (3)
n
m
Therefore, by (2) and (3), x< < y.
n
Cases (ii) and (iii) are left as Exercises. 
RSH MA313L2.2 – 35 / 36

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 ACTIVITY
Refer to Bartle–Sherbert’s Introduction to Real Analysis (3rd Edn).

 Read Section 2.4

 Do Exercises 2.4: 1–17 (odd)

RSH MA313L2.2 – 36 / 36

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