Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FORCE ANALYSIS
Force
Force is a pull or push, which acts on a body changes or tends to change, the
state of rest or of uniform motion of the body. A force is completely characterized by
its point of application, its magnitude and direction.
Applied Force
Constraint Forces
Constraint forces are the forces that are applied on a system to enforce a
constraint. A body is not always free to move in all directions. The restriction to the
free motion of body in any direction is called constraint.
For example, the piston and cylinder (in a steam engine) form a pair and the
motion of the piston is limited to a definite direction (i.e., it will only reciprocate)
DYNAMICS OF MACHINES Prepared by:
Notes Prof. B. SHANMUGASUNDARAM, M.E, (Ph.D)
Associate Professor/Mech. Engg., KIT, Coimbatore.
relative to the cylinder irrespective of the direction of motion of the crank, as shown
in Fig. 1.1. The motion of a square bar in a square hole, as shown in Fig. 1.2, and
the motion of a shaft with collars at each end in a circular hole, as shown in Fig. 1.3,
are also examples of completely constrained motion.
Fig. 1.2 Square Bar in a Square Hole Fig. 1.3 Shaft with Collars in a Circular Hole
When the motion between a pair can take place in more than one direction,
then the motion is called an incompletely constrained motion. The change in the
direction of impressed force may alter the direction of relative motion between the
pair.
When the motion between the elements, forming a pair, is such that the
constrained motion is not completed by itself, but by some other means, then the
motion is said to be successfully constrained motion.
Consider a shaft in a foot-step bearing as shown in Fig. 1.5. The shaft may
rotate in a bearing or it may move upwards. This is a case of incompletely
constrained motion. But if the load is placed on the shaft to prevent axial upward
movement of the shaft, then the motion of the pair is said to be successfully
constrained motion. The motion of an I.C. engine valve (these are kept on their seat
by a spring) and the piston reciprocating inside an engine cylinder are also the
examples of successfully constrained motion.
For example, in lifting cranes, the bucket load and the static weight loads may
be quite high relative to any dynamic loads due to accelerating masses, and thus
static force analysis is justified.
When the inertia effect due to the mass of the components is also considered,
it is called dynamic force analysis.
Necessary and sufficient conditions for static and dynamic equilibrium are:
First condition is sufficient condition for static equilibrium together with second
condition is necessary for dynamic equilibrium.
The member under the action of two force will be in equilibrium if,
A body or member will be in equilibrium under the action of three forces if,
Space Diagram
A free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated or free body which shows all
the pertinent weight forces, the externally applied loads, and the reaction from its
supports and connections acting upon it by the removed elements. The various
advantages of free body diagrams are:
1). Free body diagram assist in seeing and understanding all aspects of problem.
2). They help in planning the approach to the problem.
3). They make mathematical relations easier to the problem.
The property of matter offering resistance to any change of its state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line is known as inertia.
The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body,
brings it in an equilibrium position. It is numerically equal to the accelerating force in
magnitude, but opposite in direction.
Mathematically,
Similarly, the inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied upon
the rigid body, brings it in equilibrium position. It is equal to the accelerating couple in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
D-Alembert’s Principle
Consider a rigid body acted upon by a system of forces. The system may be
reduced to a single resultant force acting on the body whose magnitude is given by
the product of the mass of the body and the linear acceleration of the centre of mass
of the body.
F = m.a … (i)
A little consideration will show, that if the quantity – m.a be treated as a force,
equal, opposite and with the same line of action as the resultant force F, and include
this force with the system of forces of which F is the resultant, then the complete
system of forces will be in equilibrium. This principle is known as D-Alembert’s
principle. The equal and opposite force – m.a is known as reversed effective force or
the inertia force (briefly written as FI). The equation (ii) may be written as,
F + FI = 0 ... (iii)
Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that for linear systems the individual
responses to several disturbances or driving functions can be superposed on each
other to obtain the total response of the system.
The various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of a horizontal engine are
shown in Fig. 1.6. The expressions for these forces, neglecting the weight of the
connecting rod, may be derived as discussed below:
1. Piston Effort:
It is the net force acting on the piston or crosshead pin, along the line of
stroke. It is denoted by FP in Fig. 1.6.
The –ve sign is used when the piston is accelerated, and +ve sign is used
when the piston is retarded.
where p1,A1 = Pressure and cross-sectional area on the back end side of the piston,
p2,A2 = Pressure and cross-sectional area on the crank end side of the piston,
a = Cross-sectional area of the piston rod.
Note:
1. If ‘p’ is the net pressure of steam or gas on the piston and D is diameter of the
piston, then net load on the piston,
FL = Pressure × Area
=
2. In case of a vertical engine, the weight of the reciprocating parts assists the piston
effort during the downward stroke (i.e. when the piston moves from top dead centre
to bottom dead centre) and opposes during the upward stroke of the piston (i.e.
when the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre).
DYNAMICS OF MACHINES Prepared by:
Notes Prof. B. SHANMUGASUNDARAM, M.E, (Ph.D)
Associate Professor/Mech. Engg., KIT, Coimbatore.
2. Force acting along the Connecting Rod:
It is denoted by FQ in Fig. 1.6. From the geometry of the figure, we find that,
3. Thrust on the Sides of the Cylinder Walls or Normal Reaction on the Guide
Bars:
The force acting on the connecting rod FQ may be resolved into two
components, one perpendicular to the crank and the other along the crank. The
component of FQ perpendicular to the crank is known as crank-pin effort and it is
denoted by FT in Fig. 1.6. The component of FQ along the crank produces a thrust on
the crank shaft bearings and it is denoted by FB in Fig. 1.6.
The product of the crankpin effort (FT) and the crank pin radius (r) is known as
crank effort or turning moment or torque on the crank shaft. Mathematically,
In order to determine the motion of a rigid body, under the action of external
forces, it is usually convenient to replace the rigid body by two masses placed at a
fixed distance apart, in such a way that,
1. the sum of their masses is equal to the total mass of the body;
2. the centre of gravity of the two masses coincides with that of the body; and
3. the sum of mass moment of inertia of the masses about their centre of gravity is
equal to the mass moment of inertia of the body.
T1 = m l1 (l - L) A
This couple must be applied, when the masses are placed arbitrarily to make
the system dynamically equivalent.
The velocity and acceleration of the reciprocating parts of the steam engine or
internal combustion engine (briefly called as I.C. engine) may be determined by
graphical method or analytical method. The velocity and acceleration, by graphical
method, may be determined by one of the following constructions:
Klien’s Construction
First of all, draw OM perpendicular to OP; such that it intersects the line PC
produced at M. The triangle OCM is known as Klien’s velocity diagram. In this
triangle OCM,
We have already discussed that the velocity diagram for given configuration is
a triangle ocp as shown in Fig. 1.7 (b). If this triangle is revolved through 90°, it will
be a triangle oc1p1, in which oc1 represents vCO (i.e. velocity of C with respect to O or
velocity of crank pin C) and is parallel to OC,
c1p1 represents vPC (i.e. velocity of P with respect to C) and is parallel to CP.
A little consideration will show, that the triangles oc1p1 and OCM are similar.
Therefore,
Thus, we see that by drawing the Klien’s velocity diagram, the velocities of
various points may be obtained without drawing a separate velocity diagram.
We have already discussed that the acceleration diagram for the given
configuration is as shown in Fig. 1.7 (c). We know that,
A little consideration will show that the quadrilateral o'c'x p' [Fig. 1.7 (c)] is
similar to quadrilateral CQNO [Fig. 1.7 (a)]. Therefore,
Note:
1. The acceleration of piston P with respect to crank pin C (i.e. aPC) may be obtained
from:
2. To find the velocity of any point D on the connecting rod PC, divide CM at D1 in the
same ratio as D divides CP. In other words,
3. To find the acceleration of any point D on the connecting rod PC, draw a line from
a point D parallel to PO which intersects CN at D2.
5. The acceleration of the piston P is zero and its velocity is maximum, when N
coincides with O. There is no simple graphical method of finding the corresponding
crank position, but it can be shown that for N and O to coincide, the angle between
the crank and the connecting rod must be slightly less than 90°. For most practical
purposes, it is assumed that the acceleration of piston P is zero, when the crank OC
and connecting rod PC are at right angles to each other.
In a reciprocating engine, let OC be the crank and PC, the connecting rod
whose centre of gravity lies at G. The inertia forces in a reciprocating engine may be
obtained graphically as discussed below:
1. First of all, draw the acceleration diagram OCQN by Klien’s construction. We know
that the acceleration of the piston P with respect to O,
acting in the direction from N to O. Therefore, the inertia force FI of the reciprocating
parts will act in the opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Note:
The position of the second mass may also be obtained from the equation,
GP × GD = k2
A little consideration will show that the forces acting on the connecting rod
are:
(a) Inertia force of the reciprocating parts (FI) acting along the line of stroke PO,
(b) The side thrust between the crosshead and the guide bars (FN) acting at P and
right angles to line of stroke PO,
(c) The weight of the connecting rod (W C = mC.g),
(d) Inertia force of the connecting rod (FC),
(e) The radial force (FR) acting through O and parallel to the crank OC,
(f) The force (FT) acting perpendicular to the crank OC.
Note:
8. The crank and connecting rod lengths of an engine are 125 mm and 500 mm
respectively. The mass of the connecting rod is 60 kg and its centre of gravity
is 275 mm from the crosshead pin centre, the radius of gyration about centre
of gravity being 150 mm. If the engine speed is 600 r.p.m. for a crank position
of 45° from the inner dead centre, determine, using Klien’s or any other
construction 1). the acceleration of the piston; 2). the magnitude, position and
direction of inertia force due to the mass of the connecting rod.
The turning moment diagram (also known as crank effort diagram) is the
graphical representation of the turning moment or crank-effort for various positions of
the crank. It is plotted on Cartesian co-ordinates, in which the turning moment is
taken as the ordinate and crank angle as abscissa.
Turning Moment Diagram for a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine
A turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine is
shown in Fig. 1.9. The vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the
horizontal ordinate represents the crank angle. We have discussed that the turning
moment on the crankshaft,
Fig. 1.9 Turning Moment Diagram for a Single Cylinder, Double Acting Steam
Engine
From the above expression, we see that the turning moment (T) is zero, when
the crank angle ( ) is zero. It is maximum when the crank angle is 90° and it is
again zero when crank angle is 180°.
DYNAMICS OF MACHINES Prepared by:
Notes Prof. B. SHANMUGASUNDARAM, M.E, (Ph.D)
Associate Professor/Mech. Engg., KIT, Coimbatore.
This is shown by the curve abc in Fig. 1.9 and it represents the turning
moment diagram for outstroke. The curve cde is the turning moment diagram for
instroke and is somewhat similar to the curve abc.
Since the work done is the product of the turning moment and the angle
turned, therefore the area of the turning moment diagram represents the work done
per revolution. In actual practice, the engine is assumed to work against the mean
resisting torque, as shown by a horizontal line AF. The height of the ordinate aA
represents the mean height of the turning moment diagram. Since it is assumed that
the work done by the turning moment per revolution is equal to the work done
against the mean resisting torque, therefore the area of the rectangle aAFe is
proportional to the work done against the mean resisting torque.
Fig. 1.10 For Flywheel, have a look at your Tailor’s Manual Sewing Machine
1. When the turning moment is positive (i.e. when the engine torque is more than the
mean resisting torque) as shown between points B and C (or D and E) in Fig. 1.8,
the crankshaft accelerates and the work is done by the steam.
2. When the turning moment is negative (i.e. when the engine torque is less than the
mean resisting torque) as shown between points C and D in Fig. 1.8, the crankshaft
retards and the work is done on the steam.
Turning Moment Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Internal Combustion Engine
A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine
is shown in Fig. 1.11. We know that in a four stroke cycle internal combustion
engine, there is one working stroke after the crank has turned through two
revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4 radians).
Fig. 1.11 Turning Moment Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Internal
Combustion Engine
Fluctuation of Energy
Similarly, when the crank moves from q to r, more work is taken from the
engine than is developed. This loss of work is represented by the area CcD. To
supply this loss, the flywheel gives up some of its energy and thus the speed
decreases while the crank moves from q to r. As the crank moves from r to s, excess
energy is again developed given by the area DdE and the speed again increases. As
the piston moves from s to e, again there is a loss of work and the speed decreases.
The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line are called
fluctuations of energy. The areas BbC, CcD, DdE, etc. represent fluctuations of
energy.
A little consideration will show that the engine has a maximum speed either at
q or at s. This is due to the fact that the flywheel absorbs energy while the crank
moves from p to q and from r to s. On the other hand, the engine has a minimum
speed either at p or at r. The reason is that the flywheel gives out some of its energy
when the crank moves from a to p and q to r. The difference between the maximum
and the minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation of energy.
Let the energy in the flywheel at A = E, then from Fig. 1.13, we have,
Energy at B = E + a1
Energy at C = E + a1– a2
Energy at D = E + a1 – a2 + a3
Energy at E = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4
Energy at F = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a 5
Energy at G = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a 5 – a6
= Energy at A (i.e. cyclerepeats after G)
Let us now suppose that the greatest of these energies is at B and least at E.
Therefore,
Fig. 1.14 Flywheel Stores Energy when the Supply is in Excess and Releases
Energy when Energy is in Deficit
The following table shows the values of coefficient of fluctuation of energy for
steam engines and internal combustion engines.
Table 1.1 Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy (CE) for Steam and Internal
Combustion Engines
S. No Flywheel Governor
1 The function of flywheel is to reduce the Its function is to control the mean
fluctuations of speed during a cycle speed over a period for output
above and below the mean value for load variations.
constant load from prime mover.
2 It works continuously from cycle to cycle. It works intermittently, i.e., only
when there is change in the load.
3 It has no influence on mean speed of the It has no influence over cyclic
prime mover. speed fluctuations.
The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is
called the maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of
speed to the mean speed is called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Note:
A flywheel is shown in Fig. 1.15. When a flywheel absorbs energy, its speed
increases and when it gives up energy, its speed decreases.
11. The mass of flywheel of an engine is 6.5 tonnes and the radius of gyration
is 1.8 metres. It is found from the turning moment diagram that the fluctuation
of energy is 56 kN-m. If the mean speed of the engine is 120 r.p.m, find the
maximum and minimum speeds.
Consider a small element of the rim as shown shaded in Fig. 1.6. Let it subtends
an angle at the centre of the flywheel.
Vertical component of dF
Total vertical upward force tending to burst the rim across the diameter XY.
From equations (iii) and (iv), we may find the value of the mean radius and
cross-sectional area of the rim.
Note:
24. The turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine has been drawn to
a scale of 1 mm to 500 N-m torque and 1 mm to 6° of crank displacement. The
intercepted areas between output torque curve and mean resistance line taken
in order from one end, in sq. mm are – 30, + 410, – 280, + 320, – 330, + 250, –
360, + 280, – 260 sq. mm, when the engine is running at 800 r.p.m.
The engine has a stroke of 300 mm and the fluctuation of speed is not to
exceed ± 2% of the mean speed. Determine a suitable diameter and cross-
section of the flywheel rim for a limiting value of the safe centrifugal stress of 7
MPa. The material density may be assumed as 7200 kg/m3. The width of the rim
is to be 5 times the thickness.
All the areas excepting expression stroke are negative. Each m2 of area
represents 14 MN-m of work.
Find the mass of the flywheel required, if the total fluctuation of speed is
not to exceed 3% of the mean speed. Assume that the motor supplies energy
to the machine at uniform rate.