UNIT - I

FORCE ANALYSIS
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Newton’ S Law
1.3 Types of Force Analysis
1.4 Principle of Super Position
1.5 Free Body Diagram
1.6 D’ Alembert S Principle
1.7 Dynamic Analysis of Four bar Mechanism
1.8 Turning Moment Diagram
1.9 Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal
Combustion engine
1.9.1. Turning Moment Diagram for A Multi-Cylinder Engine
1.9.2. Fluctuation of energy
1.9.3. Determination of Maximum Fluctuation of Energy
1.10. Flywheel
1.10.1. Applications
1.10.2. Coefficient of fluctuation of speed
1.10.3. Energy stored in flywheel
1.10.4. Flywheel in punching press
1.11 Questions Bank

TECHNICAL TERMS
Dynamics

It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the forces and their effects, while acting
upon the machine parts in motion.

Applied Forces

The external force acting on a system of body from outside the system is called applied forces.

Constraint Forces

When two or more bodies are connected together to form a group or system, the pair of
action and reaction forces between any two of the connected bodies are called constraint force.

Static Equilibrium

A body or group of bodies is said to be in equilibrium if all the forces exerted on the system are
in balance.

Inertia Force

The inertia force is an imaginary force, which when acts upon a rigid body, brings it in an
equilibrium position. It is numerically equal to the accelerating force in magnitude, but opposite
in direction.

Inertia force = - Accelerating force = - m.a

Inertia Torque

The inertia torque is an imaginary torque, which when applied upon the rigid body, brings
it in equilibrium position. It is equal to the accelerating couple in magnitude but opposite in

direction.

D-Alembert’s principle states

D-Alembert’s principle states that the resultant force acting on a body together with the reversed
effective force (or inertia force), are in equilibrium

Turning Moment Diagram (crank-effort diagram)

The turning moment diagram is the graphical representation of the turning moment or crank-effort
for various positions of the crank. It is plotted on cartesian co-ordinates, in which the turning moment
is taken as the ordinate and crank angle as abscissa
Fluctuations of Energy

The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line are called fluctuations
of energy.

Maximum Fluctuation Of Energy

The difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum
fluctuation of energy.
Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy
It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
Flywheel
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the period when
the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during the period when the
requirement of energy is more than the supply.

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed

The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is
called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

FORCE ANALYSIS
1.1 Introduction

If the acceleration of moving links in a mechanism is running with considerable amount of

linear and/or angular accelerations, inertia forces are generated and these inertia forces also must
be overcome by the driving motor as an addition to the forces exerted by the external load or work
the mechanism does.

1.2 Newton’ S Law

First Law

Everybody will persist in its state of rest or of uniform motion (constant velocity) in a
straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it. This means
that in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass of a body either is at rest or
moves at a constant velocity.

Second Law

A body of mass m subject to a force F undergoes an acceleration a that has the same
direction as the force and a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass, i.e., F = ma. Alternatively, the total force applied on a body is equal to
the time derivative of linear momentum of the body.

Third Law

The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equal, opposite and
Collinear. This means that whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second body, the second
body exerts a force - F on the first body. F and -F are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called the
"action" and -F the "reaction"

1.3 Types of Force Analysis

 Equilibrium of members with two forces

 Equilibrium of members with three forces
  Equilibrium of members with two forces and torque
 Equilibrium of members with two couples.
 Equilibrium of members with four forces.

1.4 Principle of Super Position

Sometimes the number of external forces and inertial forces acting on a mechanism are
to much for graphical solution. In this case we apply the method of superposition. Using
superposition the entire system is broken up into (n) problems, where n is the number of forces,
by considering the external and inertial forces of each link individually. Response of a linear
system to several forces acting simultaneously is equal to the sum of responses of the system to
the forces individually. This approach is useful because it can be performed by graphically

1.5 Free Body Diagram

A free body diagram is a pictorial representation often used by physicists and engineers to
analyze the forces acting on a body of interest. A free body diagram shows all forces of all
types acting on this body. Drawing such a diagram can aid in solving for the unknown forces or
the equations of motion of the body. Creating a free body diagram can make it easier to
understand the forces, and torques or moments, in relation to one another and suggest the
proper concepts to apply in order to find the solution to a problem. The diagrams are also used as
a conceptual device to help identify the internal forces for example, shear forces and
bending moments in beams which are developed within structures

CONSTRUCTION

A free body diagram consists primarily of a sketch of the body in question and arrows
representing the forces applied to it. The selection of the body to sketch may be the first
important decision in the problem solving process. For example, to find the forces on the
pivot joint of a simple pair of pliers, it is helpful to draw a free body diagram of just one of
the two pieces, not the entire system, replacing the second half with the forces it would apply
to the first half.

The sketch of the free body need to include only as much detail as necessary. Often a
simple outline is sufficient. Depending on the analysis to be performed and the model being
employed, just a single point may be the most appropriate. If rotation of the body and torque
is in consideration, it is best to draw the shape. Free body diagrams are named as such
because the diagram isolates the body, hence free, from all other interacting bodies, and the
diagram focuses on one specific body. Neighboring free body diagrams in the same big
picture may be necessary in order to consider the other interacting bodies of the situation.

All external contacts, constraints, and body forces are indicated by vector arrows
labeled with appropriate descriptions. The arrows show the direction and magnitude of the
various forces. To the extent possible or practical, the arrows should indicate the point of
application of the force they represent.

Only the forces acting on the object are included. These may include forces such as
friction, gravity, normal force, drag, tension, or a human force due to pushing or pulling.
When in a non-inertial reference frame, fictitious forces, such as centrifugal pseudoforce may
be appropriate.

A coordinate system is usually included, according to convenience. This may make

defining the vectors simpler when writing the equations of motion. The x direction might be
chosen to point down the ramp in an inclined plane problem, for example. In that case the
friction force only has an x component, and the normal force only has a y component. The force
of gravity will still have components in both the x and y direction: mgsin(θ) in the x and mgcos(θ)
in the y, where θ is the angle between the ramp and the horizontal

All external contacts and constraints are left out and replaced with force vectors as
described above.

Forces which the free body applies to other objects are not included. For example, if a
ball rests on a table, the ball applies a force to the table, and the table applies an equal and
opposite force to the ball. The FBD of the ball only includes the force that the table causes on
the ball.

Internal forces, forces between various parts that make up the system that is being
treated as a single body, are omitted. For example, if an entire truss is being analyzed to find
the reaction forces at the supports, the forces between the individual truss members are not
included.
 Any velocity or acceleration is left out. These may be indicated instead on a
companion diagram, called "Kinetic diagrams", "Inertial response diagrams", or the
equivalent and depending on the author.

Assumptions

The free body diagram reflects the assumption and simplifications made in order to
analyze the system. If the body in question is a satellite in orbit for example, and all that is
required is to find its velocity, then a single point may be the best representation. On the other
hand, the brake dive of a motorcycle cannot be found from a single point, and a sketch with
finite dimensions is required.

Force vectors must be carefully located and labeled to avoid assumptions that
presuppose a result. For example, in the accompanying diagram of a block on a ramp, the exact
location of the resulting normal force of the ramp on the block can only be found after analyzing
the motion or by assuming equilibrium.

Other simplifying assumptions that may be considered include two-force members and
three-force members.

1.6 D’ Alembert’s Principle

D' Alembert's principle, also known as the Lagrange D' Alembert principle, is a
Statement of the fundamental classical laws of motion. It is named after its discoverer, the
French physicist and mathematician Jean le Ronda d'Alembert. The principle states that the
sum of the differences between the forces acting on a system and the time derivatives of the
moment of the system itself along any virtual displacement consistent with the constraints of
the system is zero.

1.7 Dynamic Analysis of Four Bar Mechanism

A four-bar linkage or simply a 4-bar or four-bar is the simplest movable linkage. It consists
of four rigid bodies (called bars or links), each attached to two others by single joints or pivots
to form closed loop. Four-bars are simple mechanisms common in mechanical engineering
 machine design and fall under the study of kinematics.

 Dynamic Analysis of Reciprocating engines.

 Inertia force and torque analysis by neglecting weight of connecting rod
 Velocity and acceleration of piston.
 Angular velocity and Angular acceleration of connecting rod.
 Force and Torque Analysis in reciprocating engine neglecting the weight of
connecting rod.
 Equivalent Dynamical System.
 Determination of two masses of equivalent dynamical system.

1.8 Turning Moment Diagram

The turning moment diagram is graphical representation of the turning moment or crank
effort for various positions of crank.

Turning Moment Diagram for a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine .A
turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine is shown in Fig. 1.1.
The vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate represents the
crank angle.

Fig 1.1 Turning moment diagram for a single cylinder, double acting steam engine.

From the above expression, we see that the turning moment (T) is zero, when the crank angle
(θ) is zero. It is maximum when the crank angle is 90° and it is again zero when crank angle is 180°.
 This is shown by the curve abc in Fig. 1.1 and it represents the turning moment
diagram for outstroke. The curve cde is the turning moment diagram for in stroke and is
somewhat similar to the curve ABC.

Since the work done is the product of the turning moment and the angle
turned, therefore the area of the turning moment diagram represents the work done
per revolution. In actual practice, the engine is assumed to work against the mean resisting
torque, as shown by a horizontal line AF. The height of the ordinate a A represents the mean
height of the turning moment diagram. Since it is assumed that the work done by the turning
moment per revolution is equal to the work done against the mean resisting torque, therefore the
area of the rectangle aAFe is proportional to the work done against the mean resisting torque.

When the turning moment is negative (i.e. when the engine torque is less than the mean
resisting Torque) as shown between points C and D in Fig. 1.1, the crankshaft retards and the
work is Done.

If T= Torque on the crankshaft at any instant, and

Tmean= Mean resisting torque.
Then accelerating torque on the rotating parts of the engine, = T - Tmean

If (T -Tmean) is positive, the flywheel accelerates and

if (T - Tmean) is negative, then the Flywheel retards.

1.9 Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal Combustion engine

A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown
in Fig. 1.2 We know that in a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine, there is one
working stroke after the crank has turned through two revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4 π radians).
 Fig 1.2 Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal Combustion engine

Since the pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure
during the suction stroke, therefore a negative loop is formed as shown in Fig. 1.2. During the
compression stroke, the work is done on the gases; therefore a higher negative loop is
obtained. During the expansion or working stroke, the fuel burns and the gases expand;
therefore a large positive loop is obtained. In this stroke, the work is done by the gases. During
exhaust stroke, the work is done on the gases; therefore a negative loop is formed. It may be
noted that the effect of the inertia forces on the piston is taken into account in Fig. 1.2.

1.9.1. Turning Moment Diagram for A Multi-Cylinder Engine

A separate turning moment diagram for a compound steam engine having three
cylinders and the resultant turning moment diagram is shown in Fig. 1.3. The resultant
turning moment diagram is the sum of the turning moment diagrams for the three cylinders. It
may be noted that the first cylinder is the high pressure cylinder, second cylinder is the
intermediate cylinder and the third cylinder is the low pressure cylinder. The cranks, in case of
three cylinders, are usually placed at 120° to each other.

Fig 1.3 Turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine

1.9.2. Fluctuation of energy

The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the turning moment diagram for one
complete cycle of operation. Consider the turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double
acting steam engine as shown in Fig. 1.1. We see that the mean resisting torque line AF cuts the
turning moment diagram at points B, C, D and E. When the crank moves from a to p, the work
done by the engine is equal to the area aBp, whereas the energy required is represented by the
area aABp. In other words, the engine has done less work (equal to the area a AB) than the
requirement. This amount of energy is taken from the flywheel and hence the speed of the
flywheel decreases. Now the crank moves from p to q, the work done by the engine is equal to
the area pBbCq, whereas the requirement of energy is represented by the area pBCq.
Therefore, the engine has done more work than the requirement. This excess work (equal to
the area BbC) is stored in the flywheel and hence the speed of the flywheel increases while the
crank moves from p to q.

Similarly, when the crank moves from q to r, more work is taken from the engine than is
developed. This loss of work is represented by the area C c D. To supply this loss, the flywheel
gives up some of its energy and thus the speed decreases while the crank moves from q to r. As
the crank moves from r to s, excess energy is again developed given by the area D d E and the
speed again increases. As the piston moves from s to e, again there is a loss of work and the
speed decreases. The variations of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line are
called fluctuations of energy. The areas BbC, CcD, DdE, etc. represent fluctuations of energy.

A little consideration will show that the engine has a maximum speed either at q or at s.
This is due to the fact that the flywheel absorbs energy while the crank moves from p to q and
from r to s. On the other hand, the engine has a minimum speed either at p or at r. The reason is
that the flywheel gives out some of its energy when the crank moves from a to p and q to r. The
difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum fluctuation
of energy.

1.9.3. Determination of Maximum Fluctuation of Energy

A turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is shown by a wavy
curve in Fig. 1.4. The horizontal line AG represents the mean torque line. Let a 1,
a3, a5 be the areas above the mean torque line and a2, a4 and a6 be the areas below
the mean torque line. These areas represent some quantity of energy which is either
added or subtracted from the energy of the moving parts of the engine.

Let the energy in the flywheel at A = E, then

from Fig. 1.4, we have Energy at B = E + a1
Energy at C = E + a1- a2
 Energy at D = E + a1 - a2 + a3
Energy at E = E + a1 - a2 + a3 - a4
Energy at F = E + a1 - a2 + a3 - a4 + a5
Energy at G = E + a1 - a2 + a3 - a4 + a5 - a6

Let us now suppose that the greatest of these energies is at B and least at E.
Therefore,
Maximum energy in flywheel = E + a1

Minimum energy in the flywheel = E + a1 - a2 + a3 - a4

∴ Maximum fluctuation of energy,

∆ E = Maximum energy - Minimum energy

= (E + a1) - (E + a1 - a2 + a3 - a4) = a2 - a3 + a4

A flywheel stores energy when the supply is in excess and releases energy when energy is in
deficit.

Figure 1.4 Determination of maximum fluctuation of energy

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy

It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy,

Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy, The work done per cycle (in N-m or joules) may
be obtained by using the following two relations:
1. Work done per cycle = Tmean × θ
 Where Tmean = Mean torque, and
θ = Angle turned (in radians), in one revolution.
= 2π, in case of steam engine and two stroke internal
combustion Engines
= 4π, in case of four stroke internal combustion engine

The mean torque (Tmean) in N-m may be obtained by using the following relation:

Where,
P =Power transmitted in watts,
N =Speed in r.p.m., and

ω = Angular speed in rad/s = 2 πN/60

The work done per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation.
Where
n =Number of working strokes per minute,

= N, in case of steam engines and two stroke internal combustion engines,

=N /2, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines.

1.10. Flywheel
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the period
when the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during the period when
the requirement of energy is more than the supply. In case of steam engines, internal combustion
engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps, the energy is developed during one stroke and
the engine is to run for the whole cycle on the energy produced during this one stroke. For
example, in internal combustion engines, the energy is developed only during expansion or power
stroke which is much more than the engine load and no energy is being developed during suction,
compression and exhaust strokes in case of four stroke engines and during compression in case of
two stroke engines. The excess energy developed during power stroke is absorbed by the flywheel
and releases it to the crankshaft during other strokes in which no energy is developed, thus
rotating the crankshaft at a uniform speed. A little consideration will show that when the
flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases and when it releases energy, the speed decreases.
Hence a flywheel does not maintain a constant speed; it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed. In
other words, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the engine
turning moment during each cycle of operation

In machines where the operation is intermittent like *punching machines, shearing machines,
rivetting machines, crushers, etc., the flywheel stores energy from the power source during the
greater portion of the operating cycle and gives it up during a small period of the cycle. Thus, the
energy from the power source to the machines is supplied practically at a constant rate
throughout the operation.

Note: The function of a governor in an engine is entirely different from that of a

flywheel. It regulates the mean speed of an engine when there are variations in the load, e.g., when
the load on the engine increases, it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On
the other hand, when the load decreases, less working fluid is required. The governor automatically
controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load condition and keeps the
mean speed of the engine within certain limits.

As discussed above, the flywheel does not maintain a constant speed; it simply reduces the
fluctuation of speed. It does not control the speed variations caused by the varying load.

Three common uses of a flywheel include:

1. They provide continuous energy when the energy source is discontinuous. For
example, flywheels are used in reciprocating engines because the energy source, torque from the

engine, is intermittent.
2. They deliver energy at rates beyond the ability of a continuous energy source. This is

achieved by collecting energy in the flywheel over time and then releasing the energy quickly, at
rates that exceed the abilities of the energy source.
3. They control the orientation of a mechanical system. In such applications, the
angular momentum of a flywheel is purposely transferred to a load when energy is transferred to
or from the flywheel.

Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are
generally limited to a revolution rate of a few thousand RPM. Some modern flywheels are made of
carbon fiber materials and employ magnetic bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to
60,000 RPM.
1.10.1. Applications

Flywheels are often used to provide continuous energy in systems where the energy
source is not continuous. In such cases, the flywheel stores energy when torque is applied by the
energy source, and it releases stored energy when the energy source is not applying torque to it.
For example, a flywheel is used to maintain constant angular velocity of the crankshaft in a
reciprocating engine. In this case, the flywheel—which is mounted on the crankshaft—stores
energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston, and it releases energy to its mechanical
loads when no piston is exerting torque on it. Other examples of this are friction motors, which
use flywheel energy to power devices such as toy cars.

A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at transfer

rates that exceed the abilities of its energy source, or when such pulses would disrupt the
energy supply (e.g., public electric network). This is achieved by accumulating stored energy in
the flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is compatible with the energy source, and then
releasing that energy at a much higher rate over a relatively short time. For example, flywheels
are used in punching machines and riveting machines, where they store energy from the motor
and release it during the punching or riveting operation.

The phenomenon of precession has to be considered when using flywheels in

vehicles. A rotating flywheel responds to any momentum that tends to change the direction
of its axis of rotation by a resulting precession rotation. A vehicle with a vertical-axis
flywheel would experience a lateral momentum when passing the top of a hill or the bottom
of a valley (roll momentum in response to a pitch change). Two counter-rotating flywheels
may be needed to eliminate this effect. This effect is leveraged in momentum wheels, a type of
flywheel employed in satellites in which the flywheel is used to orient the satellite's
instruments without thruster rockets.

1.10.2. Coefficient of fluctuation of speed

The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is
called the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

Let N1 and N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds in r.p.m. during the cycle

Coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

 1.10.3. Energy stored in flywheel

A flywheel is a rotating mass that is used as an energy reservoir in a machine. It

absorbs energy in the form of kinetic energy, during those periods of crank rotation when
actual turning moment is greater than the resisting moment and release energy, by way of
parting with some of its K.E, when the actual turning moment is less than the resisting
moment.

1.10.4. Flywheel in punching press

The flywheels used for prime movers constitute a class of problems in which the resisting
Torque is assumed to be constant and the driving torque varies. Flywheels used in punching,
riveting and similar machines constitute another class of problems in which the actual (driving)
turning moment provided by an electric motor is more or less constant but the resisting torque
(load) varies.

We have discussed in that the function of a flywheel in an engine is to reduce the

fluctuations of speed, when the load on the crankshaft is constant and the input torque varies
during the cycle. The flywheel can also be used to perform the same function when the
torque is constant and the load varies during the cycle. Such an application is founding
punching press or in a riveting machine. The crank is driven by a motor which supplies
constant torque and the punch is at the position of the slider in a slider-crank mechanism.
 Fig1.5 Operation of flywheel in a punching press

We see that the load acts only during the rotation of the crank from θ=θ to θ = θ ,when the
actual punching takes place and the load is zero for the rest of the cycle. Unless a flywheel
issued, the speed of the crankshaft will increase too much during the rotation of crankshaft
will increase too much during the rotation of crank from θ=θ2 to θ = 2π or θ = 0 and

again from=θ to θ = θ due to much more load than the energy supplied. Thus the flywheel has
to absorb excess energy available at one stage and has to make up the deficient energy at the
other stage to keep to fluctuations of speed within permissible limits. This is done by choosing the
suitable moment of inertia of the flywheel. E1 be the energy required for punching a hole. This
energy is determined by the size of the hole punched, the thickness of the Material and the physical
properties of the material,

Let d1 = Diameter of the hole punched,

t1 = Thickness of the plate, and

τu = Ultimate shear stress for the plateMaterial.
∴ Maximum shear force required for punching,
FS = Area sheared × Ultimate shear stress

∴ Work done or energy required for punching a hole

Assuming one punching operation per revolution, the energy supplied to

the shaft per revolution should also be equal to punching operation

1.11. Example Problems

Example 1 The mass of flywheel of an engine is 6.5 tones and the radius of gyration
is 1.8 meters. It is found from the turning moment diagram that the fluctuation of energy is 56
kN- m. If the mean speed of the engine is 120 r.p.m, find the maximum and minimum speeds

Solution. Given: m = 6.5 t = 6500 kg ; k = 1.8 m ; ∆ E = 56 kN-m = 56 × 103 N-m ;

N = 120 r.p.m.

LetN1 & N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds respectively.

We know that fluctuation of energy (∆ E)

 Example 2 The flywheel of a steam engine has a radius of gyration of 1 m and mass 2500 kg.
The starting torque of the steam engine is 1500 N-m and may be assumed constant.
Determine: 1. the angular acceleration of the flywheel, and 2. the kinetic energy of the flywheel
after 10 seconds from the start.
Solution. Given: k = 1 m; m = 2500 kg ; T = 1500 N-m

Example3 A horizontal cross compound steam engine develops 300 k W at 90 r.p.m. The
coefficient of fluctuation of energy as found from the turning moment diagram is to be 0.1 and the
fluctuation of speed is to be kept within ± 0.5% of the mean speed. Find the weight of the
flywheel required, if the radius of gyration is 2 metres.
Solution. Given : P = 300 kW = 300 × 103 W; N = 90 r.p.m.; CE = 0.1; k = 2 m
We know that the mean angular speed,
ω =2 π N/60 = 2 π × 90/60 = 9.426 rad/s

Letω1 and ω2 = Maximum and minimum speeds respectively.

Since the fluctuation of speed is ± 0.5% of mean speed, therefore total
fluctuation of speed,ω1 - ω2 = 1% ω = 0.01 ωAnd coefficient of fluctuation of
 speed,

Example 4 The turning moment diagram for a multicylinder engine has been drawn to a
scale 1 m m = 600 N-m vertically and 1 m m = 3° horizontally. The intercepted areas between
the output torque curve and the mean resistance line, taken in order from one end, are as follows : +
52, - 124, + 92, - 140, + 85, - 72 and + 107 m m2, when the engine is running at a speed of 600
r.p.m. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 1.5% of the mean, find the necessary mass
of the flywheel of radius 0.5 m

Fig1.6 Turning moment diagram

Example 5. A shaft fitted with a flywheel rotates at 250 r.p.m. and drives a machine. The torque of
machine varies in a cyclic manner over a period of 3 revolutions. The torque rises from 750 N-m to
3000 N-m uniformly during 1/2 revolution and remains constant for the following revolution. It
then falls uniformly to 750 N-m during the next 1/2 revolution and remains constant for one
revolution, the cycle being repeated thereafter. Determine the power required driving the machine
and percentage fluctuation in speed, if the driving torque applied to the shaft is constant and the
mass of the flywheel is 500 kg with radius of gyration of 600 mm.
Fig1.8 Flywheel of a pump runs by a diesel engine
Example 6. A single cylinder, single acting, four stroke gas engine develops 20 kW at 300 r.p.m.
The work done by the gases during the expansion stroke is three times the work done on the gases
during the compression stroke, the work done during the suction and exhaust strokes being
negligible. If the total fluctuation of speed is not to exceed ± 2 per cent of the mean speed and the
turning moment diagram during compression and expansion is assumed to be triangular in shape,
find the moment of inertia of the flywheel.

Fig1.9 Turning moment diagram

Example 7 A certain machine requires a torque of (5000 + 500 sin θ) N-m to drive it,
where θ is the angle of rotation of shaft measured from certain datum. The machine is directly
coupled to an engine which produces a torque of (5000 + 600 sin 2θ) N-m. The flywheel and the
other rotating parts attached to the engine has a mass of 500 kg at a radius of gyration of 0.4 m. If
the mean speed is 150 r.p.m., find: 1. the fluctuation of energy, 2. the total percentage fluctuation of
speed, and 3. the maximum and minimum angular acceleration of the flywheel and the corresponding
shaft position.

Solution. Given: T1 = (5000 + 500 sin θ) N-m; T 2 = (5000 + 600 sin 2θ) N-m;
m = 500 kg; k = 0.4 m; N = 150 r.p.m. or ω = 2 π × 150/60 = 15.71 red/sec

Fig1.10 Turning moment diagram

1.11 Questions Bank

Part A Question
1. What is free body diagram? (Apr/May 2005)

2. Define static force analysis

3. Differentiate between static and dynamic equilibrium.

4. Define applied and constraint forces.(Nov/Dec 2004)

5. Differentiate between static force analysis and dynamic force analysis.(April 2008)

6. Define inertia force. (Apr/May 2004)

7. Define inertia torque.

8. State D’Alembert’s principle. (AU Sep 2008)

9. State the principle of superposition. (Nov 2005)

10. Define piston effort.

11. Define crank effort and crank-pin effort. (Nov/Dec 2006, Nov/Dec 2007)

12. What is meant by turning moment diagram or crank effort diagram?

13. Explain the term maximum fluctuation of energy in fly wheel.

14. Define coefficient of fluctuation of energy. (Sep 2008), (Nov 2005)

15. Define coefficient of fluctuation of speed. (Sep 2008), (Nov 2005)

16. Define coefficient of steadiness.

17. Why flywheels are needed in forging and pressing operations(Nov/Dec 2008)

18. Why is flywheel necessary in a punching press? When the crank is at the inner dead center, in
a horizontal reciprocating steam engine, then the velocity of the piston will be
______________(zero / minimum / maximum).

19. Find the work done per cycle for an engine whose torque curve is given by T = (25000 +
5000 sin 2θ - 10000 cos 2θ) Nm.

Part B Questions

1.For reciprocating engine, derive the expression for (i) Velocity and acceleration of the piston
(ii)Angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod

2. In a reciprocating engine mechanism, if the crank and connecting rod are 300mm and 1m
long respectively and the crank rotates at a constant speed of 200r.p.m.Determine
analytically,1. The crank angle at which the maximum velocity occurs and 2. Maximum
velocity of piston. 3. Derive the relevant equations.(AU, NOV 07)

3. A vertical petrol engine with cylinder of 150mm diameter and 200mm strokes has a
connecting rod of 350mm long. The mass is 1.6kg and the engine speed is 1800 rpm. On the
expansion stroke with crank angle 30° from TDC, the gas pressure is 750KPa.Determine the net
thrust on the piston. (Apr/May 2004)

4. The radius of gyration of a fly wheel is 1meter and fluctuation of speed is not to exceed 1%of
the mean speed of the flywheel. If the mass of the flywheel is 3340kg and the steam develops
150KW at 135rpm, then find 1.Maximum fluctuation of energy 2.Coefficient of fluctuation of

energy.

5. The length of crank and connecting rod of a horizontal reciprocating engine are 100mm and
500mm respectively. The crank is rotating at 400rpm.When the crank has turned 30° from the
IDC, find analytically1.Velocity of piston 2.Acceleration of piston 3.Angular velocity of
connecting rod 4.Angular acceleration of connecting rod. . (Sep 2008), (Nov 2005)
6. The length and connecting rod of a horizontal reciprocating engine are 200mmand 1meter
respectively. The crank is rotating at 400rpm.When the crank has turned 30° from the
inner dead center, the difference of pressure between cover end and piston rod is 0.4 N/mm 2.
If the mass of the reciprocating parts is 100Kg and a cylinder bore is 0.4meters.Calculate
(i) Inertia force (ii) Force on piston (iii) Piston effort (iv)Thrust on the side of the cylinder
walls (v) Thrust in the connecting rod (vi) Crank effort.(Nov/Dec 2007)
7. A horizontal gas engine running at 210rpm has a bore of 220mm and a stroke of
440mm.The connecting rod is 924mm long the reciprocating parts weight 20kg.When the
crank has turned through an angle of 30° from IDC, the gas pressure on the cover and
the crank sides are 500KN/m2 and 60KN/m2 respectively. Diameter of the piston rod is
40mm.Determine1.Turning moment on the crank shaft 2.Thrust on bearing 3. Acceleration of
the flywheel which has a mass of 8kg and radius of gyration of 600mm while the power of the
engine is 22KW.

8. A single cylinder vertical engine has a bore of 300mm and a stroke of 400mm.The
connecting rod is 1000mm long. The mass of the reciprocating parts is 140kg.On the
expansion stroke with the crank at 30°from the top dead center, the gas pressure is
0.7MPa.If the runs at 250rpm, determine; 1.Net force acting on the piston 2.resultant load
on the gudgeon pin 3. Thrust on cylinder walls 4. The speed above which other things
remaining same, gudgeon pin loads would be reversed in direction.

9. A vertical double acting steam engine has a cylinder 300mm diameter and 450mm stroke
and runs at 200rpm.The reciprocating parts have a mass of 225kg and the piston rod is
50mm diameter. The connecting rod is 1.2m long. When the crank has turned 125° from IDC
the steam pressure above the piston is 30KN/m2.calculate, (i) Crank-pin effort (ii) The
effective turning moment on the crank shaft. (AU, NOV 07)

10. The turning moment diagram for a petrol engine is drawn to a scale of 1mm to 6N-m and
the horizontal scale of 1mm to 1°.The turning moment repeat itself after every half revolution of
the engine. The area above and below the mean torque line are 305, 710,
50,350,980and275mm2.The mass of rotating parts is 40kg at a radius of gyration of
140mm.Clculate the coefficient of fluctuation of speed if the mean speed is 1500rpm.
11. The torque delivered by a two stroke engine represented by T= (1000+300sin2Ө-500cos2 Ө)
N-m where Ө is the angle turned by the crank from the IDC. The engine speed is 250rpm.The
mass of the flywheel is 400kg and radius of gyration 400mm.Determine; (i) the power
developed (ii) the total percentage fluctuation of speed(iii)the angular acceleration of flywheel
when the crank has rotated through an angle of 60° from the IDC. (iv) The maximum angular
acceleration and retardation of the flywheel. . (Sep 2006), (Nov 2004)

12. A single cylinder vertical engine has a bore of 300 mm and a stroke of 400 mm.
The connecting rod is 1 m long and the mass of the reciprocating parts is 140 kg. on the
expansion stroke, with the crank at 30° from the top dead center, the gas pressure is 0.7 MPa.
If the engine runs at 250 rpm, determine (i) net force acting on the piston (ii) resultant load on the
gudgeon pin (iii) thrust on the cylinder walls, and (iv) the speed above which, other things
remaining the same, the gudgeon pin load would be reversed in direction.(AU, NOV 06)

13. A vertical double acting steam engine has a cylinder 300 mm diameters and 450 mm stroke
and runs at 200 rpm. The reciprocating part has a mass of 225 kg and the piston rod is 50 mm
diameter. The connecting rod is 1.2 m long. When the crank has turned through 125° from the

top dead center the steam pressure above the piston is 30 kN/m 2 and below the piston is 1.5
kN/m2. Calculate (i) Crank-pin effort and (ii) The effective turning moment on the crank
shaft.

14. The crank and connecting rod of a steam engine are 0.3 m and 1.5 m in length. The crank
rotates at 180 rpm. clock wise. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the piston when the
crank is at 40 degrees from the inner dead centre position. Also determine the position of the
crank for zero acceleration of the piston.(Nov 2002)

15. A single cylinder double acting steam engine develops 150 kW at a meanspeed of 80
rpm. The co-efficient of fluctuation of energy is 0.1 and fluctuation of speed is 2% of the mean
speed. If the diameter of the flywheel rim is 2 meter and the hub and spokes provide 5% of the
rotational inertia of the flywheel, find the mass and cross sectional area of the flywheel rim.
Assume density of flywheel as 7200 kg/m3.

16. The turning moment diagram for the engine is to be drawn in following scales: Turning
moment, 1mm= 1000N-m and crank angle,1mm=6° The areas above and below the
mean turning moment line taken in order are: 530,330, 380, 470, 180, 360, 350 and 280
mm2.The mean speed of the engine is 150 r.p.m. and the total fluctuation of speed must not
exceed 3.5 % of mean speed. Determine the diameter and mass of the flywheel rim, assuming
that the total energy of the flywheel to be 15/14 that of rim. The peripheral velocity of the

flywheel is 15m/s.find also the suitable cross sectional area of the rim of the flywheel. Take
density of the material of the rim as 7200 kg/ m3. (Apr/May 2004)

17. A single-cylinder, four- stroke oil engine develops 25 kW at 300 rpm. The work done by the
gases during expansion stroke is 2.3 times the work done on the gases during compression stroke
and the work done during the suction and exhaust strokes is negligible. If the turning moment
diagram during expansion is assumed to be triangular in shape and the speed is to be maintained
within 1% of the mean speed, find the moment of inertia of the flywheel.

18. The vertical scale of the turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is 1 cm = 7000
Nm of torque, and horizontal scale is 1 cm = 300 of crank rotation. The areas (in cm 2) of the
turning moment diagram above and below the mean resistance line, starting from A in Figure
and taken in order, are 0.5, +1.2, -0.95, +1.45, -0.85, +0.71, -1.06. The engine speed is 800 rpm
and it is desired that the fluctuation from minimum to maximum speed should not be more then
2% of average speed. Determine the moment of inertia of the flywheel.

19. Twenty 1-cm holes are to be punched every minute in a 1.5 cm plate whose resistance to
shear is 35316 N/cm2. The actual punching takes place in one-fifth of the interval between
successive operations. The speed of the flywheel is 300 rpm. Making the usual assumptions
specify the dimensions of a suitable CI rimmed flywheel. Use coefficient of fluctuation of
speed = 0.01 and V = 60 m/s.(Nov 2003)

20. The variation of crankshaft torque of a four cylinder petrol engine may be approximately
represented by taking the torque as zero for crank angles 0° and 180° and as 260 Nm for crank
angles 20° and 45°, the intermediate portions of the torque graph being straight lines. The cycle
is being repeated in every half revolution. The average speed is 600 rpm.Supposing that the

engine drives a machine requiring constant torque; determine the mass of the flywheel of
radius of gyration 250 mm, which must be provided so that the total variation of speed shall be

one percent.(AU, NOV 06)