Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Des/Con 1

BASIC THEORY OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, FUNDAMENTAL OF STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS, WELDING JOINTS, SYMBOLS & POSITIONS
AND
BASICS OF WELD JOINT DESIGN
BASIC THEORY OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:
Introduction: Fabricated structures are used in almost all construction and manufacturing
industries all over the world both as Manufacturing infrastructural facilities and as products.
Factory Sheds, infrastructural Process Machineries and Equipment for manufacturing products
like Bridges, Ships, Railway Rolling Stocks, Automobiles, Mining Equipment are common
examples.
All the structures and the products manufactured are fabricated with joining and
processing different types and sections of structural elements, mainly rolled sections of different
materials – steels, aluminum, copper or alloys of metals. In most fabrications steel or aluminum
in the shapes of flats, Sheets, Flats, Rounds, Pipes, Channels, Angles, I- Beams etc.
Steel derives its material properties from a combination of chemical composition,
mechanical working and heat treatment. The chemical composition is fundamental to the
mechanical properties of steel. Adding alloys such as Carbon, Manganese, Niobium and
Vanadium can increase the strength. However, such alloy additions increase the cost of the steel,
and can adversely affect other properties (i.e. ductility, toughness and weldability). Keeping
the sulphur level low can enhance the ductility, and the toughness can be improved
by the addition of Nickel. Hence, the chemical composition for each steel specification has been
carefully chosen to achieve the required properties.
Plates and sections are produced by rolling steel slabs, blooms or billets (at a high
temperature) until the required plate or section size is achieved. This rolling is the mechanical
working that refines the grain structure and determines the mechanical properties. The more steel
is rolled, the stronger it becomes. This effect is readily apparent in material standards, which
specify reducing levels of minimum yield strength with increasing material thickness. However,
although rolling increases the strength, it also reduces the ductility of the steel.
The effect of heat treatment is best explained by reference to the different production
processes or rolling regimes that can be used in steel manufacturing, the main ones being:

 As-rolled steel
 Normalized steel
 Normalized-rolled steel
 Thermo-mechanically rolled (TMR) steel
 Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel
Strength of Structures: Strength of materials deals with the relations between the external
forces applied to elastic bodies and the resulting deformations and stresses. In the design of
structures and machines, the application of the principles of strength of materials is necessary if
satisfactory materials are to be utilized to resist functional forces.
 The externally applied forces are termed as loads. These externally applied forces
may be due to any one of the reason like:
 Service conditions
 Through contact with other members
 Gasses and fluids under pressure
 Gravity or inertia forces.
 Impacts of moving parts,
 Transmission of mechanical loads
Characteristics of Force: Force is a Vector i.e. a quantity with magnitude and direction.
Magnitude is a positive numerical value representing the size or amount of the force. Directions
are the slope and the sense of a line segment is used to represent the force described by angles or
dimensions. A negative sign usually represents force in opposite direction

Point of application-----A point

where the force is applied
A line of action = a straight line
extending through the point of
application in the direction of the
force
The force is a physical quantity that
needs to be represented using a
mathematical quantity
Fig. 1: Force and Force Systems
Units of Force and Typical Magnitudes: In SI units, the standard unit of force is Newton,
given the symbol N. It is a derived unit, defined through Newton’s second law of motion – a
force of 1N causes a 1 kg mass to accelerate at 1 ms -2. Hence, the fundamental unit of force in
the SI convention is Kg .m/s2.
In US units, the standard unit of force is the pound, given the symbol lb or lbf (the latter
is an abbreviation for pound force, to distinguish it from pounds weight). A force of 1 lbf causes
a mass of 1 lb to accelerate at a rate of 1 ft per second2. The conversion factors from lb to N are
1 lb = 4.448 N
1 N = 0.2248 lb
The time element in the application of a force on a body is an important consideration. A
force may be
 Static or change so slowly that its maximum value can be treated as if it were static
 It may be suddenly applied, as with an impact
 It may have a repetitive or cyclic behavior.
Resolution of Coplanar Forces: Force on a body may act at any point and
direction. If the directions can be contained in a plane, they are called Coplanar
Forces. If the forces are acting on a single point, they are called concurrent Forces. So, a
force system can be:
 Coplanar & Concurrent: can be unified to a single force acting on the plane
 Coplanar & Non-Concurrent: can be unified to a set of forces acting at different points on
that plane
 Non- Coplanar & Concurrent: can be unified to a single force. However, the direction
may not match with any of the original direction.
 Non- Coplanar & Non-Concurrent: Can be maximum unified to a set of forces acting at
different direction at different points.
There are many ways in which forces can be manipulated. It is often easier to work with a
large, complicated system of forces by reducing it to an ever decreasing number of smaller
problems. This is called the "resolution" of forces or force systems. This is one way to simplify
what may otherwise seem to be an impossible system of forces acting on a body. Certain
systems of forces are easier to resolve than others. Coplanar force systems have all the
forces acting in one plane. They may be concurrent, parallel, non-concurrent or non-parallel. All
of these systems can be resolved by using graphic statics or algebra.
A concurrent coplanar force system is a system of two or more forces whose lines of
action ALL intersect at a common point. However, all of the individual vectors might not
actually be in contact with the common point. These are the most simple force systems to resolve
with any one of many graphical or algebraic options.
A parallel coplanar force system consists of two or more forces whose lines of action are
ALL parallel. This is commonly the situation when simple beams are analyzed under gravity
loads. These can be solved graphically, but are combined most easily using algebraic methods.
The last illustration is of a non-concurrent and non-parallel system. This consists of a
number of vectors that do not meet at a single point and none of them are parallel. These systems
are essentially a jumble of forces and take considerable care to resolve.

Fig. 2: Different Force Systems

 Almost any system of known forces can be resolved into a single force called a resultant
force or simply a Resultant. The resultant is a representative force which has the same effect on
the body as the group of forces it replaces (A couple is an exception to this). It, as one single
force, can represent any number of forces and is very useful when resolving multiple groups of
forces. One can progressively resolve pairs or small groups of forces into resultants. Then
another resultant of the resultants can be found and so on until all of the forces have been
combined into one force. This is one way to save time with the tedious "bookkeeping" involved
with a large number of individual forces. Resultants can be determined both graphically and
algebraically. It is important to note that for any given system of forces, there is only one
resultant.

Fig. 3: Resultant of Forces

It is often convenient to decompose a single force into two distinct forces. These forces,
when acting together, have the same external effect on a body as the original force. They are
known as components. Finding the components of a force can be viewed as the converse of
finding a resultant. There are an infinite number of components to any single force. And, the
correct choice of the pair to represent a force depends upon the most convenient geometry. For
simplicity, the most convenient is often the coordinate axis of a structure.
Fig. 4 illustrates a pair of components that correspond with the
X and Y axis. These are known as the rectangular components
of a force. Rectangular components can be thought of as the two
sides of a right angle which are at ninety degrees to each other.
The resultant of these components is the hypotenuse of the
triangle. The rectangular components for any force can be found
with
Fig. 4: Components trigonometric relationships: Fx = F* CosƟ, Fy = F* SinƟ
of a Force (where Ɵ is the angle of the force with X axis). There are a few
geometric relationships that seem common in
general building practice. These relationships relate to roof pitches, stair pitches, and common
slopes or relationships between truss members. Some of these are triangles with sides of ratios of
3-4-5, 1-2-√3, 1-1-√2, 5-12-13 or 8-15-17. Committing the first three to memory will simplify
the determination of vector magnitudes when resolving more difficult problems.
 Fig. 5: Different ways of Representing Resultant & Components
When forces are being represented as vectors, it is important to maintain a clear distinction
between a resultant and its components. The resultant could be shown with color or as a dashed
line and the components as solid lines, or vice versa. NEVER represent the resultant in the same
graphic way as its components.
Equilibrant Force: Any concurrent set of
forces, not in equilibrium, can be put into a
state of equilibrium by a single force. This
force is called the Equilibrant. It is equal in
magnitude, opposite in sense and co- linear
with the resultant. When this force is added to
the force system, the sum of all of the forces
is equal to zero. A non- concurrent or a parallel
force system can actually be in equilibrium
with respect to all of the forces, but not be in
equilibrium
with respect to moments. Fig. 6: Equilibrant Force
Graphic Statics and graphical methods of force resolution were developed before the turn
of the century by Karl Culmann. They were the only methods of structural analysis for many
years. These methods can help to develop an intuitive understanding of the action of the forces.
Today, the Algebraic Method is considered to be more applicable to structural design. Despite
this, graphical methods are a very easy way to get a quick answer for a structural design problem
and can aid in the determination of structural form.
Bearings, Constraints and Basic Types of Connections: Structural systems transfer
their loading through a series of elements to the ground. This is accomplished by designing the
joining of the elements at their intersections. Each connection is designed so that it can transfer,
or support, a specific type of load or loading condition. In order to be able to analyze a
structure, it is first necessary to be clear about the forces that can be resisted, and transferred, at
each level of support throughout the structure. The actual behaviour of a support or connection
can be quite complicated.
Structural steel systems have either welded or bolted connections. No matter the material, the
connection must be designed to have a specific rigidity. Rigid, stiff or fixed connections lie at
one extreme limit of this spectrum and hinged or pinned connections bound the other. The stiff
connection maintains the relative angle between the connected members while the hinged
connection allows a relative rotation. There are also connections in steel and reinforced concrete
structural systems in which a partial rigidity is a desired design feature.
Support Types: The three
common types of connections which
join a built structure to its foundation
are roller, pinned and fixed. A
fourth type, not often found in
building structures, is known as a
simple support. This is often
idealized as a frictionless surface).
All of these supports can be located
anywhere along a structural element.
They are found at the ends, at
midpoints, or at any other
intermediate points. The type of
support connection
determines the type of load that Fig. 7: Different types of Supports
the support can resist. The support type also has a great effect on the load bearing capacity of
each element, and therefore the system.
Reactions: It is usually necessary to idealize the behaviour of a support in order to facilitate an
analysis. An approach is taken that is similar to the mass less, frictionless pulley in a physics
homework problem. Thus, friction and mass are often ignored in the consideration of the
behavior of a connection or support. It is important to realize that all of the graphical
representations of supports are idealizations of an actual physical connection. Effort should be
made to search out and compare the reality with the grpahical and/or numerical model. It is often
very easy to forget that the assumed idealization can be strikingly different than reality!
Figure 7 above indicates the forces and/or moments which are "available" or active at
each type of support. It is expected that these representative forces and moments, if properly
calculated, will bring about equilibrium in each structural element.
Roller Supports: Roller supports are free
to rotate and translate along the surface
upon which the roller rests. The surface can
be horizontal, vertical, or sloped at any
angle. The resulting reaction force is always
a single force that is perpendicular to, and
away from,
the surface. Roller supports are commonly located at one end of long bridges. Roller supports
can also take the form of rubber bearings, rockers, or a set of gears which are designed to allow a
limited amount of lateral movement.
A roller support cannot provide resistance to lateral forces. As soon as a lateral load of any kind
pushes on the structure it will roll away in response to the force. The lateral load could be a
shove, a gust of wind or an earthquake.
Pinned Supports: A pinned support can resist both
vertical and horizontal forces but not a moment. They will
allow the structural member to rotate, but not to translate
in any direction. A pinned connection can allow rotation in
only one direction; providing resistance to rotation in any
other direction. The knee can be idealized as a connection
which allows rotation in only one A single pinned
connection is usually not sufficient to make a structure
stable. Another support must be provided at some point to
prevent rotation of the structure. The representation of a
pinned support includes both horizontal and
vertical forces. Fig. 8: Pinned Support
Fixed Supports: Fixed supports can resist
vertical and horizontal forces as well as a
moment. Since they restrain both rotation
and translation, they are also known as rigid
supports. This means that a structure only
needs one fixed support in order to be
stable. All three equations of equilibrium
can be satisfied. A flagpole set into a
concrete base is a good example of this kind
of support. The representation of fixed
supports always includes two forces
(horizontal and vertical) and a moment.
Fixed connections are very common. Steel
structures of many sizes are composed of
elements which are welded together. A
cast-in-place concrete structure is
automatically monolithic and it becomes a
series of rigid connections with the proper
placement of the reinforcing steel. Fixed Fig. 9: Fixed Support
connections demand greater attention during construction and are often the source of building
failures.
Simple Supports: Simple supports are idealized by some to be frictionless surface
supports. This is correct in as much as the resulting reaction is always a single force that is
perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. They are similar to roller
supports in this. They are dissimilar in that a roller support cannot resist lateral loads of any
magnitude. The built reality often depends upon gravity and friction to develop a minimal
amount of frictional resistance to moderate lateral loading. For example, if a plank is laid across
gap to provide a bridge, it is assumed that the plank will remain in its place until a foot kicks it or
moves it. At that moment the plank will move because the simple connection cannot develop
resistance to the lateral load. A simple support can be found as a type of support for long
bridges or roof span. Simple supports are often found in zones of frequent seismic activity.

Fig. 10: Simple Support

Analysis & Design of Structures: Structure is an assemblage of a number of components
like slabs, beams, columns, walls, foundations and so on, which remains in equilibrium. It has to
satisfy the fundamental criteria of strength, stiffness, economy, durability and compatibility, for
its existence.
Any structure is designed for the stress resultants of bending moment, shear force,
deflection, torsional stresses and axial stresses. If these moments, shears and stresses are
evaluated at various critical sections, then based on these, the proportioning can be done.
Evaluation of these stresses, moments and forces and plotting them for that structural component
is known as analysis. Determination of dimensions of the components based on the results is
known as design.
Determinate and Indeterminate Structures: Structures are generally classified into two
categories as Determinate and Indeterminate Structures or Redundant Structures based on criteria
discussed below.
Determinate structures are analysed just by the use of basic equilibrium equations. By
this analysis, the unknown reactions are found for the further determination of stresses.
Examples of determinate structures are: simply supported and cantilever beams, single and
double overhanging beams, three hinged arches, etc.
Redundant or indeterminate structures are not capable of being analysed by mere use of
basic equilibrium equations. Along with the basic equilibrium equations,
some extra conditions are required to be used like compatibility conditions of deformations etc to
get the unknown reactions for drawing bending moment and shear force diagrams. Examples of
indeterminate structures are: fixed beams, continuous beams, fixed arches, two hinged arches,
portals, multistoried frames, etc.
Special methods like strain energy method, slope deflection method, moment distribution
method, column analogy method, virtual work method, matrix methods, etc are used for the
analysis of redundant structures.
A structure is termed as statically indeterminate, if it cannot be analysed from principles
of statics alone, i.e.∑ H = 0, ∑ H = 0, ∑ H = 0. A statically indeterminate structure may be
classified as:
 Externally indeterminate, (example: continuous beams and frames shown in Figure-11 (a)
and (b)).
 Internally indeterminate, (example: trusses shown in Figure-11 (c) and (d)).
 Both externally and internally indeterminate, (example: trussed beams, continuous
trusses shown in figure-12.

Fig. 11: Externally (a) & (b) and Internally Indeterminate (c) & (d) Structure

Fig. 12: Both Externally and Internally Indeterminate Structure

Externally Indeterminate Structures: A structure is usually externally indeterminate or
redundant if the reactions at the supports cannot be determined by using three equations of
equilibrium, i.e.

In the case of beams subjected to vertical loads only, two reactions can be determined by
conditions of equilibrium. Therefore, simply supported cantilever and overhanging beams are
statically determinate structures as these satisfies:

Sl. Determinate Structures Indeterminate Structures

No
1 Equilibrium conditions are Conditions of equilibrium are not
fully adequate to analyze adequate to fully analyze the structure.
the structure.
2 Bending moment or shear force at any Bending moment or shear force at any
section is independent of the material section depends upon the material property.
property of the structure.
3 The bending moment or shear force at The bending moment or shear force at any
any section is independent of the cross- section depends upon the cross- section or
section or moment of inertia. moment of inertia.
4 Temperature variations do not cause Temperature variations cause stresses.
stresses.
5 .No stresses are caused due to lack of Stresses are caused due to lack of fit.
fit.
6 Extra conditions like compatibility of Extra conditions like compatibility of
displacements are not required to analyze displacements are required to analyze the
the structure structure along with the equilibrium
equations.

Tab. 1: Difference between Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

STRESSES AND STRAINS
Stress: When an externally applied forces acts on a body, the body suffers a deformation. From
equilibrium point of view, this action should be opposed or reacted by internal forces which are
set up within the particles of material due to cohesion. These internal forces give rise to a
concept of stress.

Fig. 13: Concept of External Force & Internal Strain

Consider a rectangular bar of some cross-sectional area and subjected to some load or
force (in Newton). Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is cut into two halves at section
XX. Each portion of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium under the action of load P and the
internal forces acting at the section XX. Stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit
area. Here we use a symbol Ϭ to represent the stress.
Ϭ = P/A
Here it is assumed that the total force or total load carried by the rectangular bar is
uniformly distributed over its cross-section. But the stress distributions may be far from
uniform, with local regions of high stress known as stress concentrations. If the force carried by
a component is not uniformly distributed over its cross-sectional area, A, we must consider a
small area, ‘dA' which carries a small load dP, of the total force ‘P. Then definition of stress is
Ϭ = dP/dA
The environment in which forces act on a machine or part is also important. Such factors
as high and low temperatures; the presence of corrosive gases, vapors and liquids; radiation, etc.
may have a marked effect on how well parts are able to resist stresses.
Units of Stress: In the SI, the unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa), the Newton per meter
squared (N/m2). The Mega Pascal (N/mm2) is often an appropriate multiple for use in practice.
In US, customary unit is pound per square inch (psi).
Types of Stresses: Only two basic stresses exist: (1) Normal stress and (2) Shear stress.
Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of these, e.g. bending
stress is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered
in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.
Normal stresses: We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to
the areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal
stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (Ϭ). The normal stresses can be either
tensile or compressive whether the stresses act out of the area or into the area.
This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses acts only in one
direction. However, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial state of
stresses where either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or three mutually
perpendicular normal stresses acts as shown in the figure 14 below:

Fig. 14: Different Types of Normal Stresses

Shear stresses: Here the cross-sectional area of a block of material is subjected to a force
parallel, rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of
the material, and are referred to as shear forces. The resulting reactive force intensity is known as
shear stress the mean shear stress being equal to

 = P/A

Fig. 15: Shear Stresses

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts. However, it must be borne in
mind that the stress (resultant stress) at any point in a body is basically resolved into two
components Ϭ and . One acts perpendicular and other parallel to the area concerned, as clearly
illustrated in the Figure 15.
 Fig. 16: Normal Stresses & Resultant Shear Stresses

The single shear takes place on the single plane and the shear area is the cross– sectional
of the rivet, whereas the double shear takes place in the case of Butt joints of rivets and the shear
area is the twice of the cross–sectional area of the rivet.
Concept of Strain: If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress the bar will change
in length. If the bar has an original length L and changes by an amount dL, the strain produce is
defined as
Strain = Change in length / Original Length or e = dL/L

Fig. 17: Linear Strain

Strain is thus, a measure of the deformation of the material and is a non dimensional
quantity i.e. it has no units. It is simply a ratio of two lengths. Unit strain is the amount by which
a dimension of a body changes when the body is subjected to a
load, divided by the original value of the dimension. The simpler term strain is often used
instead of unit strain.
Since in practice, the extensions of materials under load are very very small, it is often
convenient to measure the strain in the form of strain x 10 -6 i.e. micro strain. Tensile strains are
positive whereas compressive strains are negative.
The strain explained earlier is known as linear strain or normal strain or the longitudinal
strain associated with tensile stress. There is a shear stain also associated with shear stress. In XY
plane three strain components may exist as can be seen from Figure 18 below:

Fig. 18: Shear Strain

Therefore, a strain at any point in body can be characterized by two axial strains
i.e. ꞆX in X direction, ꞆY in Y - direction and ꞆXY the shear strain in XY direction. The order of
the subscript is unimportant. However, sign convention is important. The shear strain ꞆXY is
considered to be positive if it represents a decrease the angle between the sides of an element of
material lying parallel to the positive x and y axes. Alternatively we can think of positive shear
strain is produced by the positive shear stresses and vice versa.
Nominal Stress – Strain and Conventional Stress – Strain:

Fig. 19: Nominal Stress – Strain and Conventional Stress – Strain diagrams
 Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen; such
stresses are often referred to as conventional or nominal stresses. Since when a material is
subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always takes place. Thus, dividing
the applied force by the corresponding actual area of the specimen at the same instant gives the
so called true stress.
Salient Points on the Graph:
 Point A: Up to this point, strain is proportional to stress or elongation is proportional to
the load giving a st. line relationship. Up to this point, the material comes back to its
original length when the stress is removed.
 Point B: For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be elastic in
the sense that the deformations are completely recovered when the load is removed. The
limiting point B is termed as Elastic Limit.
 Points C & D: Beyond the elastic limit, plastic deformation occurs and strains are
not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or permanent set when
load is removed. These two points C & D are termed as upper and lower yield points
respectively. The stress at the yield point is called the yield stress. A study of stress –
strain diagrams shows that the yield point is so near the proportional limit that for most
purpose the two may be taken as one. However, it is much easier to locate the former.
For materials which do not possess a well define yield points, in order to find the
yield point or yield strength, an offset method is applied. In this method a line is drawn
parallel to the straight line portion of initial stress diagram by offsetting this by an
amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as shown as below and this happens especially for the
low carbon steel.
 Point E: A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the
whole volume of the metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with stand
without failure is called the load at the ultimate strength. The highest point ‘E' of the
diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a material & is known as Ultimate
Tensile Strength. It is equal to load at E divided by the original cross- sectional area of
the bar.
 Point F: Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from the
maximum until fracture occurs at F. Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area of the
specimen begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of bar near midpoint
forming a neck. This necking continues whilst the load reduces, and fracture of the bar
finally occurs at point F.
Owing to large reduction in area produced by the necking process the actual stress at
fracture is often greater than the above value. Since the designers are interested in maximum
loads which can be carried by the complete cross section, the stress at fracture is seldom of any
practical value.
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to which a test specimen may be subjected and still
return to its original length upon release of the load. A material is said to be
stressed within the elastic region when the working stress does not exceed the elastic limit.
Yield point is a point on the stress-strain curve at which there is a sudden increase in
strain without a corresponding increase in stress. Not all materials have a yield point. Yield
strength, Ϭy, is the maximum stress that can be applied without permanent deformation of the
test specimen. Because of the difficulty in determining the elastic limit, and because many
materials do not have a marked yield point, yield strength is often determined by the offset
method. Yield strength in such a case is the stress value on the stress-strain curve corresponding
to a definite amount of permanent set or strain, usually 0.1 or 0.2 per cent of the original
dimension.
Ultimate strength, Ϭu, also called ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum
stress value obtained on a stress-strain curve.
Modulus of elasticity, E, (also called Young's modulus) is the ratio of unit stress to
unit strain within the proportional limit of a material in tension or compression.
Modulus of elasticity in shear, G, is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain within the
proportional limit of a material in shear.
Poisson's ratio, μ, is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain for a given
material subjected to uniform longitudinal stresses within the proportional limit. The term is
found in certain equations associated with strength of materials.
Compressive Properties: From compression tests, compressive yield strength, Ϭcy,
and compressive ultimate strength Ϭcu, are determined. Ductile materials under compression
loading merely swell or buckle without fracture, hence do not have a compressive ultimate
strength.
Shear Properties: The properties of shear yield strength, Ꞇsy, shear ultimate strength,
Ꞇsu, and the modulus of rigidity, G, are determined by direct shear and torsional tests.
Bending Moment: It is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external
force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or
simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam. The diagram shows
a beam which is simply supported at both ends. Simply supported means that each end of the
beam can rotate; therefore each end support has no bending moment. The ends can only react to
the shear loads. Other beams can have both ends fixed; therefore each end support has both
bending moment and shear reaction loads. Beams can also have one end fixed and one end
simply supported. The simplest type of beam is the cantilever, which is fixed at one end and is
free at the other end (neither simple nor fixed). In reality, beam supports are usually neither
absolutely fixed nor absolutely rotating freely.
 Fig. 20: Shear and moment diagram for a simply supported
beam with a concentrated load at mid-span
The internal reaction loads in a cross-section of the structural element can be resolved
into a resultant force and a resultant couple. For equilibrium, the moment created by external
forces (and external moments) must be balanced by the couple induced by the internal loads. The
resultant internal couple is called the bending moment while the resultant internal force is called
the shear force (if it is transverse to the plane of element) or the normal force (if it is along the
plane of the element).
The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be defined as the sum
of the moments about that section of all external forces acting to one side of that section. The
forces and moments on either side of the section must be equal in order to counteract each other
and maintain a state of equilibrium so the same bending moment will result from summing the
moments, regardless of which side of the section is selected. If clockwise bending moments are
taken as negative, then a negative bending moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a
positive moment will cause "hogging". It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending
moment within a beam is a point of contraflexure—that is the point of transition from hogging
to sagging or vice versa.
Moments and Torques: They are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they
have as unit newton-metres (N·m), or pound-foot (lbf·ft). The concept of bending moment is
very important in engineering (particularly in civil and mechanical engineering) and physics.
Tensile and compressive stresses increase proportionally with bending moment, but are
also dependent on the second moment of area of the cross-section of a beam (that is, the shape of
the cross-section, such as a circle, square or I-beam being common structural shapes). Failure in
bending will occur when the bending moment is sufficient to induce tensile stresses greater than
the yield stress of the material throughout the entire cross-section. In structural analysis, this
bending failure is called a plastic hinge, since the full load carrying ability of the structural
element is not reached until the full cross-section is past the yield stress. It is possible that failure
of a structural
element in shear may occur before failure in bending, however the mechanics of failure in shear
and in bending are different.
Moments are calculated by multiplying the external vector forces (loads or reactions) by
the vector distance at which they are applied. When analysing an entire element, it is sensible to
calculate moments at both ends of the element, at the beginning, centre and end of any uniformly
distributed loads, and directly underneath any point loads. Of course any "pin-joints" within a
structure allow free rotation, and so zero moment occurs at these points as there is no way of
transmitting turning forces from one side to the other.
It is more common to use the convention that a clockwise bending moment to the left of
the point under consideration is taken as positive. This then corresponds to the second derivative
of a function which, when positive, indicates a curvature that is 'lower at the centre' i.e. sagging.
When defining moments and curvatures in this way, calculus can be more readily used to find
slopes and deflections.
Critical values within the beam are most commonly annotated using a bending moment
diagram, where negative moments are plotted to scale above a horizontal line and positive below.
Bending moment varies linearly over unloaded sections, and parabolically over uniformly loaded
sections.
Limit States of Failure: Fracture of a member is considered as limiting state of failure.
Fracture is defined as the separation or fragmentation of a solid body into two or more parts
under the action of stress. However, depending on design and service conditions, the fracture
modes can generally be classified as:
 Ductile
 Brittle
 Fatigue
 Creep

Fig. 21: Different Types of Fractures (a) Cup-&-Cone (b) Brittle

 Parameter Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
Strain energy required Higher Lower
Stress, during Increasing Constant
cracking
Crack propagation Slow Fast
Warning sign Plastic deformation None
Deformation Extensive Little
Necking Yes No
Fractured surface Rough and dull Smooth and bright
Type of materials Most metals (not too cold) Ceramics, Glasses, Ice

Tab. 2: Ductile fracture Vs Brittle fracture

Ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic deformation. It is usually preceded
by necking. Generally the failure is in Cup & Cone mode. It exhibits three stages- (1) formation
of cavities (2) growth of cavities (3) final failure involving rapid crack propagation at about 45 to
the tensile axis. Fractography of ductile fracture reveals numerous spherical dimple separated by
thin walls on the fractured surface.

Fig. 22: Stages of void nucleation, void growth, crack initiation

and eventual fracture under ductile fracture mode
Brittle fracture takes place with little or no preceding plastic deformation. It occurs, often at
unpredictable levels of stress, by rapid crack propagation. Crack propagates nearly perpendicular
to the direction of applied tensile stress, and hence called cleavage fracture. Most often brittle
fracture occurs through grains i.e. trans-granular. Three stages of brittle fracture - (1) Plastic
deformation that causes dislocation pile-ups at obstacles, (2) Micro-crack nucleation as a result
of build-up of shear stresses, (3) eventual crack propagation under applied stress aided by stored
elastic energy.
Fatigue failures: When a
material is subjected to many
cycles of stress reversal or
fluctuation (variation in
magnitude without reversal),
failure may occur, even though
the maximum stress at any cycle
is considerably less than the
value at which failure would
occur if the stress were constant.

Fig. 23: different Types of Cyclic Loads

Fatigue properties are determined by subjecting test specimens to stress cycles and
counting the number of cycles to failure. From a series of such tests in which maximum stress
values are progressively reduced, S-N diagrams can be plotted as illustrated by the
accompanying figure (Figure 24). Endurance limit is the stress value at which the number of
cycles to failure is infinite. Steels have endurance limits that vary according to hardness,
composition, and quality; but many non-ferrous metals do not. For a metal that does not have an
endurance limit, it is standard practice to specify fatigue strength as the stress value
corresponding to a specific number of stress reversals, usually 100,000,000 or 500,000,000.

Fig. 24: S-N Curve with Endurance Limit

 Fatigue failure is
estimated to causes 90% of all
failures of metallic structures
(bridges, aircraft, machine
components, etc.). Fatigue
failure is brittle-like (relatively
little plastic deformation) - even
in normally ductile materials,
thus sudden and catastrophic in
nature! Applied stresses causing
fatigue may be axial (tension or
compression), flextural
(bending) or torsional
(twisting). All fatigue failures Fig.25: Schematic of a Typical Fatigue Failure
proceed in three distinct stages:
crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (at stress raisers like notches),
incremental crack propagation and final sudden failure.
Any point with stress concentration such as sharp corner or notch or metallurgical
inclusion can act as point of initiation of fatigue crack. Three basic requisites for occurrence of
fatigue fracture are:
 A tensile stress of sufficiently high value
 Large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress
 Sufficiently large number of cycles of applied stress.
Stress cycles that can cause fatigue failure are characterized using the following parameters:
Range of stress: σr = σmax – σmin Alternating
stress: σa= σr /2 = (σmax – σmin)/2
Mean stress: σm= (σmax + σmin)/2 Stress
ratio: R= – σmin / σmax Amplitude
ratio: A= σa/σm = (1 - R) /(1+R)
Creep failure: Time-dependent deformation that occurs under constant load / stress at
elevated temperatures is known as creep. Creep deformation (constant stress) is possible at all
temperatures above absolute zero. However, it is extremely sensitive to temperature. Hence,
creep in usually considered important at elevated temperatures (temperatures greater than 0.4Tm,
Tm is absolute melting temperature). Creep test data is presented as a plot between time and
strain known as creep curve (Figure 26). The slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate.
 Fig. 26: Creep Curve
Creep curve consists of three major portions:

 After initial rapid elongation, ε0 (the normal elongation as per stress-strain

diagram), the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is known as primary or
transient creep.
 Primary creep is followed by secondary or steady-state or viscous creep, which is
characterized by constant creep rate. This stage of creep is often the longest duration of
the three modes.
 Finally, a third stage of creep known as, tertiary creep occurs that is characterized by
increase in creep rate.
WELDING JOINTS, SYMBOLS & POSITIONS
Introduction: Fabricated structures are used in almost all construction and manufacturing
industries all over the world both as manufacturing infrastructural facilities and as products. The
welded structures and finished products like automobiles and Rolling Stocks are fabricated by
welding Rolled Steel products. Different welding processes are adopted and different types of
welding joints are used for desired performance levels. So, for a well designed structure or
component, we must select and specify:
 Material
 Loading conditions, Static or dynamic
 Precision of the part - Distortion, inner tension
 Function of welds
 Type of joints etc.
Again, when the particular type of joint for the fabrication is to be selected we are to
consider the following critical points:
 Material type & thickness
 Welding process to be used
 Strength requirements
 Accessibility for welding
 On site or Shop welding
 Code Requirements etc.

Types of Joints: Major types of joint configurations are shown in Figure 27 in a single
combination.

Fig.27: Major Types of Welding Joints

Whatever be the joint configuration or welding positions, ultimately it reduces to either a Butt
joint or a fillet joint.
 Fig. 28: Typical Butt and Fillet Joint

Butt joints are the major joint type used in

fabrication. It can give good force transfer and high
load capacity. Full penetration weld are suitable for
dynamic loading. It is a weld to join two members
aligned in the same plane. Except for small
thickness, it generally requires a groove through
edge preparations.
Fig. 29: Groove Angles in Butt Joint
Edge Preparation: Based on the type of edge preparation given, the joints may be
classified as:
 Square Butt: No edge preparation required (limited to small thickness)
 Single V: Most common, as shown in figure 29 above
 Single J: One side edge is prepared in the form of ‘J’, other side square
 Single U: Both side edge is prepared in the form of ‘J’, forming a ‘U’
These joints are suitable for joining steels up to 40 mm plate thickness. V, U & J requires
progressively lesser weld metal and associated cost HAZ & distortion but the edge preparations
are difficult, needing profile cutting. The soundness of weld also is somewhat affected. Beyond
40 mm thickness double V, U & J (preparing the edge at both top and bottom of plate) are more
prudent techno-economic decision. Between 12 mm to 40 mm, either single or double side edge
preparation may be given.
Fillet weld: A fusion weld,
other than a butt edge or
fusion spot weld, that is
approximately triangular in
transverse cross-section. It is
characterized by leg length,
the distance of the actual or
projected intersection of the
fusion faces, toe (measured
across the fusion face) and
throat. Effective throat
thickness is the minimum
distance minus any convexity
between the weld root and
the face of a
fillet weld. This is known Fig. 30: Characteristics of a Fillet Weld
as design throat thickness
also. Actual throat thickness is the perpendicular distance between two lines, the one drawn
through the outer toes and the other through the deepest point of fusion penetration. While Leg
Size is the usual method to specify and measure weld size, the Effective Throat is a more
accurate measure of fillet weld strength!
Welding Symbols: Welding symbols provide a system for placing welding information on
drawings and work sites for the purpose of relaying information to fitters, welders, fabricators,
inspectors, etc. These symbols quickly indicate the type of weld joint needed to satisfy the
requirements for the intended service conditions.
There are a number of standards throughout the world that relate to weld symbols, but in
the United States, AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive
Examination, is the standard. To start, the terms weld symbol and welding symbol have
important meanings in the AWS system. The weld symbol identifies the specific type of weld
(e.g., fillet, groove, plug, slot, etc.). The welding symbol is the weld symbol with all the
additional element information (e.g., size, pitch, length, etc.) applied to it. Even though a
welding symbol may consist of several elements, only the reference line and an arrow are
required elements.
The reference line is always drawn horizontally. The arrow connects the reference line to
the arrow side member of the weld joint. The arrow may or may not be broken to indicate weld
locations. The fillet weld symbol is probably the most recognized weld symbol. The symbol
represents a miniature detail of the weld. The fillet symbol is drawn on the reference line with
the perpendicular leg always to the left.
The location of the fillet weld(s) is designated by the arrow. The arrow is used to point to
a line, location, or area that conclusively identifies the joint, location, or area to be welded. Fillet
welds on the arrow side of the joint (regardless of which end the arrow connects to the reference
line) is specified by placing the fillet weld symbol below the reference line.
 A fillet weld on the other side of the joint is specified by placing the fillet weld symbol
above the reference line. The standard dimensions of the fillet weld are size, length, and pitch.
Dimensions are required to be on the same side of the reference line as the fillet weld symbol.
The dimensions of double fillet welds are placed on both sides of the reference line whether the
dimensions are identical or different where placing the dimension (size, length, and pitch) for an
identical double fillet weld on both sides of the reference line might not be done in practice to
the AWS A2.4 requirement.
In some cases, identical dimension information might only be on one side of the
reference line. There could be a contract agreement or a drawing note in place allowing this
deviation. In other cases, the single dimension might be from the use of an older drawing. Care
must be taken before making any judgments on any identical double fillet welding symbols.
The size of the fillet weld is specified to the left of the fillet weld symbol. The length of
the fillet weld when used is specified to the right of the weld symbol. If the length dimension is
not used, the fillet weld will extend the full length of the weld joint. If the fillet weld is not
continuous, but a constant intermittent length is needed, then the pitch dimension is used. The
pitch dimension (center-to-center spacing of welds) is placed to the right of the length dimension
and separated by a hyphen. There are two types of intermittent fillet welds, chain and staggered.
The chain intermittent fillet weld dimensions are placed on both sides of the reference line and
opposite to each other.
Welding System In the global marketplace, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) has developed ISO 2553:1992, Welded, Brazed, and Soldered Joints –—
Symbolic Representation on Drawings. The weld symbols in this standard are very similar to
AWS A2.4, but there are differences that can cause interpretation difficulties or the incorrect
usage of welding symbols for the unacquainted user.
The ISO system uses the same reference line and arrow system. In addition, the ISO
system uses a dashed identification line that is not utilized by AWS. The dashed identification
line is used to indicate the other side of the joint. Information applicable to the arrow side of a
joint is placed on the solid reference line. Information applicable to the other side of a joint is
placed on the dashed identification line.
The dashed identification line may be drawn above or below the solid reference line; a
symbol placed on the solid reference line is always applicable to the arrow side of the joint and a
symbol on the dashed identification line is always applicable to the other side of the joint,
regardless of whether the dashed identification line is placed above or below the solid reference
line. Different related documents on welding symbols are listed below:
S. Code Details
No.
1. ANSI/AWS A2.4-98 Standard symbols for welding, brazing and
nondestructive examination.
2. ANSI/AWS.A3.0-85 Standard welding terms and definitions.
3. ANSI/AWS.D1.1-2000 Structural welding code.
4. AWS 2.1 DC Welding symbol chart (desk size).
5. AWS 2.1-WC Welding symbol chart (wall size).
6. BS 499-C: 1999 European arc welding symbols – symbolic representation on
drawings (wall chart based on BS EN 22553: 1995).

7. BS 499 Part 1: 1991 Welding terms and symbols. Part 1. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting.
8. ISO 2553: 1992 and Welded, brazed and soldered joints – symbolic
BS EN 22553: 1995 representation on drawings.
9. ISO 9692-1: 2003 Welding and allied processes – recommendations for BS EN
29692-1: 2003 joint preparation – manual metal arc welding,
Gas shielded metal arc welding, TIG welding and beam
welding of steels.
10. ISO 4063: 1990 and Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding:
BS EN 24063: 1992 Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers.

Tab. 3: Different Related Documents on Welding Symbols

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b)
 Fig. (c) to (h)

Single-Bevel-Groove and
sid Double Fillet weld Symbols
or othe

13-Apr-19 SKG 18 13-Apr-19 SKG 26

Fig. (i) & (j)

Fig. 31 (a) to (j): Representation of Different Welding Symbols
Welding positions: As discussed earlier, most of the welding is either Fillet (F) or
Groove (G) type. In fillet welds the sections to be joined are perpendicular or near
perpendicular. No edge preparation (groove) is associated. Groove weld is called so because a
groove is made first between plates to be welded. This type of weld is used for developing butt
joint, edge and corner joint. The groove preparation especially in case of thick plates ensures
proper melting of the faying surfaces by providing proper access of heat source up to the root of
the plates and so as to help in developing sound weld joint. It is common to develop grooves of
different geometries for producing butt, corner and edge joint such as square (no edge
preparation, maximum 5mm), U (single and double), V (single and double), J (single and double)
and bevel (single and double).
 However, the positions vary widely, the welding plane changes along with associated
difficulties. Common types of welding positions and various difficulties associated with them are
presented here. Further, need for edge preparation and the rationale for selection of suitable
groove design have also been presented. The primary purpose is to make sure that code users
understand the difference between testing positions and production welding positions and to
help users understand how to read the figures that define production welding positions. Welding
positions are classified on the basis of the plane on which weld metal is
deposited.

Fig. 32: Nomenclature of Different Welding Positions

 Flat welding: In flat welding, plates to be welded are placed on the horizontal plane and
weld bead is also deposited horizontally (Fig. 32,1st column). 1 is the Prefix
(1F/1G) to designate the position. This is one of most commonly used and
convenient welding position. Selection of welding parameters for flat welding is not very
crucial for placing the weld metal (from liquid weld pool) at desired location in flat
welding.
 Horizontal welding: In horizontal welding, plates to be welded are placed in
vertical plane while weld bead is deposited horizontally (Fig. 32, 2nd column). 2
is the Prefix (2F/2G) to designate the position. This technique is comparatively
more difficult than flat welding. Welding parameters for horizontal
 welding should be selected carefully for easy manipulation/placement of weld metal at
the desired location.
 Vertical welding: In vertical welding, plates to be welded are placed on the vertical
plane and weld bead is also deposited vertically (Fig. 32, 3rd column). 3 is the
Prefix (3F/3G) to designate the position. It imposes difficulty in placing the molten
weld metal from electrode in proper place along the weld line due to tendency of the melt
to fall down under the influence of gravitational force. Viscosity and surface tension of
the molten weld metal which are determined by the composition of weld metal and its
temperature predominantly control the tendency of molten weld metal to fall down due to
gravity.
o Increase in alloying elements/impurities and temperature of melt in general
decrease the viscosity and surface tension of the weld metal and thus making the
liquid weld metal more thin and of higher fluidity which in turn increases
tendency of weld metal to fall down conversely these factors increase difficulty
in placing weld metal at desired location.
Therefore, selection of welding parameters (welding current, arc manipulation
during welding and welding speed all are influencing the heat generation) and
electrode coating (affecting composition of weld metal) dilution becomes very
crucial for placing the weld metal at desired location in vertical welding.
 Overhead welding: In overhead welding, weld metal is deposited in such a
way that face of the weld is largely downward (Fig. 32, 4th column). 4 is the Prefix
(4F/4G) to designate the position. There is high tendency of falling down of weld
metal during welding. Molten weld metal is moved from the electrode (lower side) to
base metal (upper side) with great care and difficulty. Hence, it imposes problems similar
to that of vertical welding but with greater intensity. Accordingly, the selection of
welding parameters, arc manipulation and welding consumable should be done after
considering all factors which can decrease the fluidity of molten weld metal so as to
reduce the weld metal falling tendency. This is most difficult welding position and
therefore it needs great skill to place the weld metal at desired location with close
control.
 Pipe Welding: The nomenclatures discussed above are related to welding of
plates. However, in industry two more types of welding are often encountered, Plate to
Pipe and Pipe to Pipe. Angular joining of pipes is also common, particularly in Chemical
Industries, Process Plants and industries dealing with boilers. Though many of the
welding positions are common, there are a few welding positions typical to pipe welding.
In Figure 33, a comprehensive nomenclature for all possible welding positions is shown.
 Fig. 33: Comprehensive nomenclature for all welding positions
Standard Test Positions: Test positions are discreetly defined positions of test
coupons that are used when testing welders. Positions 1G, 3G, 6G, 2F, 5F, etc. are specially
defined standard positions used for testing. They are properly referred to as Test Positions.
Similar positions are found in ISO 6947 identified as PA, PC, PG, etc. These positions have
tolerance of ±15° from the defined horizontal planes and ±5° from a defined vertical or inclined
plane.

Testing Position 1G/PA

Test Position 2G/PC
±5°
Weld Axis Horizontal
WeldAxis
Horizo
ntal
±5°
±15°

Plate Horizontal
±15°
Plates Vertical

18- Apr-19 skg 6 18-Apr-19 skg 7

(a) (b)
 Test Position 3F/PF or PG Test Position 6G / HL045 or JL045

±5°
45°±5°
18-Apr-19 skg 8 18-Apr-19 skg
9

(c) (d)
Fig. 34 (a) to (d): Standard Test Positions with Tolerance

Nominal sizes

Tolerance 2 to >30 >120 >400 >1000 >2000 >4000 >8000 >12000 >16000 >20000
Class 30 up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
120 400 1000 2000 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
Tolerances

A ±1 ±1 ±1 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±5 ±6 ±7 ±8 ±9
B ±1 ±2 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±6 ±8 ± 10 ± 12 ± 14 ± 16
C ±1 ±3 ±4 ±6 ±8 ± 11 ± 14 ± 18 ± 21 ± 24 ± 27
D ±1 ±4 ±7 ±9 ± 12 ± 16 ± 21 ± 27 ± 32 ± 36 ± 40
Tab. 4: Standard Tolerances for Welding on Linear Dimensions as per EN ISO 13920 Class B
Transition Points between welding Positions:

Tab. 5: Transition Points between welding Positions as shown in QW - 120

Fig. 35: Schematics of Transition for Groove Welds & Fillet Welds
BASICS OF WELD JOINT DESIGN
Introduction : in the earlier days, it was relatively easier to design and fabricate a
welded structure as the technology for mainly welding plain carbon steels was known and that
too with Manual Welding Process with limited types of electrode available at affordable cost.
But today, with the proliferation of variety of steels and alloys, large number of
welding processes to choose from and innumerable types, varieties and ranges of coated and
uncoated electrodes for use the Welding Designers and Fabricators are hard pressed for
optimum design and welding of structures and consumer durables in this era of acute
competitive market and quality conscious consumers.
Objectives of Weld Joint Design: Weld joint design is done to provide an assembly
that:
 Will perform its intended function
 Will have the required reliability and safety
 Is capable of being fabricated, inspected and transported and placed in service at
minimum total cost inclusive of
 Design
 Materials
 Fabrication
 Inspection
 Transportation,
 Erection

Design or Welding: Welded joint is designed to meet a certain combination of

properties required by end user. Mandatory requirements are specified in various fabrication
codes. The majority of the codes specify the following in the welded joints:
 Type of joint
 Joint details
 Allowable design stress based on the material properties and service
conditions
 Manufacturing and testing.

Behaviour of Welded Structures under Different Types of Loading: All composite

and fabricated structures work under different environmental and loading conditions such as:
 Static or Dynamic loading
 Concentrated or Distributed loading
 Tension, Compression or Torsional loading
 Combination of above loadings
 At normal temperature
 At sub-zero temperature
 At elevated temperature
Effects of Weld Defects and Notches on Welded Structures: Structures and welds
are designed on the basis of assumptions that the steels and the welds are defect free resulting
normal yield strength / tensile strength, ductility, toughness and homogenous structures.
However, inherent defects (either in design or in fabrication) such as notch in the body or
weld defects such as Undercut, Porosity, Cracks and Lack of Fusion and Penetration etc.
brings stress concentration resulting brittle fracture under impact load. Failure of structural
members at stresses well below their yield strengths indicates other considerations besides the
conventional tensile properties. Analysis of the failures indicates that the fractures usually are
due to notches. Fracture surfaces provide an indication of the probable causes of failure.
Weld Design: A general guidance given below shows methods of calculation of the
strength and size of welds. Welded joints are often crucially important affecting the safety
of the structure and data below are only used for preliminary design evaluations. Final detail
design should be completed in a formal way using appropriate codes and standards and
quality reference documents. Before embarking on designing of a weld, following points need
to be considered:
 Strength of deposited weld material
 Type of joint and welding
 Size of weld
 Location of weld in relation to parts joined
 Types of stress to which the weld is subjected
 Conditions under which weld is carried out
 Type of equipment used for welding
 Skill of welder
Fundamental assumptions: Some fundamental assumptions are made while
designing a weld:
 Welds are homogeneous and isotropic elements
 Welds are rigid and their deformations are negligible
 Effects of residual stresses, stress concentrations and shape of the welds are
neglected in static design.

Fig. 36: Loading in Any Axis Inducing Stress and Strain in Other Axes
Mohr's circle: Named after
Christian Otto Mohr, is two-
dimensional graphical
representation of the
transformation law for the
Cauchy stress tensor. It is also
used for calculating stresses in
many planes by reducing them to
vertical and horizontal
components. These are called
principal planes in which
principal stresses are
calculated; Mohr's circle can Fig. 37: Mohr's circle
also be used to find out the
principal planes and the principal stresses in a graphical representation. The abscissa and
ordinate of each point on the circle are the magnitudes of the normal stress and shear stress
components, respectively, acting on the rotated coordinate system. In other words, the circle is
the locus of points that represent the state of stress on individual planes at all their orientations,
where the axes represent the principal axes of the stress element.
Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress: When a structural element is subjected to several
types of loads acting simultaneously, say bending and torsion, principal stresses occur. These
stresses act on principal planes where the shear stresses are zero. In addition, many engineering
problems, such as axial bars, beams in bending and circular members in torsion, are examples of
a state of stress called plane stress:

σZ = ZX = ZY = 0
Procedure for determining principal stresses for a state of plane stress is as follows:

 Determine the point on the body in which the principal stresses are to be determined.
 Treat the load cases independently and calculate the stresses for the point chosen. When
applicable, combine the stresses to determine the state of stress at the point.
 Choose a set of x-y reference axes and draw a square element centered on the axes.
 Identify the stresses σx, σy, and xy = yz and list them with the proper direction.
 Calculate the principal stresses, the maximum shear stress and the principal plane if
required.

Principal Stresses (Shear Stress = 0):

σ𝑥+σ𝑦 σ𝑥−σ𝑦 2
σ = √ 2

1 + ( 2
) + 𝑥𝑦
2
 σ𝑥+σ𝑦 σ𝑥−σ𝑦 2
σ = √ 2

2 − ( ) + 𝑥𝑦
2 2

σ1−σ2 σ𝑥−σ𝑦 2
 max = =√ ( ) +  2
2 2 𝑥𝑦

Principal Planes (Planes on which Principal Stresses Act):

2𝜃𝑝 2𝑥𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
σ𝑥−σ𝑦

Plane of Maximum Shear Stress:

2𝜃𝑠 σ𝑥−σ𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −
2 𝑥𝑦


Average Stress (Shear Stress is Maximum):

σ𝑎𝑣𝑔
σ𝑥+σ𝑦
= 2

Important Observations:
 Principal stresses occur on mutually perpendicular planes.
 Shear stresses are zero on principal planes.
 Planes of maximum shear stress occur at 45° to the principal planes.
 The maximum shear stress is equal to one half the difference of the principal
stresses.
It should be noted that the equation for principal planes, 2θp, yields two angles between
0° and 360°. Which one corresponds to σ1 and which to σ2? This can be determined by
substituting one of the values into the stress transformation equation for normal stress.
For a single stress system, stress level must be kept below Yield Stress. If the principal
stresses in a three dimensional stress system are σ1 > σ2>σ3, then max =
σ1−σ2
2
and hence yield stress should not exceed σ1- σ3. This is known as Tresca Yield
criteria.
Not all the direct stresses are principal stresses, the plane of principal stress can have no shear
stress associated with it.
Basic philosophy of weld design: Short welds should be avoided as weld start & stop can be a
source of defect. As a rule of thumb, fillet welds should be longer than 8 times the throat thickness; e. g.
throat thickness of 5mm gives minimum weld length of 40mm. While calculating strength of a fillet joint,
the throat thickness should always be used considering it a perfect triangle, i.e. 0.707*Leg length. Also
discounting for first and last 12mm from stress calculation also improves reliability.
Fig. 38: Relationship between Leg Length and Throat in Different Welding
The basic designs of Butt joints are shown in the diagram below with conventional Vee
angle, Root Gap and Root Face. The requirement of Back Gouging for sound root and use of
Backing Strip is also shown.
 Joint Design
0 0
45 60
B
A ROOT GAP
D
C

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK GOUGING
11/4/2009 43

Fig. 39: Basic Designing of VEE Groove Weld

While designing a weld, following aspects are to be kept in mind:
 Avoiding stress concentration is important if the connection is to be subjected to fatigue
load.
 If the joints are welded from one side, the part should not be bent with the root in
tension, nor used in transverse fatigue, nor used in impact loading.
 If partially penetrated joints are made – should not be exposed to corrosive
conditions.
 Effective Throat is never greater than the depth of joint penetration.
 Throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of the weld.
 Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness,
whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.
Determining the Weld Size
Groove Weld: In determining the weld size of a Groove weld the following points are to
be considered:
 In consideration of strength, groove welds must be made all the way through the plate
i.e. 100 % penetration.
 Since a groove weld, properly made has equal or better strength than the plate, there
is no need to calculate the stress in the weld or the size of the weld.
 The only consideration is that the weld metal deposit must be same or similar to the
parent metal composition to match the strength.
Excess Weld Metal Limits: It is very difficult, in fact impossible to deposit the correct
amount of weld metal to form the correct shape of the weld bead. The limits for weld metal
deposit for quality weld should be as per the table given below:
Acceptable from the unacceptable excess weld metal

Excess weld metal limits for quality levels:

Severity of service Moderate, D Stringent, B

Limit (up to maximum) h = 1mm + h = 1mm +

0.25 b 0.25 b
Maximum 10 mm 3 mm
smooth smooth
Transition
required
Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead
11/4/2009 55

Tab. 5: Limit of acceptable Excess Deposits

Fillet Weld: In determining the weld size of a Fillet weld the following points are to be
considered
 Avoiding stress concentration is important if the structure to be subjected to
fatigue load.
 If the joints are welded from one side, the part should not be bent with the root in
tension, nor used in transverse fatigue, nor used in impact loading.
 If partially penetrated joints are made – should not be exposed to corrosive
conditions.
 Effective Throat is never greater than the depth of joint penetration.
 Throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of the
weld.
 Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness,
whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.
 Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness,
whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.

Strength of the weld depends on the size of the fillet

EFFECTIVE THROAT
LEG Types of Lap Joint Welds subjected to heavy loads, -
double-fillet lap joint

LEG
THEORETICAL THROAT

Double Fillet Joggle Lap Joint

Double Fillet Welded

Adjacent Single Sheet To Backing Structure

ContinuousSheet Edges Through- Welded to Backing Lap JointStructure

ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET WELD NOMENCLATURE
11/4/2009

56 11/4/2009 57
 Shape Imperfections . .
ap joints welded with fillet welds
L

Effect of Weld Penetration on Stress concentration in 1-1/2 in. F

72
11

Fig. 40: Welding Calculation for Different Types of Fillet Weld

Stress concentration in Fillet Weld: As discussed earlier, stress concentration is
highly damaging for a structure, particularly when in dynamic loading. As fillet welds
normally involves two planes, it is inherently susceptible to stress concentration and
special attention is to be given while designing. Within the limits of design constraints,
effort must be made for gradual transition of cross section rather than abrupt change.
Figure 41 below illustrate the idea.

Fig. 41: Gradual transition in section reduce Stress Concentration

Determination of Welding Size:
Welds are sized to withstand static Loading. The traditional approach in a fillet weld
design assumes that the load is resisted by the weld’s throat, regardless of the direction of
loading. Experience and experimentation, however, have shown that fillet welds loaded
perpendicular to their longitudinal axis have an ultimate strength that is approximately 50%
greater than the same weld loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis.
The traditional approach, in which direction of loading is not considered, is therefore
conservative.
The effective area of a fillet shall be the effective length multiplied by the effective
throat. Stress in a fillet weld shall be considered as applied to this effective area, for any
direction of applied load. The effective throat shall be the shortest distance from the joint root to
the weld face of the diagrammatic joint.
This definition of effective throat is also conservative. It accurately defines the theoretical
failure plane for fillet welds loaded parallel to their length, but underestimates the increased
effective throat that results when the failure plane moves from a 45° orientation to a 67.5°
orientation, characteristic of fillet welds loaded perpendicular to their longitudinal axis.

Fig. 42: Stress Calculation in Fillet Weld

Some Guiding Tips:
 A generous factor of safety should be used (3-5) and if fluctuating loads are present then
additional design margins should be included to allow for fatigue Use the minimum
amount of filler material consistent with the job requirement Try to design joint such
that load path is not through the weld
 The table below provides approximate stresses in, hopefully, a convenient way.
 For the direct loading case the butt weld stresses are tensile/ compressive σt
 for the fillet welds the stresses are assumed to be shear s applied to the weld
throat.
 For butt welded joints subject to bending, the stresses result from a
tensile/compressive stress σb and a direct shear stress s. In these cases the design
basis stress should be 𝜎𝑟 = √𝜎𝑏2 + 4s2.
 For Fillet welded joints subject to bending the stresses in the fillet welds are
all shear stresses. From bending b and from shear s. In these cases the design basis
stress is generally 𝜎𝑟 = √𝜎b2 + s2.
 The stresses from joints subject to torsion loading include shear stress from
the applied load and shear stresses from the torque loading. The resulting stresses
should be added vectorically taking care to choose the location of the highest
stresses
 Stress Stress in Stress in
in Weld Weld σ Weld
Method of σb b τb
Weldment Weldment τs Weldment
Loading τ s Weld τs
size (h) Weld size Weld size
(h) (h)

Tab. 6: Table of bracket weld subject to direct and bending stresses

Assessment of Fillet Weld Groups (refer notes and table Properties)
The methods described below are based on the simple method of calculation of weld stress as
identified in BS 5950- clause 6.7.8.2. The other method identified in BS 5950 -
1 clause 6.7.8.3 as the direction method uses the method of resolving the forces transmitted by
unit thickness welds per unit length into traverse forces (FT ) and longitudinal forces (FL ).
The method of assessing fillet welds groups treating welds as lines is reasonably safe and
conservative and is very convenient to use.
Weld subject to bending: A fillet weld subject to bending is assessed as follows:

The area of the fillet weld Au (unit thickness) is calculated assuming the weld is one unit
thick.

The (unit) Moment of Inertia Iu is calculated assuming the weld is one unit thick.

The maximum shear stress due to bending is determined as b = M.y/Iu.

The maximum shear stress due to direct shear is determined s = P/A

The resultant stress σr = √σb2 + s2

By comparing the design strength Pw with the resultant stress σr, the value of the weld
throat thickness is calculated and then the weld size, i.e. if the σr/pw = 5 then the throat
thickness t = 5 units and the weld leg size h = 1.414*t
Weld subject to torsion: A fillet weld subject to torsion is assessed as follows:

The area of the fillet weld Au (unit thickness) is calculated assuming the weld is one
unit thick.

The (unit) Polar Moment of Inertia Ju is calculated assuming the weld is one unit thick.
The polar moment of inertia Ju = Ixx + Iyy.

The maximum shear stress due to torsion is determined. σt = σr /Ju.

The maximum shear stress due to direct shear is determined. s = P /Au.

The resultant stress σr is the vector sum of r and s. r is chosen to give the highest value
of σr.

By comparing the design strength Pw with the resultant stress σ r, the value of the weld
throat thickness is calculated and then the weld size. i.e. if the σ r /Pw = 5 then the throat
thickness t = 5 units and the weld leg size h = 1.414*t
Shear and Bending: Welds, which are subjected to combined shear and torsion are
shown in Fig. 43(a). Welds, which are subjected to combined shear and bending are shown in
Fig. 43(b). It is a common practice to treat the variation of shear stress as uniform if the welds
are short. But, if the bending stress is calculated by the flexure formula, the shear stress variation
for vertical welds will be parabolic with a maximum value equal to 1.5 times the average value.
These bending and shear stress variations are shown in Fig. 43(c). It may be observed here that
the locations of maximum bending
and shearing stresses are not the same. Hence, for design purposes the stresses need not be
combined at a point. It is generally satisfactory if the weld is designed to withstand the
maximum bending stress and the maximum shear stress separately. If the welds used are as
shown in Fig. 43(d), it can be safely assumed that the web welds would carry all the of the shear
and the flange welds all of the moment.

Fig. 43(a): Welds subjected to shear and torsion

(b): Welds subjected to shear and bending

Fig. 43(c): Variation of bending Fig. 43(d): Weld provision for

carrying and shear stress shear and moment

Example of Weld in
Torsion (Figure 44):
Given:
P = Applied load = 10,000 N
P w = Design Strength = 220 N/mm 2 (Electrode E35 steel S275) b =
120mm.
d = 150 mm.
x = b2 / 2(b+d) = 27mm. y
= d2 / 2(b+d) = 42mm.
Analysis:
The vector sum of the stresses due to forces and moments should not exceed the design
strength Pw.
A u = Unit Throat Area = (From table below) b + d = (120 + 150) = 270mm2 To
obtain radius of Force from weld centre of gravity
A = 250 - 27 = 223mm
Moment M = P*r = 10000*223 = 2.23X106 N.mm
J u = [(b+d)4 - 6b2d2] /12 (b+d) = 1.04X106..(From Table)
It is necessary to locate the point subject to the highest shear stress. For a weld subject to
only torsion this would be simply at the point furthest from the Centre of Gravity. However,
because the weld is subject to torsion and direct shear, the problem is more complicated. The
normal method of determining the stresses in these cases is to use vector addition.
It is generally prudent to calculate the total shear stress at both positions, using the
method below, and select the highest. For this example the method used is to resolve the stresses
in the x and y directions.
First considering point Z
Horizontal distance from centroid rzh = 120-27 = 93mm
Vertical distance from centroid rzv = 42mm
The vertical stress σv = σsv + σtv
σsv = P /Au = 10000/270 = 37 N/mm2
σtv = M*rzh /Ju = 2.23X106X93/1.04X106 = 199 N/mm2
σv = σsv + σtv = 236 N/mm2
The horizontal stress σh = σsh + σth σsh =
0
σth = M*rzv /Ju = 2.23X106X42/1.04.106 = 90 N/mm2
σh = 90 N/mm2

The resultant stress on the weld at z, σr = √σℎ2 + σ𝑣2 = 253 N/mm2

Now considering point W
Horizontal distance from centroid rwh = 120 - 27 = 93mm
Vertical distance from centroid rwv = 150-42 = 108mm The
vertical stress σv = σsv - σtv
σsv = P /Au = 10000/270 = 37 N/mm2
σtv = M*rwh /Ju = 2.23X106X27/1.04.106 = 57.9 N/mm2 σv
= 20,86 N/mm2
The horizontal stress σh = σsh + σth σsh =
0
σth = M*rwv /Ju = 2.23X106X108/1.04.106 = 231.6 N/mm2
The resultant stress on the weld at w
σr = √σℎ2 + σ𝑣2 = 253 N/mm2 = 232.5 N/mm2
The maximum stress is similar but greatest at z. The design strength P w for the weld
material is 220 N/mm2. The weld throat thickness should be 253 /220 = 1.15mm. The weld size is
therefore 1.414*1.15 = 1.62mm use 3mm fillet weld.
Example of Weld in Bending (Figure 45):

Fig. 45: Weld Subjected to Bending

Given:
P = 30000 Newtons
D = 100mm
B = 75mm
y = 50mm
Design Stress pw = 220 N/mm2 (Electrode E35 steel S275)
Moment = M = 30000*60=18X105 N.mm
Analysis:
Unit Weld Area = Au = 2(d+b) =2(100+75) =350mm2
Unit Moment of Inertia = Iu = d2(3b+d) / 6 = 1002(3*75 +100) / 6 =5.42X105 mm4

 r = √  s 2 +  𝑏2
s = P /Au. = 30000/350 = 85.71 N/mm2
b = M*y / Iu = 18X105*50/5.42X105 = 166.05 N/mm 2
r = √85.712 + 166.052 = 186.86 N/mm2
r/pw = 186.86/220 = 0.85 = Throat Thickness
Leg Length = Throat thickness*1.414 = 1.2mm; use 3mm weld thickness
Note: If a leg length h= 1.2mm is used in the equations in relevant part of the "Table of bracket
weld subject to direct and bending stresses" above a value of b = 198 N/mm and a value of s =
100 N/mm2 results with a resultant stress of √s 2 + 𝑏 2
= 222N/mm2, which is in general
agreement with the above result.
Design Example:
Consider two lap joints with fillet welds loaded as in Figure 46 (a) & (b). What weld size is
needed to resist the applied load of 40 kips (189kN), using E70 electrodes with L = 100 mm
(4”)?

Fig. 46. (a): Weld Loaded in Parallel (b): Weld Loaded Perpendicularly

Solution:
Allowable stress in a linear weld group loaded in-plane through the centre of gravity: FV =
0.30 FEXX (1.0 + 0.50sin1.5Q)
Where:
FV = allowable unit stress in ksi
FEXX = electrode classification number, i.e. minimum specified tensile strength ksi
Q = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis in degrees
For parallel loading, Q = 0, and the parenthetical term in the above equation becomes 1, yielding
the same allowable unit stress as has been traditionally permitted.
For perpendicular loading, Q = 90°, and the parenthetical term becomes 1.5, permitting the
increased allowable unit stress.
So, for Lap joint with fillet welds loaded in parallel,
FV = 0.30 (70 ksi) (1 + 0.5sin1.50°) = 21 ksi
F = FV*A = FV*2*0.707*w (2 welds)
w = F / FV. 2L(0.707) = 40 kips / 21 ksi x 4”x 0.707 = 0.337”; So, use 3/8” fillet Lap
joint with fillet welds loaded perpendicularly,
FV = 0.30 (70 ksi) (1 + 0.5sin1.590°) = 31.5 ksi
w = 40 kips / (31.5 ksi) x 2 x 4 x 0.707 = 0.224”; So, use 1/4” fillet
NOTE: Consistent with expectations, the welds in Figure 46(b) are permitted to be decreased —
in this case, by two standard weld sizes. The weld in Figure 46(b) requires 55% less weld
metal than the welds in Figure 46(a).
Deformation Capacity: Along with the increase in strength of welds loaded perpendicular to
their length, the researchers found a decrease in the deformation capacity before failure. If
significant post yielding deformation capacity is desired, the assembly in Figure 46(a) would be
preferred. However, as most engineered structures are expected to remain elastic under design
loads, so consideration of only the strength is generally adequate.
Shear Strength of Weld: Horizontal shear stress on each weld of the Figure 47 is given by:
𝐕∗𝐚∗𝐲
𝒉 =
𝐈∗𝐧
Where
V = Total shear force on section at a given position
along beam in Newton
a = Area of flange held by weld in m2
y = Distance between the CG of flange area and
normal axis of the whole section in m
I = Moment of Inertia of the section in m4 Fig. 47: Shear Strength of Weld
n = Number of welds joining each flange to web
Worked Out Example (Figure 48):

Fig. 48: Shear Strength Analysis of Weld

Given:
Width of the flange = 250mm. Thickness of the flange = 70mm
Thickness of the web = 15mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm Total
shear on section = 860 Kn
Analysis:
V = 860 kN = 0.86MN
a = Cross sectional area held by the weld = 0.7*0.25 = 0.175m2
y = Distance between the c. g. of the flange area and n. a. of the section = (1200 +
70)/2*1000 = 0.635m
I = Moment of Inertia = (0.25*1.343 – 0.235*1.23)/12 = 0.1628m4 n =
Number of welds joining each flange to web = 2
Throat area of for a parallel loaded fillet weld = 0.707w
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m
ℎ = (V*a*Y)/I*n = 0.86*0.175*0.63/0.1628*2 = 0.2934712MN/m
Now, if the designed shear strength requirement is 96MN/m2, then the required leg w is to be
such that:
0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712 or w = 4.32mm
This should be the minimum leg size of the continuous fillet weld.
Lap Joint Subject to Torsion:

The pivot point is the centroid of the weld area: Welds of different sizes, (or) three welds,
pivot has to be calculated taking moments of the weld area.

The allowable shear stress in steel weld metal in groove & fillet welds is about 30%
of the nominal tensile stress of the base weld metal.

Fig. 49: Lap Joint Subject to Torsion

CANTILEVER: Welds Subject to both bending and shear.

 Web stiffeners can be fillet welded inside the column to evenly distribute the
transfer of load
 The stress induced in fillet weld joint is complex; eccentricity of application. Load, weld
shape & notch; Shear, tension, compression.

Fig. 50: A Welded Cantilever structure

Fig. 51: Stress Concentration in a Welded Cantilever Structure

Determining Fillet Weld Size: The rule of thumb for fillet weld size is that in order to
develop the full strength of a plate by Fillet Weld, it is necessary that the leg size of a Fillet be
¾ of the plate thickness, assuming that:
 Both sides of the plate has fillet weld
 Full length of the plate is fillet welded
 The thickness of the thinner plate is taken into the calculation
When a member is designed to maintain a certain degree of rigidity or stiffness, the
stresses are usually of a rather low value, but the weld size is still dependent on the forces
which must be transferred through them. The rigidity design would require a fillet leg length
of 1/2 to 1/3 of the full weld size.
Improving Fatigue Strength: Fatigue strength can be improved by
 Using Butt joints rather than Lap joints
 Avoiding intermittent Fillet welds
 Minimizing size of the Fillet weld
 Peening the weld immediately after welding
 Post weld heat treatment to remove built in stress
 Tumbling welded small components
 Giving preference to design of structures with multiple load paths.

.
Fig. 52 (a): Fatigue of weldments Fig. 52 (b): Stress concentration
 Fig. 53: S-N Curve of Different Welded Structures
Stress Concentration Factors K t: Stress Concentration factors (Kt’s) for numerous
“simple” geometries have been determined by researchers (analytical equations). Roark and
Peterson have compiled these into easy to use tables.
Using “simple” Kt’s for complex geometries can induce error. Determining stress
concentration factors (Kt) for complex geometries can be difficult and expensive. If strain
gauges cannot be applied to the maximum stress location, remote stresses must be used to
determine the peak stress value (induces error). Stress concentration factor is given by Kt = σmax /
σnom.
FEA results can be used to easily determine the maximum stress (σmax). Determining the
nominal stress (σnom) can be more difficult. Knowledge of the stress gradient provides a means of
determining the nominal stress (σnom).

Fig. 54: Square Shoulder with Fillet (Pure Bending)

FEA model: The max stress (12242 lbf/in2) occurs adjacent to the beginning of the fillet.
For ease of calculation (known cross-section and moment arm), the Kt is
determined at the beginning of the fillet where the max stress is 10,900 lbf/in. For pure bending
σmax = M*Y/I = σnom (stress if Kt did not exist) = M*Y/(bh/12) =
1.500 in*1000 lbf*0.500 in / (1.000 in*1.000 in / 12) = 9000 lbf/in2
Using the FEA, σmax (10,900 lbf/in2) at the beginning of the fillet and σ nom from the area
under the curve, the Kt for the square shoulder with fillet geometry is:
Kt (FEA) = σmax (FEA) / σnom = 10900 lbf/in2 / 8665.2 lbf/in2 = 1.258
Using the analytical formula from Roark, (Kt Formula) is 1.222. So, percentage error in Kt
through formula is only 2.95% on the lower side.
Example of FEA: The problem considered here is a plate of length 100 mm and width 40 mm
and with a thickness is subjected to a tension of 900N and this force is applied as uniformly
distributed force. The thickness of the plate in the present problem is taken larger so that both the
solid and shell elements of various types can be compared. The performance of solids is not
discussed much in the literature and this is the reason we have taken a configuration which can
be useful to a variety of problems in Finite Element Analysis. Figure 55 represents the loading
and the dimensions.

Fig. 55: loading and dimensions for FEA.

Finite Element Analysis Results: Several finite elements have been used for analyzing the
stress concentration. HYPERMESH software has been used for finite element modeling i.e.
preparation of the mesh and a combination of all available algorithms like ruled / mapped
meshing, spline mesh, automesh have been used for generating the elements in Two-
Dimensions. Three dimensional elements are also used in the analysis. The analysis is done
using the MSC NASTRAN solver. The results are post processed in Hypermesh. Von-Mises
stress plots have only been taken as they are the most important. Further mesh refinement
(approximately the number of elements is doubled) has been carried out wherever felt
appropriate (i.e. say refined mesh of linear quadrilateral Vs. coarse mesh of second order
quadrilateral), to study whether the element gives a higher level of accuracy. The deflection of
the hole is not presented here as it would lead to very large number of plots but a comparison
table has been given so that the user can get an idea on the accuracy. The question on why two
meshes of coarse and fine are compared can be answered as in the industry, where stress
concentration is not there, one often uses element sizes ranging from 10 mm to say 40 mm and in
the region of stress concentration the size typically used ranges from 3 to 6 mm. In the coarse
mesh results presented here, the average size is about 10 mm and fine mesh has an average size
of 5 mm.

Fig. 56: Coarse Quadrilateral (4 noded) Mesh

Fig. 57: Deformed shape plot

 Fig. 58: Displacement plot

Fig. 59: Fracture Toughness Vs. Strength for Different Engineering

Materials XXX END XXX