Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Des/Con 1

BASIC THEORY OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS, FUNDAMENTAL OF STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS, WELDING JOINTS, SYMBOLS & POSITIONS
AND
BASICS OF WELD JOINT DESIGN
BASIC THEORY OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS:
Introduction: Fabricated structures are used in almost all construction and
manufacturing industries all over the world both as Manufacturing infrastructural
facilities and as products. Factory Sheds, infrastructural Process Machineries and
Equipment for manufacturing products like Bridges, Ships, Railway Rolling Stocks,
Automobiles, Mining Equipment are common examples.
All the structures and the products manufactured are fabricated with joining and
processing different types and sections of structural elements, mainly rolled sections of
different materials – steels, aluminum, copper or alloys of metals. In most fabrications
steel or aluminum in the shapes of flats, Sheets, Flats, Rounds, Pipes, Channels,
Angles, I- Beams etc.
Steel derives its material properties from a combination of chemical composition,
mechanical working and heat treatment. The chemical composition is fundamental to
the mechanical properties of steel. Adding alloys such as Carbon, Manganese, Niobium
and Vanadium can increase the strength. However, such alloy additions increase the
cost of the steel, and can adversely affect other properties (i.e. ductility, toughness and
weldability). Keeping the sulphur level low can enhance the ductility, and
the toughness can be improved by the addition of Nickel. Hence, the chemical
composition for each steel specification has been carefully chosen to achieve the
required properties.
Plates and sections are produced by rolling steel slabs, blooms or billets (at a
high temperature) until the required plate or section size is achieved. This rolling is the
mechanical working that refines the grain structure and determines the mechanical
properties. The more steel is rolled, the stronger it becomes. This effect is readily
apparent in material standards, which specify reducing levels of minimum yield strength
with increasing material thickness. However, although rolling increases the strength, it
also reduces the ductility of the steel.
The effect of heat treatment is best explained by reference to the different
production processes or rolling regimes that can be used in steel manufacturing, the
main ones being:

➢ As-rolled steel
➢ Normalized steel
➢ Normalized-rolled steel
➢ Thermo-mechanically rolled (TMR) steel
➢ Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel
Strength of Structures: Strength of materials deals with the relations between the
external forces applied to elastic bodies and the resulting deformations and stresses. In
the design of structures and machines, the application of the principles of strength of
materials is necessary if satisfactory materials are to be utilized to resist functional
forces.
 The externally applied forces are termed as loads. These externally applied
forces may be due to any one of the reason like:
• Service conditions
• Through contact with other members
• Gasses and fluids under pressure
• Gravity or inertia forces.
• Impacts of moving parts,
• Transmission of mechanical loads
Characteristics of Force: Force is a Vector i.e. a quantity with magnitude and
direction. Magnitude is a positive numerical value representing the size or amount of the
force. Directions are the slope and the sense of a line segment is used to represent the
force described by angles or dimensions. A negative sign usually represents force in
opposite direction

Point of application ---- A point

where the force is applied
A line of action = a straight line
extending through the point of
application in the direction of the
force
The force is a physical quantity that
needs to be represented using a
mathematical quantity
Fig. 1: Force and Force Systems
Units of Force and Typical Magnitudes: In SI units, the standard unit of force is
Newton, given the symbol N. It is a derived unit, defined through Newton’s second law
of motion – a force of 1N causes a 1 kg mass to accelerate at 1 ms-2. Hence, the
fundamental unit of force in the SI convention is Kg .m/s2.
In US units, the standard unit of force is the pound, given the symbol lb or lbf (the
latter is an abbreviation for pound force, to distinguish it from pounds weight). A force of
1 lbf causes a mass of 1 lb to accelerate at a rate of 1 ft per second2. The conversion
factors from lb to N are
1 lb = 4.448 N
1 N = 0.2248 lb
The time element in the application of a force on a body is an important
consideration. A force may be
• Static or change so slowly that its maximum value can be treated as if it were
static
• It may be suddenly applied, as with an impact
• It may have a repetitive or cyclic behavior.
Resolution of Coplanar Forces: Force on a body may act at any point and
direction. If the directions can be contained in a plane, they are called Coplanar
Forces. If the forces are acting on a single point, they are called concurrent Forces.
So, a force system can be:
• Coplanar & Concurrent: can be unified to a single force acting on the plane
• Coplanar & Non-Concurrent: can be unified to a set of forces acting at different
points on that plane
• Non- Coplanar & Concurrent: can be unified to a single force. However, the
direction may not match with any of the original direction.
• Non- Coplanar & Non-Concurrent: Can be maximum unified to a set of forces
acting at different direction at different points.
There are many ways in which forces can be manipulated. It is often easier to
work with a large, complicated system of forces by reducing it to an ever decreasing
number of smaller problems. This is called the "resolution" of forces or force systems.
This is one way to simplify what may otherwise seem to be an impossible system of
forces acting on a body. Certain systems of forces are easier to resolve than
others. Coplanar force systems have all the forces acting in one plane. They may be
concurrent, parallel, non-concurrent or non-parallel. All of these systems can be
resolved by using graphic statics or algebra.
A concurrent coplanar force system is a system of two or more forces whose
lines of action ALL intersect at a common point. However, all of the individual vectors
might not actually be in contact with the common point. These are the most simple force
systems to resolve with any one of many graphical or algebraic options.
A parallel coplanar force system consists of two or more forces whose lines of
action are ALL parallel. This is commonly the situation when simple beams are
analyzed under gravity loads. These can be solved graphically, but are combined most
easily using algebraic methods.
The last illustration is of a non-concurrent and non-parallel system. This consists
of a number of vectors that do not meet at a single point and none of them are parallel.
These systems are essentially a jumble of forces and take considerable care to
resolve.

Fig. 2: Different Force Systems

 Almost any system of known forces can be resolved into a single force called a
resultant force or simply a Resultant. The resultant is a representative force which has
the same effect on the body as the group of forces it replaces (A couple is an exception
to this). It, as one single force, can represent any number of forces and is very useful
when resolving multiple groups of forces. One can progressively resolve pairs or small
groups of forces into resultants. Then another resultant of the resultants can be found
and so on until all of the forces have been combined into one force. This is one way to
save time with the tedious "bookkeeping" involved with a large number of individual
forces. Resultants can be determined both graphically and algebraically. It is important
to note that for any given system of forces, there is only one resultant.

Fig. 3: Resultant of Forces

It is often convenient to decompose a single force into two distinct forces. These
forces, when acting together, have the same external effect on a body as the original
force. They are known as components. Finding the components of a force can be
viewed as the converse of finding a resultant. There are an infinite number of
components to any single force. And, the correct choice of the pair to represent a force
depends upon the most convenient geometry. For simplicity, the most convenient is
often the coordinate axis of a structure.
Fig. 4 illustrates a pair of components that correspond with
the X and Y axis. These are known as the rectangular
components of a force. Rectangular components can be
thought of as the two sides of a right angle which are at
ninety degrees to each other. The resultant of these
components is the hypotenuse of the triangle. The
rectangular components for any force can be found with
Fig. 4: Components trigonometric relationships: Fx = F* CosƟ, Fy = F* SinƟ
of a Force (where Ɵ is the angle of the force with X axis). There are
a few geometric relationships that seem common in
general building practice. These relationships relate to roof pitches, stair pitches, and
common slopes or relationships between truss members. Some of these are triangles
with sides of ratios of 3-4-5, 1-2-√3, 1-1-√2, 5-12-13 or 8-15-17. Committing the first
three to memory will simplify the determination of vector magnitudes when resolving
more difficult problems.
 Fig. 5: Different ways of Representing Resultant & Components
When forces are being represented as vectors, it is important to maintain a clear
distinction between a resultant and its components. The resultant could be shown with
color or as a dashed line and the components as solid lines, or vice versa. NEVER
represent the resultant in the same graphic way as its components.
Equilibrant Force: Any concurrent set of
forces, not in equilibrium, can be put into a
state of equilibrium by a single force. This
force is called the Equilibrant. It is equal in
magnitude, opposite in sense and co-
linear with the resultant. When this force is
added to the force system, the sum of all
of the forces is equal to zero. A non-
concurrent or a parallel force system can
actually be in equilibrium with respect to
all of the forces, but not be in equilibrium
with respect to moments. Fig. 6: Equilibrant Force
Graphic Statics and graphical methods of force resolution were developed before
the turn of the century by Karl Culmann. They were the only methods of structural
analysis for many years. These methods can help to develop an intuitive understanding
of the action of the forces. Today, the Algebraic Method is considered to be more
applicable to structural design. Despite this, graphical methods are a very easy way to
get a quick answer for a structural design problem and can aid in the determination of
structural form.
Bearings, Constraints and Basic Types of Connections: Structural systems
transfer their loading through a series of elements to the ground. This is accomplished
by designing the joining of the elements at their intersections. Each connection is
designed so that it can transfer, or support, a specific type of load or loading condition.
In order to be able to analyze a structure, it is first necessary to be clear about the
forces that can be resisted, and transferred, at each level of support throughout the
structure. The actual behaviour of a support or connection can be quite complicated.
Structural steel systems have either welded or bolted connections. No matter the
material, the connection must be designed to have a specific rigidity. Rigid, stiff or fixed
connections lie at one extreme limit of this spectrum and hinged or pinned connections
bound the other. The stiff connection maintains the relative angle between the
connected members while the hinged connection allows a relative rotation. There are
also connections in steel and reinforced concrete structural systems in which a partial
rigidity is a desired design feature.
Support Types: The three
common types of connections
which join a built structure to its
foundation are roller, pinned
and fixed. A fourth type, not
often found in building structures,
is known as a simple support.
This is often idealized as a
frictionless surface). All of these
supports can be located
anywhere along a structural
element. They are found at the
ends, at midpoints, or at any
other intermediate points. The
type of support connection
determines the type of load that Fig. 7: Different types of Supports
the support can resist. The support type also has a great effect on the load bearing
capacity of each element, and therefore the system.
Reactions: It is usually necessary to idealize the behaviour of a support in order to
facilitate an analysis. An approach is taken that is similar to the mass less, frictionless
pulley in a physics homework problem. Thus, friction and mass are often ignored in the
consideration of the behavior of a connection or support. It is important to realize that all
of the graphical representations of supports are idealizations of an actual physical
connection. Effort should be made to search out and compare the reality with the
grpahical and/or numerical model. It is often very easy to forget that the assumed
idealization can be strikingly different than reality!
Figure 7 above indicates the forces and/or moments which are "available" or
active at each type of support. It is expected that these representative forces and
moments, if properly calculated, will bring about equilibrium in each structural element.
Roller Supports: Roller supports are
free to rotate and translate along the
surface upon which the roller rests. The
surface can be horizontal, vertical, or
sloped at any angle. The resulting
reaction force is always a single force
that is perpendicular to, and away from,
the surface. Roller supports are commonly located at one end of long bridges. Roller
supports can also take the form of rubber bearings, rockers, or a set of gears which are
designed to allow a limited amount of lateral movement.
A roller support cannot provide resistance to lateral forces. As soon as a lateral load of
any kind pushes on the structure it will roll away in response to the force. The lateral
load could be a shove, a gust of wind or an earthquake.
Pinned Supports: A pinned support can resist both
vertical and horizontal forces but not a moment. They
will allow the structural member to rotate, but not to
translate in any direction. A pinned connection can
allow rotation in only one direction; providing
resistance to rotation in any other direction. The knee
can be idealized as a connection which allows
rotation in only one A single pinned connection is
usually not sufficient to make a structure stable.
Another support must be provided at some point to
prevent rotation of the structure. The representation
of a pinned support includes both horizontal and
vertical forces. Fig. 8: Pinned Support
Fixed Supports: Fixed supports can
resist vertical and horizontal forces as
well as a moment. Since they restrain
both rotation and translation, they are
also known as rigid supports. This
means that a structure only needs one
fixed support in order to be stable. All
three equations of equilibrium can be
satisfied. A flagpole set into a concrete
base is a good example of this kind of
support. The representation of fixed
supports always includes two forces
(horizontal and vertical) and a moment.
Fixed connections are very common.
Steel structures of many sizes are
composed of elements which are
welded together. A cast-in-place
concrete structure is automatically
monolithic and it becomes a series of
rigid connections with the proper
placement of the reinforcing steel. Fixed Fig. 9: Fixed Support
connections demand greater attention during construction and are often the source of
building failures.
Simple Supports: Simple supports are idealized by some to be frictionless
surface supports. This is correct in as much as the resulting reaction is always a single
force that is perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. They are similar to roller
supports in this. They are dissimilar in that a roller support cannot resist lateral loads of
any magnitude. The built reality often depends upon gravity and friction to develop a
minimal amount of frictional resistance to moderate lateral loading. For example, if a
plank is laid across gap to provide a bridge, it is assumed that the plank will remain in its
place until a foot kicks it or moves it. At that moment the plank will move because the
simple connection cannot develop resistance to the lateral load. A simple support can
be found as a type of support for long bridges or roof span. Simple supports are often
found in zones of frequent seismic activity.

Fig. 10: Simple Support

Analysis & Design of Structures: Structure is an assemblage of a number of
components like slabs, beams, columns, walls, foundations and so on, which remains in
equilibrium. It has to satisfy the fundamental criteria of strength, stiffness, economy,
durability and compatibility, for its existence.
Any structure is designed for the stress resultants of bending moment, shear
force, deflection, torsional stresses and axial stresses. If these moments, shears and
stresses are evaluated at various critical sections, then based on these, the
proportioning can be done. Evaluation of these stresses, moments and forces and
plotting them for that structural component is known as analysis. Determination of
dimensions of the components based on the results is known as design.
Determinate and Indeterminate Structures: Structures are generally classified into
two categories as Determinate and Indeterminate Structures or Redundant Structures
based on criteria discussed below.
Determinate structures are analysed just by the use of basic equilibrium
equations. By this analysis, the unknown reactions are found for the further
determination of stresses. Examples of determinate structures are: simply supported
and cantilever beams, single and double overhanging beams, three hinged arches, etc.
Redundant or indeterminate structures are not capable of being analysed by
mere use of basic equilibrium equations. Along with the basic equilibrium equations,
some extra conditions are required to be used like compatibility conditions of
deformations etc to get the unknown reactions for drawing bending moment and shear
force diagrams. Examples of indeterminate structures are: fixed beams, continuous
beams, fixed arches, two hinged arches, portals, multistoried frames, etc.
Special methods like strain energy method, slope deflection method, moment
distribution method, column analogy method, virtual work method, matrix methods, etc
are used for the analysis of redundant structures.
A structure is termed as statically indeterminate, if it cannot be analysed from
principles of statics alone, i.e.∑ H = 0, ∑ H = 0, ∑ H = 0. A statically indeterminate
structure may be classified as:
• Externally indeterminate, (example: continuous beams and frames shown in
Figure-11 (a) and (b)).
• Internally indeterminate, (example: trusses shown in Figure-11 (c) and (d)).
• Both externally and internally indeterminate, (example: trussed beams,
continuous trusses shown in figure-12.

Fig. 11: Externally (a) & (b) and Internally Indeterminate (c) & (d) Structure

Fig. 12: Both Externally and Internally Indeterminate Structure

Externally Indeterminate Structures: A structure is usually externally indeterminate
or redundant if the reactions at the supports cannot be determined by using three
equations of equilibrium, i.e.

In the case of beams subjected to vertical loads only, two reactions can be determined
by conditions of equilibrium. Therefore, simply supported cantilever and overhanging
beams are statically determinate structures as these satisfies:

Sl. Determinate Structures Indeterminate Structures

No
1 Equilibrium conditions are fully Conditions of equilibrium are not
adequate to analyze the structure. adequate to fully analyze the structure.
2 Bending moment or shear force at Bending moment or shear force at any
any section is independent of the section depends upon the material
material property of the structure. property.
3 The bending moment or shear force The bending moment or shear force at
at any section is independent of the any section depends upon the cross-
cross-section or moment of inertia. section or moment of inertia.
4 Temperature variations do not cause Temperature variations cause stresses.
stresses.
5 .No stresses are caused due to lack Stresses are caused due to lack of fit.
of fit.
6 Extra conditions like compatibility of Extra conditions like compatibility of
displacements are not required to displacements are required to analyze
analyze the structure the structure along with the equilibrium
equations.

Tab. 1: Difference between Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

STRESSES AND STRAINS
Stress: When an externally applied forces acts on a body, the body suffers a
deformation. From equilibrium point of view, this action should be opposed or reacted
by internal forces which are set up within the particles of material due to cohesion.
These internal forces give rise to a concept of stress.

Fig. 13: Concept of External Force & Internal Strain

Consider a rectangular bar of some cross-sectional area and subjected to some
load or force (in Newton). Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is cut into two
halves at section XX. Each portion of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium under the
action of load P and the internal forces acting at the section XX. Stress is defined as the
force intensity or force per unit area. Here we use a symbol Ϭ to represent the stress.
Ϭ = P/A
Here it is assumed that the total force or total load carried by the rectangular bar
is uniformly distributed over its cross-section. But the stress distributions may be far
from uniform, with local regions of high stress known as stress concentrations. If the
force carried by a component is not uniformly distributed over its cross-sectional area,
A, we must consider a small area, ‘dA' which carries a small load dP, of the total force
‘P. Then definition of stress is
Ϭ = dP/dA
The environment in which forces act on a machine or part is also important. Such
factors as high and low temperatures; the presence of corrosive gases, vapors and
liquids; radiation, etc. may have a marked effect on how well parts are able to resist
stresses.
Units of Stress: In the SI, the unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa), the Newton per
meter squared (N/m2). The Mega Pascal (N/mm2) is often an appropriate multiple for
use in practice. In US, customary unit is pound per square inch (psi).
Types of Stresses: Only two basic stresses exist: (1) Normal stress and (2) Shear
stress. Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of
these, e.g. bending stress is a combination tensile, compressive and shear stresses.
Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.
Normal stresses: We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are
normal to the areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal
stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (Ϭ). The normal stresses can be either
tensile or compressive whether the stresses act out of the area or into the area.
This is also known as uniaxial state of stress, because the stresses acts only in
one direction. However, such a state rarely exists, therefore we have biaxial and triaxial
state of stresses where either the two mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts or
three mutually perpendicular normal stresses acts as shown in the figure 14 below:

Fig. 14: Different Types of Normal Stresses

Shear stresses: Here the cross-sectional area of a block of material is subjected to
a force parallel, rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated
with a shearing of the material, and are referred to as shear forces. The resulting
reactive force intensity is known as shear stress the mean shear stress being equal to

 = P/A

Fig. 15: Shear Stresses

Where P is the total force and A the area over which it acts. However, it must be
borne in mind that the stress (resultant stress) at any point in a body is basically
resolved into two components Ϭ and . One acts perpendicular and other parallel to the
area concerned, as clearly illustrated in the Figure 15.
 Fig. 16: Normal Stresses & Resultant Shear Stresses

The single shear takes place on the single plane and the shear area is the cross–
sectional of the rivet, whereas the double shear takes place in the case of Butt joints of
rivets and the shear area is the twice of the cross–sectional area of the rivet.
Concept of Strain: If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress the bar will
change in length. If the bar has an original length L and changes by an amount dL, the
strain produce is defined as
Strain = Change in length / Original Length or e = dL/L

Fig. 17: Linear Strain

Strain is thus, a measure of the deformation of the material and is a non
dimensional quantity i.e. it has no units. It is simply a ratio of two lengths. Unit strain is
the amount by which a dimension of a body changes when the body is subjected to a
load, divided by the original value of the dimension. The simpler term strain is often
used instead of unit strain.
Since in practice, the extensions of materials under load are very very small, it is
often convenient to measure the strain in the form of strain x 10-6 i.e. micro strain.
Tensile strains are positive whereas compressive strains are negative.
The strain explained earlier is known as linear strain or normal strain or the
longitudinal strain associated with tensile stress. There is a shear stain also associated
with shear stress. In XY plane three strain components may exist as can be seen from
Figure 18 below:

Fig. 18: Shear Strain

Therefore, a strain at any point in body can be characterized by two axial strains
i.e. ꞆX in X direction, ꞆY in Y - direction and ꞆXY the shear strain in XY direction. The
order of the subscript is unimportant. However, sign convention is important. The shear
strain ꞆXY is considered to be positive if it represents a decrease the angle between the
sides of an element of material lying parallel to the positive x and y axes. Alternatively
we can think of positive shear strain is produced by the positive shear stresses and vice
versa.
Nominal Stress – Strain and Conventional Stress – Strain:

Fig. 19: Nominal Stress – Strain and Conventional Stress – Strain diagrams
 Stresses are usually computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen;
such stresses are often referred to as conventional or nominal stresses. Since when a
material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or expansion always takes
place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the corresponding actual area of the specimen
at the same instant gives the so called true stress.
Salient Points on the Graph:
• Point A: Up to this point, strain is proportional to stress or elongation is
proportional to the load giving a st. line relationship. Up to this point, the material
comes back to its original length when the stress is removed.
• Point B: For a short period beyond the point A, the material may still be
elastic in the sense that the deformations are completely recovered when the
load is removed. The limiting point B is termed as Elastic Limit.
• Points C & D: Beyond the elastic limit, plastic deformation occurs and
strains are not totally recoverable. There will be thus permanent deformation or
permanent set when load is removed. These two points C & D are termed as
upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress at the yield point is called
the yield stress. A study of stress – strain diagrams shows that the yield point is
so near the proportional limit that for most purpose the two may be taken as one.
However, it is much easier to locate the former.
For materials which do not possess a well define yield points, in order to
find the yield point or yield strength, an offset method is applied. In this method a
line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial stress diagram by
offsetting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as shown as below and
this happens especially for the low carbon steel.
• Point E: A further increase in the load will cause marked deformation in the
whole volume of the metal. The maximum load which the specimen can with
stand without failure is called the load at the ultimate strength. The highest point
‘E' of the diagram corresponds to the ultimate strength of a material & is known
as Ultimate Tensile Strength. It is equal to load at E divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the bar.
• Point F: Beyond point E, the bar begins to forms neck. The load falling from
the maximum until fracture occurs at F. Beyond point E, the cross-sectional area
of the specimen begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small length of bar near
midpoint forming a neck. This necking continues whilst the load reduces, and
fracture of the bar finally occurs at point F.
Owing to large reduction in area produced by the necking process the actual
stress at fracture is often greater than the above value. Since the designers are
interested in maximum loads which can be carried by the complete cross section, the
stress at fracture is seldom of any practical value.
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to which a test specimen may be subjected
and still return to its original length upon release of the load. A material is said to be
stressed within the elastic region when the working stress does not exceed the elastic
limit.
Yield point is a point on the stress-strain curve at which there is a sudden
increase in strain without a corresponding increase in stress. Not all materials have a
yield point. Yield strength, Ϭy, is the maximum stress that can be applied without
permanent deformation of the test specimen. Because of the difficulty in determining the
elastic limit, and because many materials do not have a marked yield point, yield
strength is often determined by the offset method. Yield strength in such a case is the
stress value on the stress-strain curve corresponding to a definite amount of permanent
set or strain, usually 0.1 or 0.2 per cent of the original dimension.
Ultimate strength, Ϭu, also called ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the
maximum stress value obtained on a stress-strain curve.
Modulus of elasticity, E, (also called Young's modulus) is the ratio of unit stress
to unit strain within the proportional limit of a material in tension or compression.
Modulus of elasticity in shear, G, is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain within
the proportional limit of a material in shear.
Poisson's ratio, μ, is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain for a given
material subjected to uniform longitudinal stresses within the proportional limit. The term
is found in certain equations associated with strength of materials.
Compressive Properties: From compression tests, compressive yield strength,
Ϭcy, and compressive ultimate strength Ϭcu, are determined. Ductile materials under
compression loading merely swell or buckle without fracture, hence do not have a
compressive ultimate strength.
Shear Properties: The properties of shear yield strength, Ꞇsy, shear ultimate
strength, Ꞇsu, and the modulus of rigidity, G, are determined by direct shear and
torsional tests.
Bending Moment: It is the reaction induced in a structural element when an
external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The
most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is
the beam. The diagram shows a beam which is simply supported at both ends. Simply
supported means that each end of the beam can rotate; therefore each end support has
no bending moment. The ends can only react to the shear loads. Other beams can have
both ends fixed; therefore each end support has both bending moment and shear
reaction loads. Beams can also have one end fixed and one end simply supported. The
simplest type of beam is the cantilever, which is fixed at one end and is free at the other
end (neither simple nor fixed). In reality, beam supports are usually neither absolutely
fixed nor absolutely rotating freely.
 Fig. 20: Shear and moment diagram for a simply supported
beam with a concentrated load at mid-span
The internal reaction loads in a cross-section of the structural element can be
resolved into a resultant force and a resultant couple. For equilibrium, the moment
created by external forces (and external moments) must be balanced by the couple
induced by the internal loads. The resultant internal couple is called the bending
moment while the resultant internal force is called the shear force (if it is transverse to
the plane of element) or the normal force (if it is along the plane of the element).
The bending moment at a section through a structural element may be defined as
the sum of the moments about that section of all external forces acting to one side of
that section. The forces and moments on either side of the section must be equal in
order to counteract each other and maintain a state of equilibrium so the same bending
moment will result from summing the moments, regardless of which side of the section
is selected. If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative
bending moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will
cause "hogging". It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within
a beam is a point of contraflexure—that is the point of transition from hogging to
sagging or vice versa.
Moments and Torques: They are measured as a force multiplied by a distance
so they have as unit newton-metres (N·m), or pound-foot (lbf·ft). The concept of
bending moment is very important in engineering (particularly in civil and mechanical
engineering) and physics.
Tensile and compressive stresses increase proportionally with bending moment,
but are also dependent on the second moment of area of the cross-section of a beam
(that is, the shape of the cross-section, such as a circle, square or I-beam being
common structural shapes). Failure in bending will occur when the bending moment is
sufficient to induce tensile stresses greater than the yield stress of the material
throughout the entire cross-section. In structural analysis, this bending failure is called a
plastic hinge, since the full load carrying ability of the structural element is not reached
until the full cross-section is past the yield stress. It is possible that failure of a structural
element in shear may occur before failure in bending, however the mechanics of failure
in shear and in bending are different.
Moments are calculated by multiplying the external vector forces (loads or
reactions) by the vector distance at which they are applied. When analysing an entire
element, it is sensible to calculate moments at both ends of the element, at the
beginning, centre and end of any uniformly distributed loads, and directly underneath
any point loads. Of course any "pin-joints" within a structure allow free rotation, and so
zero moment occurs at these points as there is no way of transmitting turning forces
from one side to the other.
It is more common to use the convention that a clockwise bending moment to the
left of the point under consideration is taken as positive. This then corresponds to the
second derivative of a function which, when positive, indicates a curvature that is 'lower
at the centre' i.e. sagging. When defining moments and curvatures in this way, calculus
can be more readily used to find slopes and deflections.
Critical values within the beam are most commonly annotated using a bending
moment diagram, where negative moments are plotted to scale above a horizontal line
and positive below. Bending moment varies linearly over unloaded sections, and
parabolically over uniformly loaded sections.
Limit States of Failure: Fracture of a member is considered as limiting state of
failure. Fracture is defined as the separation or fragmentation of a solid body into two or
more parts under the action of stress. However, depending on design and service
conditions, the fracture modes can generally be classified as:
• Ductile
• Brittle
• Fatigue
• Creep

Fig. 21: Different Types of Fractures (a) Cup-&-Cone (b) Brittle

 Parameter Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
Strain energy required Higher Lower
Stress, during Increasing Constant
cracking
Crack propagation Slow Fast
Warning sign Plastic deformation None
Deformation Extensive Little
Necking Yes No
Fractured surface Rough and dull Smooth and bright
Type of materials Most metals (not too cold) Ceramics, Glasses, Ice

Tab. 2: Ductile fracture Vs Brittle fracture

Ductile fracture in tension occurs after appreciable plastic deformation. It is usually
preceded by necking. Generally the failure is in Cup & Cone mode. It exhibits three
stages- (1) formation of cavities (2) growth of cavities (3) final failure involving rapid
crack propagation at about 45 to the tensile axis. Fractography of ductile fracture
reveals numerous spherical dimple separated by thin walls on the fractured surface.

Fig. 22: Stages of void nucleation, void growth, crack initiation

and eventual fracture under ductile fracture mode
Brittle fracture takes place with little or no preceding plastic deformation. It occurs,
often at unpredictable levels of stress, by rapid crack propagation. Crack propagates
nearly perpendicular to the direction of applied tensile stress, and hence called
cleavage fracture. Most often brittle fracture occurs through grains i.e. trans-granular.
Three stages of brittle fracture - (1) Plastic deformation that causes dislocation pile-ups
at obstacles, (2) Micro-crack nucleation as a result of build-up of shear stresses, (3)
eventual crack propagation under applied stress aided by stored elastic energy.
Fatigue failures: When a
material is subjected to many
cycles of stress reversal or
fluctuation (variation in
magnitude without reversal),
failure may occur, even
though the maximum stress at
any cycle is considerably less
than the value at which failure
would occur if the stress were
constant.

Fig. 23: different Types of Cyclic Loads

Fatigue properties are determined by subjecting test specimens to stress cycles
and counting the number of cycles to failure. From a series of such tests in which
maximum stress values are progressively reduced, S-N diagrams can be plotted as
illustrated by the accompanying figure (Figure 24). Endurance limit is the stress value at
which the number of cycles to failure is infinite. Steels have endurance limits that vary
according to hardness, composition, and quality; but many non-ferrous metals do not.
For a metal that does not have an endurance limit, it is standard practice to specify
fatigue strength as the stress value corresponding to a specific number of stress
reversals, usually 100,000,000 or 500,000,000.

Fig. 24: S-N Curve with Endurance Limit

 Fatigue failure is
estimated to causes 90% of
all failures of metallic
structures (bridges, aircraft,
machine components, etc.).
Fatigue failure is brittle-like
(relatively little plastic
deformation) - even in
normally ductile materials,
thus sudden and catastrophic
in nature! Applied stresses
causing fatigue may be axial
(tension or compression),
flextural (bending) or torsional
(twisting). All fatigue failures Fig.25: Schematic of a Typical Fatigue Failure
proceed in three distinct stages:
crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (at stress raisers like notches),
incremental crack propagation and final sudden failure.
Any point with stress concentration such as sharp corner or notch or metallurgical
inclusion can act as point of initiation of fatigue crack. Three basic requisites for
occurrence of fatigue fracture are:
• A tensile stress of sufficiently high value
• Large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress
• Sufficiently large number of cycles of applied stress.
Stress cycles that can cause fatigue failure are characterized using the following
parameters:
Range of stress: σr = σmax – σmin
Alternating stress: σa= σr /2 = (σmax – σmin)/2
Mean stress: σm= (σmax + σmin)/2
Stress ratio: R= – σmin / σmax
Amplitude ratio: A= σa/σm = (1 - R) /(1+R)
Creep failure: Time-dependent deformation that occurs under constant load /
stress at elevated temperatures is known as creep. Creep deformation (constant stress)
is possible at all temperatures above absolute zero. However, it is extremely sensitive to
temperature. Hence, creep in usually considered important at elevated temperatures
(temperatures greater than 0.4Tm, Tm is absolute melting temperature). Creep test data
is presented as a plot between time and strain known as creep curve (Figure 26). The
slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate.
 Fig. 26: Creep Curve
Creep curve consists of three major portions:

• After initial rapid elongation, ε0 (the normal elongation as per stress-strain

diagram), the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is known as
primary or transient creep.
• Primary creep is followed by secondary or steady-state or viscous creep, which is
characterized by constant creep rate. This stage of creep is often the longest
duration of the three modes.
• Finally, a third stage of creep known as, tertiary creep occurs that is
characterized by increase in creep rate.
WELDING JOINTS, SYMBOLS & POSITIONS
Introduction: Fabricated structures are used in almost all construction and
manufacturing industries all over the world both as manufacturing infrastructural
facilities and as products. The welded structures and finished products like automobiles
and Rolling Stocks are fabricated by welding Rolled Steel products. Different welding
processes are adopted and different types of welding joints are used for desired
performance levels. So, for a well designed structure or component, we must select and
specify:
➢ Material
➢ Loading conditions, Static or dynamic
➢ Precision of the part - Distortion, inner tension
➢ Function of welds
➢ Type of joints etc.
Again, when the particular type of joint for the fabrication is to be selected we are to
consider the following critical points:
➢ Material type & thickness
➢ Welding process to be used
➢ Strength requirements
➢ Accessibility for welding
➢ On site or Shop welding
➢ Code Requirements etc.

Types of Joints: Major types of joint configurations are shown in Figure 27 in a single
combination.

Fig.27: Major Types of Welding Joints

Whatever be the joint configuration or welding positions, ultimately it reduces to either a

Butt joint or a fillet joint.
 Fig. 28: Typical Butt and Fillet Joint

Butt joints are the major joint type used in

fabrication. It can give good force transfer and
high load capacity. Full penetration weld are
suitable for dynamic loading. It is a weld to join
two members aligned in the same plane.
Except for small thickness, it generally requires
a groove through edge preparations.
Fig. 29: Groove Angles in Butt Joint
Edge Preparation: Based on the type of edge preparation given, the joints may be
classified as:
• Square Butt: No edge preparation required (limited to small thickness)
• Single V: Most common, as shown in figure 29 above
• Single J: One side edge is prepared in the form of ‘J’, other side square
• Single U: Both side edge is prepared in the form of ‘J’, forming a ‘U’
These joints are suitable for joining steels up to 40 mm plate thickness. V, U & J
requires progressively lesser weld metal and associated cost HAZ & distortion but the
edge preparations are difficult, needing profile cutting. The soundness of weld also is
somewhat affected. Beyond 40 mm thickness double V, U & J (preparing the edge at
both top and bottom of plate) are more prudent techno-economic decision. Between 12
mm to 40 mm, either single or double side edge preparation may be given.
Fillet weld: A fusion weld,
other than a butt edge or
fusion spot weld, that is
approximately triangular in
transverse cross-section. It
is characterized by leg
length, the distance of the
actual or projected
intersection of the fusion
faces, toe (measured
across the fusion face) and
throat. Effective throat
thickness is the minimum
distance minus any
convexity between the
weld root and the face of a
fillet weld. This is known Fig. 30: Characteristics of a Fillet Weld
as design throat thickness
also. Actual throat thickness is the perpendicular distance between two lines, the one
drawn through the outer toes and the other through the deepest point of fusion
penetration. While Leg Size is the usual method to specify and measure weld size, the
Effective Throat is a more accurate measure of fillet weld strength!
Welding Symbols: Welding symbols provide a system for placing welding information
on drawings and work sites for the purpose of relaying information to fitters, welders,
fabricators, inspectors, etc. These symbols quickly indicate the type of weld joint
needed to satisfy the requirements for the intended service conditions.
There are a number of standards throughout the world that relate to weld
symbols, but in the United States, AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
and Nondestructive Examination, is the standard. To start, the terms weld symbol and
welding symbol have important meanings in the AWS system. The weld symbol
identifies the specific type of weld (e.g., fillet, groove, plug, slot, etc.). The welding
symbol is the weld symbol with all the additional element information (e.g., size, pitch,
length, etc.) applied to it. Even though a welding symbol may consist of several
elements, only the reference line and an arrow are required elements.
The reference line is always drawn horizontally. The arrow connects the
reference line to the arrow side member of the weld joint. The arrow may or may not be
broken to indicate weld locations. The fillet weld symbol is probably the most recognized
weld symbol. The symbol represents a miniature detail of the weld. The fillet symbol is
drawn on the reference line with the perpendicular leg always to the left.
The location of the fillet weld(s) is designated by the arrow. The arrow is used to
point to a line, location, or area that conclusively identifies the joint, location, or area to
be welded. Fillet welds on the arrow side of the joint (regardless of which end the arrow
connects to the reference line) is specified by placing the fillet weld symbol below the
reference line.
 A fillet weld on the other side of the joint is specified by placing the fillet weld
symbol above the reference line. The standard dimensions of the fillet weld are size,
length, and pitch. Dimensions are required to be on the same side of the reference line
as the fillet weld symbol. The dimensions of double fillet welds are placed on both sides
of the reference line whether the dimensions are identical or different where placing the
dimension (size, length, and pitch) for an identical double fillet weld on both sides of the
reference line might not be done in practice to the AWS A2.4 requirement.
In some cases, identical dimension information might only be on one side of the
reference line. There could be a contract agreement or a drawing note in place allowing
this deviation. In other cases, the single dimension might be from the use of an older
drawing. Care must be taken before making any judgments on any identical double fillet
welding symbols.
The size of the fillet weld is specified to the left of the fillet weld symbol. The
length of the fillet weld when used is specified to the right of the weld symbol. If the
length dimension is not used, the fillet weld will extend the full length of the weld joint. If
the fillet weld is not continuous, but a constant intermittent length is needed, then the
pitch dimension is used. The pitch dimension (center-to-center spacing of welds) is
placed to the right of the length dimension and separated by a hyphen. There are two
types of intermittent fillet welds, chain and staggered. The chain intermittent fillet weld
dimensions are placed on both sides of the reference line and opposite to each other.
Welding System In the global marketplace, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) has developed ISO 2553:1992, Welded, Brazed, and Soldered
Joints –— Symbolic Representation on Drawings. The weld symbols in this standard
are very similar to AWS A2.4, but there are differences that can cause interpretation
difficulties or the incorrect usage of welding symbols for the unacquainted user.
The ISO system uses the same reference line and arrow system. In addition, the
ISO system uses a dashed identification line that is not utilized by AWS. The dashed
identification line is used to indicate the other side of the joint. Information applicable to
the arrow side of a joint is placed on the solid reference line. Information applicable to
the other side of a joint is placed on the dashed identification line.
The dashed identification line may be drawn above or below the solid reference
line; a symbol placed on the solid reference line is always applicable to the arrow side of
the joint and a symbol on the dashed identification line is always applicable to the other
side of the joint, regardless of whether the dashed identification line is placed above or
below the solid reference line. Different related documents on welding symbols are
listed below:
S. Code Details
No.
1. ANSI/AWS A2.4-98 Standard symbols for welding, brazing and
nondestructive examination.
2. ANSI/AWS.A3.0-85 Standard welding terms and definitions.
3. ANSI/AWS.D1.1-2000 Structural welding code.
4. AWS 2.1 DC Welding symbol chart (desk size).
5. AWS 2.1-WC Welding symbol chart (wall size).
6. BS 499-C: 1999 European arc welding symbols – symbolic
representation on drawings (wall chart based on BS EN
22553: 1995).
7. BS 499 Part 1: 1991 Welding terms and symbols. Part 1. Glossary for
welding, brazing and thermal cutting.
8. ISO 2553: 1992 and Welded, brazed and soldered joints – symbolic
BS EN 22553: 1995 representation on drawings.
9. ISO 9692-1: 2003 Welding and allied processes – recommendations for
BS EN 29692-1: 2003 joint preparation – manual metal
arc welding, Gas shielded metal arc welding, TIG
welding and beam welding of steels.
10. ISO 4063: 1990 and Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding:
BS EN 24063: 1992 Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers.

Tab. 3: Different Related Documents on Welding Symbols

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b)
 Fig. (c) to (h)

Break in arrow means arrow Single-Bevel-Groove and

side must be side that beveling Double Fillet weld Symbols
or other preparation required.

13-Apr-19 SKG 18 13-Apr-19 SKG 26

Fig. (i) & (j)

Fig. 31 (a) to (j): Representation of Different Welding Symbols
Welding positions: As discussed earlier, most of the welding is either Fillet (F)
or Groove (G) type. In fillet welds the sections to be joined are perpendicular or near
perpendicular. No edge preparation (groove) is associated. Groove weld is called so
because a groove is made first between plates to be welded. This type of weld is used
for developing butt joint, edge and corner joint. The groove preparation especially in
case of thick plates ensures proper melting of the faying surfaces by providing proper
access of heat source up to the root of the plates and so as to help in developing sound
weld joint. It is common to develop grooves of different geometries for producing butt,
corner and edge joint such as square (no edge preparation, maximum 5mm), U (single
and double), V (single and double), J (single and double) and bevel (single and double).
 However, the positions vary widely, the welding plane changes along with
associated difficulties. Common types of welding positions and various difficulties
associated with them are presented here. Further, need for edge preparation and the
rationale for selection of suitable groove design have also been presented. The primary
purpose is to make sure that code users understand the difference between testing
positions and production welding positions and to help users understand how to read
the figures that define production welding positions. Welding positions are classified
on the basis of the plane on which weld metal is deposited.

Fig. 32: Nomenclature of Different Welding Positions

• Flat welding: In flat welding, plates to be welded are placed on the horizontal
plane and weld bead is also deposited horizontally (Fig. 32,1st column). 1 is
the Prefix (1F/1G) to designate the position. This is one of most commonly
used and convenient welding position. Selection of welding parameters for flat
welding is not very crucial for placing the weld metal (from liquid weld pool) at
desired location in flat welding.
• Horizontal welding: In horizontal welding, plates to be welded are placed
in vertical plane while weld bead is deposited horizontally (Fig. 32, 2nd
column). 2 is the Prefix (2F/2G) to designate the position. This technique is
comparatively more difficult than flat welding. Welding parameters for horizontal
 welding should be selected carefully for easy manipulation/placement of weld
metal at the desired location.
• Vertical welding: In vertical welding, plates to be welded are placed on the
vertical plane and weld bead is also deposited vertically (Fig. 32, 3rd column).
3 is the Prefix (3F/3G) to designate the position. It imposes difficulty in placing
the molten weld metal from electrode in proper place along the weld line due to
tendency of the melt to fall down under the influence of gravitational force.
Viscosity and surface tension of the molten weld metal which are determined by
the composition of weld metal and its temperature predominantly control the
tendency of molten weld metal to fall down due to gravity.
o Increase in alloying elements/impurities and temperature of melt in
general decrease the viscosity and surface tension of the weld metal and
thus making the liquid weld metal more thin and of higher fluidity which in
turn increases tendency of weld metal to fall down conversely these
factors increase difficulty in placing weld metal at desired location.
Therefore, selection of welding parameters (welding current, arc
manipulation during welding and welding speed all are influencing the heat
generation) and electrode coating (affecting composition of weld metal)
dilution becomes very crucial for placing the weld metal at desired location
in vertical welding.
• Overhead welding: In overhead welding, weld metal is deposited in such
a way that face of the weld is largely downward (Fig. 32, 4th column). 4 is the
Prefix (4F/4G) to designate the position. There is high tendency of falling down
of weld metal during welding. Molten weld metal is moved from the electrode
(lower side) to base metal (upper side) with great care and difficulty. Hence, it
imposes problems similar to that of vertical welding but with greater intensity.
Accordingly, the selection of welding parameters, arc manipulation and welding
consumable should be done after considering all factors which can decrease the
fluidity of molten weld metal so as to reduce the weld metal falling tendency. This
is most difficult welding position and therefore it needs great skill to place the
weld metal at desired location with close control.
• Pipe Welding: The nomenclatures discussed above are related to welding
of plates. However, in industry two more types of welding are often encountered,
Plate to Pipe and Pipe to Pipe. Angular joining of pipes is also common,
particularly in Chemical Industries, Process Plants and industries dealing with
boilers. Though many of the welding positions are common, there are a few
welding positions typical to pipe welding. In Figure 33, a comprehensive
nomenclature for all possible welding positions is shown.
 Fig. 33: Comprehensive nomenclature for all welding positions
Standard Test Positions: Test positions are discreetly defined positions of test
coupons that are used when testing welders. Positions 1G, 3G, 6G, 2F, 5F, etc. are
specially defined standard positions used for testing. They are properly referred to as
Test Positions. Similar positions are found in ISO 6947 identified as PA, PC, PG, etc.
These positions have tolerance of ±15° from the defined horizontal planes and ±5° from
a defined vertical or inclined plane.

Testing Position 1G/PA

Test Position 2G/PC
±5°
Weld Axis Horizontal
Weld Axis
Horizontal

±15° ±5°

Plate Horizontal
±15°
Plates Vertical

18-Apr-19 skg 6 18-Apr-19 skg 7

(a) (b)
 Test Position 3F/PF or PG Test Position 6G / HL045 or JL045

±5° 45°±5°
18-Apr-19 skg 8 18-Apr-19 skg 9

(c) (d)
Fig. 34 (a) to (d): Standard Test Positions with Tolerance

Nominal sizes

Tolerance 2 to >30 >120 >400 >1000 >2000 >4000 >8000 >12000 >16000 >20000
Class 30 up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to up to
120 400 1000 2000 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000
Tolerances

A ±1 ±1 ±1 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±5 ±6 ±7 ±8 ±9
B ±1 ±2 ±2 ±3 ±4 ±6 ±8 ± 10 ± 12 ± 14 ± 16
C ±1 ±3 ±4 ±6 ±8 ± 11 ± 14 ± 18 ± 21 ± 24 ± 27
D ±1 ±4 ±7 ±9 ± 12 ± 16 ± 21 ± 27 ± 32 ± 36 ± 40
Tab. 4: Standard Tolerances for Welding on Linear Dimensions as per EN ISO 13920 Class B
Transition Points between welding Positions:

Tab. 5: Transition Points between welding Positions as shown in QW - 120

Fig. 35: Schematics of Transition for Groove Welds & Fillet Welds
BASICS OF WELD JOINT DESIGN
Introduction : in the earlier days, it was relatively easier to design and fabricate
a welded structure as the technology for mainly welding plain carbon steels was
known and that too with Manual Welding Process with limited types of electrode
available at affordable cost.
But today, with the proliferation of variety of steels and alloys, large number of
welding processes to choose from and innumerable types, varieties and ranges of
coated and uncoated electrodes for use the Welding Designers and Fabricators are
hard pressed for optimum design and welding of structures and consumer durables in
this era of acute competitive market and quality conscious consumers.
Objectives of Weld Joint Design: Weld joint design is done to provide an
assembly that:
• Will perform its intended function
• Will have the required reliability and safety
• Is capable of being fabricated, inspected and transported and placed in service
at minimum total cost inclusive of
✓ Design
✓ Materials
✓ Fabrication
✓ Inspection
✓ Transportation,
✓ Erection

Design or Welding: Welded joint is designed to meet a certain combination of

properties required by end user. Mandatory requirements are specified in various
fabrication codes. The majority of the codes specify the following in the welded joints:
• Type of joint
• Joint details
• Allowable design stress based on the material properties and service
conditions
• Manufacturing and testing.

Behaviour of Welded Structures under Different Types of Loading: All composite

and fabricated structures work under different environmental and loading conditions
such as:
• Static or Dynamic loading
• Concentrated or Distributed loading
• Tension, Compression or Torsional loading
• Combination of above loadings
• At normal temperature
• At sub-zero temperature
• At elevated temperature
Effects of Weld Defects and Notches on Welded Structures: Structures and
welds are designed on the basis of assumptions that the steels and the welds are
defect free resulting normal yield strength / tensile strength, ductility, toughness and
homogenous structures. However, inherent defects (either in design or in fabrication)
such as notch in the body or weld defects such as Undercut, Porosity, Cracks and
Lack of Fusion and Penetration etc. brings stress concentration resulting brittle
fracture under impact load. Failure of structural members at stresses well below their
yield strengths indicates other considerations besides the conventional tensile
properties. Analysis of the failures indicates that the fractures usually are due to
notches. Fracture surfaces provide an indication of the probable causes of failure.
Weld Design: A general guidance given below shows methods of calculation of
the strength and size of welds. Welded joints are often crucially important affecting
the safety of the structure and data below are only used for preliminary design
evaluations. Final detail design should be completed in a formal way using
appropriate codes and standards and quality reference documents. Before embarking
on designing of a weld, following points need to be considered:
• Strength of deposited weld material
• Type of joint and welding
• Size of weld
• Location of weld in relation to parts joined
• Types of stress to which the weld is subjected
• Conditions under which weld is carried out
• Type of equipment used for welding
• Skill of welder
Fundamental assumptions: Some fundamental assumptions are made while
designing a weld:
• Welds are homogeneous and isotropic elements
• Welds are rigid and their deformations are negligible
• Effects of residual stresses, stress concentrations and shape of the welds are
neglected in static design.

Fig. 36: Loading in Any Axis Inducing Stress and Strain in Other Axes
Mohr's circle: Named
after Christian Otto Mohr, is
two-dimensional graphical
representation of the
transformation law for the
Cauchy stress tensor. It is
also used for calculating
stresses in many planes by
reducing them to vertical and
horizontal components. These
are called principal planes in
which principal stresses are
calculated; Mohr's circle can Fig. 37: Mohr's circle
also be used to find out the
principal planes and the principal stresses in a graphical representation. The abscissa
and ordinate of each point on the circle are the magnitudes of the normal stress and
shear stress components, respectively, acting on the rotated coordinate system. In
other words, the circle is the locus of points that represent the state of stress on
individual planes at all their orientations, where the axes represent the principal axes of
the stress element.
Mohr's Circle for Plane Stress: When a structural element is subjected to
several types of loads acting simultaneously, say bending and torsion, principal stresses
occur. These stresses act on principal planes where the shear stresses are zero. In
addition, many engineering problems, such as axial bars, beams in bending and circular
members in torsion, are examples of a state of stress called plane stress:

σZ = ZX = ZY = 0
Procedure for determining principal stresses for a state of plane stress is as follows:

• Determine the point on the body in which the principal stresses are to be
determined.
• Treat the load cases independently and calculate the stresses for the point
chosen. When applicable, combine the stresses to determine the state of stress
at the point.
• Choose a set of x-y reference axes and draw a square element centered on the
axes.
• Identify the stresses σx, σy, and xy = yz and list them with the proper direction.
• Calculate the principal stresses, the maximum shear stress and the principal
plane if required.

Principal Stresses (Shear Stress = 0):

σ𝑥 −σ𝑦 2
) + 𝑥𝑦 2
σ𝑥 +σ𝑦
σ1 = + √(
2 2
 σ𝑥 −σ𝑦 2
) + 𝑥𝑦 2
σ𝑥 +σ𝑦
σ2 = − √(
2 2

σ𝑥 −σ𝑦 2
max = σ1 −σ2
2
= √( 2
) + 𝑥𝑦 2

Principal Planes (Planes on which Principal Stresses Act):

2𝑥𝑦
2Ɵ𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 σ
𝑥 −σ𝑦

Plane of Maximum Shear Stress:

σ𝑥 −σ𝑦
2Ɵ𝑠 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 − 2
𝑥𝑦

Average Stress (Shear Stress is Maximum):

σ𝑥 +σ𝑦
σ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

Important Observations:
• Principal stresses occur on mutually perpendicular planes.
• Shear stresses are zero on principal planes.
• Planes of maximum shear stress occur at 45° to the principal planes.
• The maximum shear stress is equal to one half the difference of the principal
stresses.
It should be noted that the equation for principal planes, 2θp, yields two angles
between 0° and 360°. Which one corresponds to σ 1 and which to σ2? This can be
determined by substituting one of the values into the stress transformation equation for
normal stress.
For a single stress system, stress level must be kept below Yield Stress. If the
principal stresses in a three dimensional stress system are σ1 > σ2> σ3 , then max =
σ1 −σ2
and hence yield stress should not exceed σ1- σ3. This is known as Tresca Yield
2
criteria.
Not all the direct stresses are principal stresses, the plane of principal stress can have
no shear stress associated with it.
Basic philosophy of weld design: Short welds should be avoided as weld start & stop can be
a source of defect. As a rule of thumb, fillet welds should be longer than 8 times the throat
thickness; e. g. throat thickness of 5mm gives minimum weld length of 40mm. While calculating
strength of a fillet joint, the throat thickness should always be used considering it a perfect
triangle, i.e. 0.707*Leg length. Also discounting for first and last 12mm from stress calculation
also improves reliability.
Fig. 38: Relationship between Leg Length and Throat in Different Welding
The basic designs of Butt joints are shown in the diagram below with
conventional Vee angle, Root Gap and Root Face. The requirement of Back Gouging
for sound root and use of Backing Strip is also shown.
 Joint Design
0 0
45 60
B
A ROOT GAP
C D

LAND SPACER

E RIGHT WRONG

F
BACK 11/4/2009
GOUGING 43

Fig. 39: Basic Designing of VEE Groove Weld

While designing a weld, following aspects are to be kept in mind:
• Avoiding stress concentration is important if the connection is to be subjected to
fatigue load.
• If the joints are welded from one side, the part should not be bent with the root in
tension, nor used in transverse fatigue, nor used in impact loading.
• If partially penetrated joints are made – should not be exposed to corrosive
conditions.
• Effective Throat is never greater than the depth of joint penetration.
• Throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of the
weld.
• Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness,
whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.
Determining the Weld Size
Groove Weld: In determining the weld size of a Groove weld the following points
are to be considered:
• In consideration of strength, groove welds must be made all the way through
the plate i.e. 100 % penetration.
• Since a groove weld, properly made has equal or better strength than the
plate, there is no need to calculate the stress in the weld or the size of the
weld.
• The only consideration is that the weld metal deposit must be same or similar
to the parent metal composition to match the strength.
Excess Weld Metal Limits: It is very difficult, in fact impossible to deposit the
correct amount of weld metal to form the correct shape of the weld bead. The limits
for weld metal deposit for quality weld should be as per the table given below:
 Acceptable from the unacceptable
excess weld metal
Excess weld metal limits for quality levels:
Severity of Moderate, D Stringent, B
service
Limit (up to h = 1mm + h = 1mm +
maximum) 0.25 b 0.25 b
Maximum 10 mm 3 mm
Transition smooth smooth
required
Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead
11/4/2009 55

Tab. 5: Limit of acceptable Excess Deposits

Fillet Weld: In determining the weld size of a Fillet weld the following points are
to be considered
• Avoiding stress concentration is important if the structure to be subjected to
fatigue load.
• If the joints are welded from one side, the part should not be bent with the
root in tension, nor used in transverse fatigue, nor used in impact loading.
• If partially penetrated joints are made – should not be exposed to corrosive
conditions.
• Effective Throat is never greater than the depth of joint penetration.
• Throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective length of
the weld.
• Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat
thickness, whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.
• Welds with effective lengths shorter than 40mm or 6 times the throat
thickness, whichever is larger, should be ignored for transmission of forces.

EFFECTIVE Strength of the weld depends on the size of the fillet

THROAT LEG Types of Lap Joint Welds subjected to heavy loads,
loads -
double-fillet lap joint

LEG
THEORETICAL
THROAT

Double Fillet Joggle Lap Joint

Double Fillet Welded

Adjacent Single
Continuous Sheet Edges Sheet To
Through- Welded to Backing Backing
ACTUAL THROAT Lap Joint Structure Structure
FILLET WELD
NOMENCLATURE
11/4/2009 56 11/4/2009 57
 Lap joints welded with fillet welds
Shape Imperfections . .

Effect of Weld
Penetration on
Stress
concentration in
1-1/2 in. Fillet
11/9/2009 Welds 72

Fig. 40: Welding Calculation for Different Types of Fillet Weld

Stress concentration in Fillet Weld: As discussed earlier, stress concentration
is highly damaging for a structure, particularly when in dynamic loading. As fillet
welds normally involves two planes, it is inherently susceptible to stress
concentration and special attention is to be given while designing. Within the
limits of design constraints, effort must be made for gradual transition of cross
section rather than abrupt change. Figure 41 below illustrate the idea.

Fig. 41: Gradual transition in section reduce Stress Concentration

Determination of Welding Size:
Welds are sized to withstand static Loading. The traditional approach in a fillet
weld design assumes that the load is resisted by the weld’s throat, regardless of the
direction of loading. Experience and experimentation, however, have shown that fillet
welds loaded perpendicular to their longitudinal axis have an ultimate strength that is
approximately 50% greater than the same weld loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis.
The traditional approach, in which direction of loading is not considered, is therefore
conservative.
The effective area of a fillet shall be the effective length multiplied by the effective
throat. Stress in a fillet weld shall be considered as applied to this effective area, for any
direction of applied load. The effective throat shall be the shortest distance from the joint
root to the weld face of the diagrammatic joint.
This definition of effective throat is also conservative. It accurately defines the
theoretical failure plane for fillet welds loaded parallel to their length, but underestimates
the increased effective throat that results when the failure plane moves from a 45°
orientation to a 67.5° orientation, characteristic of fillet welds loaded perpendicular to
their longitudinal axis.

Fig. 42: Stress Calculation in Fillet Weld

Some Guiding Tips:
• A generous factor of safety should be used (3-5) and if fluctuating loads are
present then additional design margins should be included to allow for fatigue
Use the minimum amount of filler material consistent with the job requirement
Try to design joint such that load path is not through the weld
• The table below provides approximate stresses in, hopefully, a convenient way.
✓ For the direct loading case the butt weld stresses are tensile/ compressive
σt
✓ for the fillet welds the stresses are assumed to be shear s applied to the
weld throat.
✓ For butt welded joints subject to bending, the stresses result from a
tensile/compressive stress σb and a direct shear stress s. In these cases the
design basis stress should be 𝜎𝑟 = √𝜎𝑏 2 + 4s 2 .
✓ For Fillet welded joints subject to bending the stresses in the fillet welds are
all shear stresses. From bending b and from shear s. In these cases the
design basis stress is generally 𝜎𝑟 = √𝜎b 2 + s 2 .
✓ The stresses from joints subject to torsion loading include shear stress from
the applied load and shear stresses from the torque loading. The resulting
stresses should be added vectorically taking care to choose the location of
the highest stresses
 Stress Stress in Stress in
in Weld Weld Weld
Method of σb σb τb
Weldment Weldment Weldment
Loading τs τs τs
Weld Weld size Weld size
size (h) (h) (h)

Tab. 6: Table of bracket weld subject to direct and bending stresses

Assessment of Fillet Weld Groups (refer notes and table Properties)
The methods described below are based on the simple method of calculation of weld
stress as identified in BS 5950- clause 6.7.8.2. The other method identified in BS 5950 -
1 clause 6.7.8.3 as the direction method uses the method of resolving the forces
transmitted by unit thickness welds per unit length into traverse forces (FT ) and
longitudinal forces (FL ).
The method of assessing fillet welds groups treating welds as lines is reasonably safe
and conservative and is very convenient to use.
Weld subject to bending: A fillet weld subject to bending is assessed as follows:
• The area of the fillet weld Au (unit thickness) is calculated assuming the weld is
one unit thick.
• The (unit) Moment of Inertia Iu is calculated assuming the weld is one unit thick.

• The maximum shear stress due to bending is determined as b = M.y/Iu.

• The maximum shear stress due to direct shear is determined s = P/A

• The resultant stress σr = √σb 2 + s 2
• By comparing the design strength Pw with the resultant stress σr , the value of the
weld throat thickness is calculated and then the weld size, i.e. if the σr /pw = 5
then the throat thickness t = 5 units and the weld leg size h = 1.414*t
Weld subject to torsion: A fillet weld subject to torsion is assessed as follows:
• The area of the fillet weld Au (unit thickness) is calculated assuming the weld is
one unit thick.
• The (unit) Polar Moment of Inertia Ju is calculated assuming the weld is one unit
thick. The polar moment of inertia Ju = Ixx + Iyy.
• The maximum shear stress due to torsion is determined. σt = σr /Ju.
• The maximum shear stress due to direct shear is determined. s = P /Au.
• The resultant stress σr is the vector sum of r and s . r is chosen to give the
highest value of σr.
• By comparing the design strength Pw with the resultant stress σr, the value of the
weld throat thickness is calculated and then the weld size. i.e. if the σr /Pw = 5
then the throat thickness t = 5 units and the weld leg size h = 1.414*t
Shear and Bending: Welds, which are subjected to combined shear and torsion
are shown in Fig. 43(a). Welds, which are subjected to combined shear and bending are
shown in Fig. 43(b). It is a common practice to treat the variation of shear stress as
uniform if the welds are short. But, if the bending stress is calculated by the flexure
formula, the shear stress variation for vertical welds will be parabolic with a maximum
value equal to 1.5 times the average value. These bending and shear stress variations
are shown in Fig. 43(c). It may be observed here that the locations of maximum bending
and shearing stresses are not the same. Hence, for design purposes the stresses need
not be combined at a point. It is generally satisfactory if the weld is designed to
withstand the maximum bending stress and the maximum shear stress separately. If the
welds used are as shown in Fig. 43(d), it can be safely assumed that the web welds
would carry all the of the shear and the flange welds all of the moment.

Fig. 43(a): Welds subjected to shear and torsion

(b): Welds subjected to shear and bending

Fig. 43(c): Variation of bending Fig. 43(d): Weld provision for carrying
and shear stress shear and moment

Example of Weld in
Torsion (Figure 44):
Given:
P = Applied load = 10,000 N
P w = Design Strength = 220 N/mm 2 (Electrode E35 steel S275)
b = 120mm.
d = 150 mm.
x = b2 / 2(b+d) = 27mm.
y = d2 / 2(b+d) = 42mm.
Analysis:
The vector sum of the stresses due to forces and moments should not exceed the
design strength Pw.
A u = Unit Throat Area = (From table below) b + d = (120 + 150) = 270mm 2
To obtain radius of Force from weld centre of gravity
A = 250 - 27 = 223mm
Moment M = P*r = 10000*223 = 2.23X106 N.mm
J u = [(b+d)4 - 6b2d2] /12 (b+d) = 1.04X106..(From Table)
It is necessary to locate the point subject to the highest shear stress. For a weld
subject to only torsion this would be simply at the point furthest from the Centre of
Gravity. However, because the weld is subject to torsion and direct shear, the problem
is more complicated. The normal method of determining the stresses in these cases is
to use vector addition.
It is generally prudent to calculate the total shear stress at both positions, using
the method below, and select the highest. For this example the method used is to
resolve the stresses in the x and y directions.
First considering point Z
Horizontal distance from centroid rzh = 120-27 = 93mm
Vertical distance from centroid rzv = 42mm
The vertical stress σv = σsv + σtv
σsv = P /Au = 10000/270 = 37 N/mm2
σtv = M*rzh /Ju = 2.23X106X93/1.04X106 = 199 N/mm2
σv = σsv + σtv = 236 N/mm2
The horizontal stress σh = σsh + σth
σsh = 0
σth = M*rzv /Ju = 2.23X106X42/1.04.106 = 90 N/mm2
σh = 90 N/mm2
The resultant stress on the weld at z, σr = √σℎ 2 + σ𝑣 2 = 253 N/mm2
Now considering point W
Horizontal distance from centroid rwh = 120 - 27 = 93mm
Vertical distance from centroid rwv = 150-42 = 108mm
The vertical stress σv = σsv - σtv
σsv = P /Au = 10000/270 = 37 N/mm2
σtv = M*rwh /Ju = 2.23X106X27/1.04.106 = 57.9 N/mm2
σv = 20,86 N/mm2
The horizontal stress σh = σsh + σth
σsh = 0
σth = M*rwv /Ju = 2.23X106X108/1.04.106 = 231.6 N/mm2
The resultant stress on the weld at w
σr = √σℎ 2 + σ𝑣 2 = 253 N/mm2 = 232.5 N/mm2
The maximum stress is similar but greatest at z. The design strength Pw for the
weld material is 220 N/mm2. The weld throat thickness should be 253 /220 = 1.15mm.
The weld size is therefore 1.414*1.15 = 1.62mm use 3mm fillet weld.
Example of Weld in Bending (Figure 45):

Fig. 45: Weld Subjected to Bending

Given:
P = 30000 Newtons
D = 100mm
B = 75mm
y = 50mm
Design Stress pw = 220 N/mm2 (Electrode E35 steel S275)
Moment = M = 30000*60=18X105 N.mm
Analysis:
Unit Weld Area = Au = 2(d+b) =2(100+75) =350mm2
Unit Moment of Inertia = Iu = d2(3b+d) / 6 = 1002(3*75 +100) / 6 =5.42X105 mm4

r = √s 2 + 𝑏 2
s = P /Au. = 30000/350 = 85.71 N/mm2
b = M*y / Iu = 18X105*50/5.42X105 = 166.05 N/mm 2
r = √85.712 + 166.052 = 186.86 N/mm2
r/pw = 186.86/220 = 0.85 = Throat Thickness
Leg Length = Throat thickness*1.414 = 1.2mm; use 3mm weld thickness
Note: If a leg length h= 1.2mm is used in the equations in relevant part of the "Table of
bracket weld subject to direct and bending stresses" above a value of b = 198 N/mm
and a value of s = 100 N/mm2 results with a resultant stress of √s 2 + 𝑏 2 =
2
222N/mm , which is in general agreement with the above result.
Design Example:
Consider two lap joints with fillet welds loaded as in Figure 46 (a) & (b). What weld size
is needed to resist the applied load of 40 kips (189kN), using E70 electrodes with L =
100 mm (4”)?

Fig. 46. (a): Weld Loaded in Parallel (b): Weld Loaded Perpendicularly

Solution:
Allowable stress in a linear weld group loaded in-plane through the centre of gravity:
FV = 0.30 FEXX (1.0 + 0.50sin1.5Q)
Where:
FV = allowable unit stress in ksi
FEXX = electrode classification number, i.e. minimum specified tensile strength
ksi
Q = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis in degrees
For parallel loading, Q = 0, and the parenthetical term in the above equation becomes
1, yielding the same allowable unit stress as has been traditionally permitted.
For perpendicular loading, Q = 90°, and the parenthetical term becomes 1.5, permitting
the increased allowable unit stress.
So, for Lap joint with fillet welds loaded in parallel,
FV = 0.30 (70 ksi) (1 + 0.5sin1.50°) = 21 ksi
F = FV*A = FV*2*0.707*w (2 welds)
w = F / FV. 2L(0.707) = 40 kips / 21 ksi x 4”x 0.707 = 0.337”; So, use 3/8” fillet
Lap joint with fillet welds loaded perpendicularly,
FV = 0.30 (70 ksi) (1 + 0.5sin1.590°) = 31.5 ksi
w = 40 kips / (31.5 ksi) x 2 x 4 x 0.707 = 0.224”; So, use 1/4” fillet
NOTE: Consistent with expectations, the welds in Figure 46(b) are permitted to be
decreased — in this case, by two standard weld sizes. The weld in Figure 46(b)
requires 55% less weld metal than the welds in Figure 46(a).
Deformation Capacity: Along with the increase in strength of welds loaded
perpendicular to their length, the researchers found a decrease in the deformation
capacity before failure. If significant post yielding deformation capacity is desired, the
assembly in Figure 46(a) would be preferred. However, as most engineered structures
are expected to remain elastic under design loads, so consideration of only the strength
is generally adequate.
Shear Strength of Weld: Horizontal shear stress on each weld of the Figure 47 is
given by:
𝐕∗𝐚∗𝐲
𝒉 =
𝐈∗𝐧
Where
V = Total shear force on section at a given position
along beam in Newton
a = Area of flange held by weld in m2
y = Distance between the CG of flange area and
normal axis of the whole section in m
I = Moment of Inertia of the section in m4 Fig. 47: Shear Strength of Weld
n = Number of welds joining each flange to web
Worked Out Example (Figure 48):

Fig. 48: Shear Strength Analysis of Weld

Given:
Width of the flange = 250mm. Thickness of the flange = 70mm
Thickness of the web = 15mm. Depth of the web = 1200mm
Total shear on section = 860 Kn
Analysis:
V = 860 kN = 0.86MN
a = Cross sectional area held by the weld = 0.7*0.25 = 0.175m2
y = Distance between the c. g. of the flange area and n. a. of the section =
(1200 + 70)/2*1000 = 0.635m
I = Moment of Inertia = (0.25*1.343 – 0.235*1.23)/12 = 0.1628m4
n = Number of welds joining each flange to web = 2
Throat area of for a parallel loaded fillet weld = 0.707w
Allowable shear strength = 96 MN/m
ℎ = (V*a*Y)/I*n = 0.86*0.175*0.63/0.1628*2 = 0.2934712MN/m
Now, if the designed shear strength requirement is 96MN/m 2, then the required leg w is
to be such that:
0.707 w x 96 = 0.2934712 or w = 4.32mm
This should be the minimum leg size of the continuous fillet weld.
Lap Joint Subject to Torsion:
• The pivot point is the centroid of the weld area: Welds of different sizes, (or) three
welds, pivot has to be calculated taking moments of the weld area.
• The allowable shear stress in steel weld metal in groove & fillet welds is about
30% of the nominal tensile stress of the base weld metal.

Fig. 49: Lap Joint Subject to Torsion

CANTILEVER: Welds Subject to both bending and shear.

• Web stiffeners can be fillet welded inside the column to evenly distribute the
transfer of load
• The stress induced in fillet weld joint is complex; eccentricity of application. Load,
weld shape & notch; Shear, tension, compression.

Fig. 50: A Welded Cantilever structure

Fig. 51: Stress Concentration in a Welded Cantilever Structure

Determining Fillet Weld Size: The rule of thumb for fillet weld size is that in order
to develop the full strength of a plate by Fillet Weld, it is necessary that the leg size of
a Fillet be ¾ of the plate thickness, assuming that:
• Both sides of the plate has fillet weld
• Full length of the plate is fillet welded
• The thickness of the thinner plate is taken into the calculation
When a member is designed to maintain a certain degree of rigidity or
stiffness, the stresses are usually of a rather low value, but the weld size is still
dependent on the forces which must be transferred through them. The rigidity design
would require a fillet leg length of 1/2 to 1/3 of the full weld size.
Improving Fatigue Strength: Fatigue strength can be improved by
• Using Butt joints rather than Lap joints
• Avoiding intermittent Fillet welds
• Minimizing size of the Fillet weld
• Peening the weld immediately after welding
• Post weld heat treatment to remove built in stress
• Tumbling welded small components
• Giving preference to design of structures with multiple load paths.

.
Fig. 52 (a): Fatigue of weldments Fig. 52 (b): Stress concentration
 Fig. 53: S-N Curve of Different Welded Structures
Stress Concentration Factors Kt: Stress Concentration factors (Kt’s) for
numerous “simple” geometries have been determined by researchers (analytical
equations). Roark and Peterson have compiled these into easy to use tables.
Using “simple” Kt’s for complex geometries can induce error. Determining stress
concentration factors (Kt) for complex geometries can be difficult and expensive. If
strain gauges cannot be applied to the maximum stress location, remote stresses must
be used to determine the peak stress value (induces error). Stress concentration factor
is given by Kt = σmax / σnom.
FEA results can be used to easily determine the maximum stress (σmax).
Determining the nominal stress (σnom) can be more difficult. Knowledge of the stress
gradient provides a means of determining the nominal stress (σnom).

Fig. 54: Square Shoulder with Fillet (Pure Bending)

FEA model: The max stress (12242 lbf/in2) occurs adjacent to the beginning of the
fillet. For ease of calculation (known cross-section and moment arm), the Kt is
determined at the beginning of the fillet where the max stress is 10,900 lbf/in. For pure
bending
σmax = M*Y/I = σnom (stress if Kt did not exist) = M*Y/(bh/12) =
1.500 in*1000 lbf*0.500 in / (1.000 in*1.000 in / 12) = 9000 lbf/in2
Using the FEA, σmax (10,900 lbf/in2) at the beginning of the fillet and σnom from
the area under the curve, the Kt for the square shoulder with fillet geometry is:
Kt (FEA) = σmax (FEA) / σnom = 10900 lbf/in2 / 8665.2 lbf/in2 = 1.258
Using the analytical formula from Roark, (Kt Formula) is 1.222. So, percentage error in
Kt through formula is only 2.95% on the lower side.
Example of FEA: The problem considered here is a plate of length 100 mm and width
40 mm and with a thickness is subjected to a tension of 900N and this force is applied
as uniformly distributed force. The thickness of the plate in the present problem is taken
larger so that both the solid and shell elements of various types can be compared. The
performance of solids is not discussed much in the literature and this is the reason we
have taken a configuration which can be useful to a variety of problems in Finite
Element Analysis. Figure 55 represents the loading and the dimensions.

Fig. 55: loading and dimensions for FEA.

Finite Element Analysis Results: Several finite elements have been used for
analyzing the stress concentration. HYPERMESH software has been used for finite
element modeling i.e. preparation of the mesh and a combination of all available
algorithms like ruled / mapped meshing, spline mesh, automesh have been used for
generating the elements in Two- Dimensions. Three dimensional elements are also
used in the analysis. The analysis is done using the MSC NASTRAN solver. The results
are post processed in Hypermesh. Von-Mises stress plots have only been taken as they
are the most important. Further mesh refinement (approximately the number of
elements is doubled) has been carried out wherever felt appropriate (i.e. say refined
mesh of linear quadrilateral Vs. coarse mesh of second order quadrilateral), to study
whether the element gives a higher level of accuracy. The deflection of the hole is not
presented here as it would lead to very large number of plots but a comparison table
has been given so that the user can get an idea on the accuracy. The question on why
two meshes of coarse and fine are compared can be answered as in the industry,
where stress concentration is not there, one often uses element sizes ranging from 10
mm to say 40 mm and in the region of stress concentration the size typically used
ranges from 3 to 6 mm. In the coarse mesh results presented here, the average size is
about 10 mm and fine mesh has an average size of 5 mm.

Fig. 56: Coarse Quadrilateral (4 noded) Mesh

Fig. 57: Deformed shape plot

 Fig. 58: Displacement plot

Fig. 59: Fracture Toughness Vs. Strength for Different Engineering Materials

XXX END XXX