Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Met 03

WELDABILITY & WELDING OF CARBON – Mn STEELS,
ALLOY STEELS AND CAST IRONS

Weldability: “Weldability may be defined as the capacity of a metal to be welded

under the fabrication conditions imposed, into a suitable designed structure, and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service”.
In other words, “Weldability is the ease with which a metal can be welded to
give the required service” or “Weldability is the amount and nature of problems you
face to weld a material”
Weldability Problems:
• Cracking
- In the weld
▪ solidification cracks
▪ micro-fissuring
- In the HAZ
▪ H2 induced cold cracks
▪ liquation cracks
▪ reheat cracks
• Porosity
• Oxidation of reactive metals
• Reduced joint strength
- In the weld
- In the HAZ
• Reduced corrosion resistance
Oxidation of Aluminium, Magnesium, Inert gas shielding, active
reactive metals Titanium fluxes
Gas-metal reaction Porosity : N2 –in steel , O2 – Use of de-oxidisers in filler
or dissolution in Cu &NI, H2 in Al & Ti metal. Inert gas
Vaporisation of low Porosity : Zinc in brasses Use of Sn-bronze filler
B.P. metals and low currents
Hot cracking in Due to low melting Use of 2-phase fillers e.g.
weld constituents, impurities eg. S, SS electrodes with 5%
P, Pb ferrite.
Hot cracking in HAZ Embrittlement, liquation Heat Use of lower M.P. alloys
treatable alloys of aluminium
Cold cracking in Hydrogen cracking of C-Mn Use of pre-heat and low
HAZ and alloy steels H2 electrodes
Reduction in HAZ Precipitation / Age hardened Control heat input,
strength alloys Solution anneal and heat-
treat after weld.
Reduction in HAZ of SS welds due to Use of stabilised or ELC
corrosion Chrome carbide precipitation steels
resistance
Fig. 1: Examples of Weldability Problems & Solutions
Weldability is a Process Related phenomenon. A job which cannot be performed in a
particular process may be performed in some different welding process.
Characteristics of Fusion Welding Processes:
• High heat input of the welding arc / heat source and influence of arc
atmosphere
• Solidification of the molten filler metal and fused portion of base metal into a
separate weld zone
• Parent metal on both sides of the weld affected by the weld thermal cycle –
Heat affected zone ( HAZ )
• Metallurgical effects on both reheating and cooling
Characteristics of Solid / Plastic state welding processes:
• Below melting point of metals
• No arc atmosphere / effect of gases
• No filler metal
• Bonding through diffusion / plastic state mixing
Examples are diffusion welding, ultra-sonic welding, forge welding, explosive
welding, friction welding, friction stir welding
Whereas the fusion welding processes have more weldability problems, they
are in general more versatile, economic and suitable over a wide range of shapes
and sizes of fabricated products. The solid state processes may have advantages in
less weldability constraints but have limitations in practical applicability and
economics.
Demands on materials of construction:
• Higher strength
• Improved toughness down to cryogenic temperatures
• Resistance to corrosion by a wide variety of chemicals and corrosive media.
• High temperature oxidation resistance
• Resistance to creep at high temperatures
• Higher strength : weight ratio
• Wear and erosion resistant
• Should be weldable
Mechanisms used by metallurgists for improving strength can have adverse
effect on weldability.
Strength/ hardness is improved by:
• Solid solution hardening
• Dispersion of second phase
• Phase transformation e.g. martensitic transformation
• Precipitation hardening – carbides / nitrides / inter-metallic compounds
• Ageing ( time dependent precipitation hardening )
• Work hardening
Toughness is improved by:
• Grain refinement / fine grain size
• Low impurity level
• Austenite phase – promoted by Nickel, Manganese etc.
Creep resistance is improved by:
• Finely dispersed carbides of chromium, molybdenum, vanadium etc, formed
after tempering of martensitic / bainitic steels. eg 1Cr-0.5Mo, 2Cr-1Mo steels
upto P92 steels
Materials Grouping for Weldability: Materials have been grouped under ASME
section IX and ISO/TR 15608 based on comparable base metal characteristics such
as Composition, Weldability, Brazeability and Mechanical Properties. The objective
is to reduce the number of welding and brazing procedure qualifications. Under
ASME these groups are assigned P-Numbers. Ferrous metals which have specified
impact test requirements have been assigned Group Numbers within P-Numbers.
Sl no Material ASME Sec IX P nos ISO/TR 15608 Groups
1 Steels 1, 3 – 11 1 – 11
2 Aluminium and Al alloys 21 – 25 21 – 26
3 Copper and Cu alloys 31 – 35 31 – 38
4 Nickel and Ni alloys 41 – 47 41 – 48
5 Titanium and Ti alloys 51 – 53 51 – 54
6 Zirconium and Zr alloys 61 & 62 61 & 62
7 Cast Iron nil 71 – 76
Fig. 2: ASME Sec IX and ISO/TR 15608 material groups
P No ASME steel base metal Group ISO/TR 15608 Type of steel
1 Carbon & Carbon – 1 Steels with C ≤ 0.25,Si ≤ 0.60,Mn ≤
Manganese steels 1.8 with Y.S ≤ 275 / >275-360 ≤
/>360
2 Not used 2 Thermo-mechanically treated fine-
grain steels, cast steels with
Y.S.>360-460 ≤ />460
3 0.5Mo & 0.5Cr-0.5Mo 3 QT steels and pptn hardened fine
grained steels (other than SS) Y.S
.>360-690 ≤ />690
4 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steels 4 Low V alloyed Cr-Mo-(Ni) steels Mo
≤ 0.7, V ≤ 0.1
5 A, B, 5A – Lower Cr-Mo, 5B - 5&9 5 Cr-Mo steels free of V C ≤ 0.35
C Cr-Mo & 5C- Cr-Mo-V steels
6 Martensitic stainless steels 6 High V alloyed Cr-Mo-(Ni) steels
7 Ferritic Stainless steels 7 Ferritic, Martensitic or pptn
hardened SS with C ≤ 0.35, 10.5 ≤
Cr ≤ 30%
8 Austenitic stainless steels 8 Austenitic SS and Mn austenitic SS
9A,B,C 2 – 4% Nickel steels 9 Nickel alloy steels with Ni ≤ 10
10 A-K Various low alloy steels and 10 Austenitic ferritic SS ( duplex )
Duplex, Super duplex and
High alloy SS
11 A, B Various high strength low 11 Steels covered by Gr1 except 0.25
alloy steels including 9% Ni. ≤ C ≤ 0.85
Fig. 3: Material grouping of Steel ASME Sec IX and ISO/TR 15608
Weldability & Welding of Carbon Manganese Steels:
Carbon & Alloy steels: Steels are alloys of iron with a max. carbon content of 2%.
Plain carbon steels contain less than 1.65 Mn, 0.6 Si and 0.6 Cu. Alloys steels
contain Mn, Si, Cu in greater quantities or other alloying elements. Alloy additions
enhance their mechanical properties. Typical alloying elements are Ni, Cr, Mo, V.
Mild steel for Structural Purposes:
Carbon 0.15 – 0.25 % (covered by IS: 2062):
• Used in as-rolled and air-cooled condition in the form of plates, channels &
other structural sections
• Structure : Ferrite + 25% fine pearlite
• Properties :
✓ Y.S 300 to 350 MPa
✓ UTS 400 to 450 MPa
✓ El. 26 – 30
Low carbon steels – up to 0.1% C:
• Very good ductility, used as cold rolled sheets in automobile and white goods
industry
• Structure : Mainly ferrite + small amount pearlite
• Properties :
✓ YS 200–300 MPa
✓ UTS 300–370 MPa
✓ El. 28–40%
High strength low alloy structural steels:
• Carbon in same range as mild steels 0.15 – 0.25%
• Low amounts of alloying elements Mo, Cr, Cu, Ni etc. added e. g. weathering
steels to IS: 11587
• Structure accicular ferrite and bainite or ferrite and tempered martensite
• Sronger and tougher than pearlitic steels with higher strength
• Hardenability is increased which affects weldability
• Properties :
✓ YS 400-700 MPa
✓ UTS 500-800 MPa
✓ El. 18-25%
Micro – alloyed HSLA steels
• Fine dispersion of alloy carbides results in strengthening by precipitation
hardening
• Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc added Total
amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-alloyed steels
• Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in very fine grain size
ASTM 12 – 14. Also improves strength.
• Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give improved strength
and toughness without impairing weldability. Previously covered by IS:8500 –
1991 now included in Is: 2062
 • Gives comparitively lower elongation but better toughness than low alloy
HSLA steels
• Properties:
✓ YS 400 – 500 MPa
✓ UTS 600 – 650 MPa
✓ El. 20 – 22 %
Weldability Problems in C - Mn steels
• Hydrogen induced cold cracking ( HICC )
✓ HAZ cracking
✓ Delayed cracking
• Solidification cracking
✓ Hot cracking in the weld
✓ Centerline cracking
• Lamellar tearing
Mechanism of HICC: Hydrogen in the form of atoms get absorbed by the weld pool
diffuses to the fusion zone and HAZ. As the weld solidifies and cools, it forms
pockets of molecular hydrogen at GB which exerts additional stress on the
susceptible microstructure. In combination with existing stresses it may cause
cracking, generally in HAZ but can also take place in weldment of multi-pass welds.
3 factors contribute to Hydrogen induced cold cracking:
• Presence of Hydrogen from the welding process
• Presence of contraction and residual stresses - Weld design & procedure
• A brittle martensitic micro-structure produced by rapid cooling in HAZ area
heated above A1 line
Formation of hard microstructure is dependent on Chemical composition (intrinsic to
material) and Cooling rate, which in turn depends on Combined thickness of joint,
Heat input of process Degree of preheat if any and inter-pass temperature.

Fig. 4: Hydrogen absorption in welding Fig. 5: Hydrogen induced cracking

Hydrogen Controlled Consumables and Welding Processes: Hydrogen
controlled consumables produce less than 15mL/100g of diffusible hydrogen (H D) in
the weld metal. Controlled hydrogen processes include:
 1. Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) using EXX15, EXX16, EXX18, EXX28
and EXX48 electrodes having typically HD 5-15mL /100g of deposited weld
metal;
2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)having typically HD < 1 mL/100g of weld
metal;
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) having typically HD < 3 mL/100g of deposited
weld metal;
4. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) gas shielded using seamless cored wire
electrodes having typically <5mL/100g of deposited weld metal;
5. FCAW gas shielded using metal cored wires having typically HD 5 – 10
mL/100g of deposited weld metal;
6. FCAW gas shielded using seamed cored wire electrodes having typically HD 5
– 15 mL/100g of deposited weld metal;
7. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) typically HD 3-8 mL/100g of deposited weld
metal provided new dry flux is used.
Data for welding with hydrogen controlled flux coated or cored consumables
include some allowance for the presence of limited moisture content, as it is
considered that full drying of fluxes to very low moisture levels is not always
achievable. Consumables for semi-automatic and automatic processes are
assumed to be used strictly in accordance with the manufacturers’
recommendations. Also, all welding must be carried out on clean, dry work, free
from oil or other substances having hydrogen generation potential.
Non Hydrogen Controlled Consumables & Welding Processes: MMAW
using EXX10, EXX11, EXX12, EXX13 and EXX24 electrodes are considered to
be non hydrogen controlled. In fact, cellulosic electrodes (EXX10 and EXX11)
generate copious quantities of hydrogen to produce the arc characteristic for root
pass welding of pipe joints. Also hydrogen controlled consumables that have not
been stored, dried or used in accordance with manufactures’ recommendations
or any welding process carried out using contaminated consumables or on
materials contaminated with oil, grease, water or other hydrocarbon containing
substances can result in a loss of hydrogen.
Hydrogen levels for different processes and consumables:
• Scale A : Above 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content in weld – Rutile
electrodes, LH electrodes which have been exposed to moisture
• Scale B: 10 – 15 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content - LH electrodes
redried at 2500C
• Scale C: 5 – 10 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content – Gas Metal arc
welding ( MIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 3500C
• Scale D: below 5 ml / 100 gm diffusible hydrogen content – Gas Tungsten Arc
welding ( TIG ) process, LH electrodes redried at 4500C
Anti-Spatter Materials: Anti-spatter sprays and liquids must be used with
particular care so as to avoid contaminating any area in or near the weld zone.
Such contamination will increase the weld metal hydrogen level, which may then
give rise to the occurrence of HAZ cold cracking and other welding defects.
Solidification cracking: Presence of S, P and other impurity elements form low
melting compounds. While solidification, these compounds segregates to GB forming
a liquid film surrounding the solid grains formed. Under contraction stress, crack
appears. This can be reduced by higher Manganese content, which forms high
melting solids during solidification

Fig. 6: Solidification crack

Fig. 7: Safe Mn/S Ratio

Lamellar Tearing: It is generally
associated with welding of fairly
large highly restrained structures,
predominantly in plate material
due to presence of non – metallic
inclusions. It is difficult to detect
by NDT techniques. Maybe
assessed by STRA of tensile test
in short transverse direction.
Cracks can occur in parent plate /
HAZ and generally run parallel to
the plate surface.

Fig. 8: Lamellar Tearing

Carbon Equivalent: Though all alloy elements except Cobalt shift CCT diagram to
right, the degree varies along with susceptibility of the material to form a hard
microstructure (martensite). Carbon Equivalent is the Chemical composition
expressed in terms of C only and is the measure of the susceptibility towards
martensite formation. Thus Carbon Equivalent has become synonymous with
Weldability of steel. The empirical formula is
C. E. = %C + % Mn / 6 + % (Cr + Mo + V) / 5 + % (Ni + Cu)/15
Fig. 9: CCT diagram & microstructure at different cooling rates of 1030 steel

Fig. 11: Preheating Vs. hardness at HAZ

Preheating helps to reduce hardness of HAZ
by extending time it spends between 800 –
5000C

Fig. 10: Microstructure at HAZ

 Both Preheat &
PWHT required
carbon steel base metal %
Highest carbon content of

Only Preheat is
required

No Preheat &
PWHT required
Is it
Not
CE?
Greatest single thickness of carbon steel base metal

Fig. 12: Combined influence of base-metal thickness

and carbon content on weldability
Preheat and Post-heat Requirements: From the CCT diagram, it is evident that
control of cooling rate is very important to control microstructure and weldability.
Control of cooling rate can be achieved by Preheat, Inter-Pass and Post-heat.
Preheat Temperature: Preheat is the temperature of the joint just prior to
being welded. This temperature must over a distance at least equal to the
thickness of each part at the weld but not less than 75 mm both laterally and in
advance of the welding of each run.
Recommended preheat temperatures should not be greatly exceeded as this
unnecessarily increases cost and often results in excessive distortion. IS: 9595
may be used to determine preheat temperature to be maintained for the duration
of welding. In certain circumstances it may be acceptable for the weldment to be
reheated to preheat temperature prior to re-commencement of welding after a
prolonged break. Preheat temperatures are actual weldment temperatures, not
increases or differentials above ambient temperature.
Inter-pass Temperature: In multi-pass welding, the inter-pass temperature
may substantially exceed the preheat temperature where allowed by the
application standard. The Welding Procedure Specification should provide
guidance on limiting the inter-pass temperature, and the welding operator may
need to stagger the welding passes to allow the work-piece temperature to
reduce to a value between the preheat temperature and the maximum inter-pass
temperature.
Preheat for Welding in Low Ambient Temperature Environment: When the
ambient temperature or parent metal temperature is below 0°C, the parent metal
should be preheated to at least 25°C and maintained at or above this
temperature during welding. With oxygen-fuel gas or air-propane flame
preheating, a higher minimum preheat temperature is necessary (typically 60°C)
to ensure water vapour condensation is avoided.
 Measurement of Preheat Temperature: Preheat temperature should be
measured by either by temperature indicating crayons, a contact thermometer,
thermocouple probe or other accurate means, immediately prior to
commencement of welding. Before measuring the temperature of any surface
being directly heated, the heat source should be removed to allow equalising of
temperature, i.e. 1 minute for each 25 mm thickness of the part. Temperature
indicating crayons must not be applied to joint surfaces to be part of the weld
joint. Where a number of joints of much the same thickness and material are
made, a standard or “blanket” preheat may be adopted for ease of application
and control.
Preheating Methods: Preheating may be carried out using gas burners or
torches, electric elements, induction elements, electric ovens, or other approved
methods, provided they give a satisfactory temperature distribution and do not
interfere with welding operations. It is recommended that, where possible,
heating be applied to the back of the surfaces to be welded to ensure adequate
and reasonably uniform temperature.
Uniform and Local Preheat: The pre-heating recommendations assume that
preheat is reasonably uniform, i.e. temperature gradients are small and thermal
stresses induced in the joint on cooling are small. This occurs where the whole
component, or a complete band around the component and incorporating the
joint, is heated, e.g. for a butt weld in a column, the whole section around the
joint is preheated. Where the preheat is applied locally, e.g. to one flange only of
a column or beam, some increase in preheat temperature may be needed to
counteract any contraction stresses on cooling.
Cooling after welding: Cooling to ambient temperature after the welding
is completed should be reasonably slow and uniform, comparable with that
obtained under normal shop conditions. Where cooling would be accelerated by
weather conditions or location etc., for example on the back of a plate, suitable
allowances should be made by increased heat input, higher preheating or
weather protection. Blanketing the weldment in special circumstances maybe
useful in reducing the normal cooling rate.

Post-heating: Maintenance of preheat temperatures after welding where

indicated, or between runs, will further reduce the risk of HAZ cracking, because
diffusible hydrogen can more readily escape from the weld region. In special
cases it may be necessary to maintain preheat temperatures until all welding is
completed and post weld heat treatment (stress relief) is initiated.
Combined Thickness: The concept of combined thickness is required to address
the cooling rate, caused by the abutting or mating sections forming a weld joint.
The combined thickness is shown for a range of joints in the Figure 13 and
calculated using the formula:
tC = t1+ t2+ t3+ ...
Parts to be joined which are less
than 75 mm wide, have a limited
heat capacity. The use of their full
thickness in determining
combined thickness may lead to
the calculation of unnecessarily
high preheat. A more appropriate
estimation of effective combined
thickness may be made by
assuming that the part less than
75 mm wide is replaced by a plate
75 mm wide of the same cross-
section. The formula to calculate
the effective thickness is:
𝑊∗𝑡
𝑡𝐸 = 75
Where
W is the width of the part
(less than 75mm)
t is the actual thickness of
the part.
tE is the effective thickness
for calculation purposes Fig. 13: combined thickness Calculation

When bars or rod sections are welded, often their widths or diameters are less than
75 mm, and an appropriate method for calculating equivalent thickness is to equate
the areas to a rectangular section with a width of 75 mm. The formula to convert a
round section of diameter d (in mm) to an effective thickness, tE is
tE = 0.01d2 derived by:
𝜋∗𝑑2
𝑡𝐸 = 4∗75
For welded joints using permanent backing bars, an adjustment in Combined
Thickness is not normally considered necessary as the relative size of the backing
bar is very small and thus has minimal affect on cooling rates.
To assess the combined thickness, the number of heat paths that will affect
the weld cooling rate need to be determined. (see Diagram ). Next add the various
part thicknesses or effective thicknesses to obtain the combined thickness. For
example, for a butt weld in equal thickness plates would have a combined thickness
of 2t (i.e. twice the plate thickness) and for a fillet weld in equal section plates the
combined thickness is equivalent to 3t.
Heat input during welding: Heat input during welding is calculated from the Arc
energy divided by the welding speed. For MMAW it is

𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽)𝑿 𝑾𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑰)

𝑸= 𝑲𝑱/𝒎𝒎
𝑾𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
The efficiency of heat transfer from the welding arc to the weld joint is considered on
the basis of similar welds made by the manual metal arc process. Heat input for
other welding process may be obtained by dividing with following factors:
• SAW (single wire): 0.8
• GTAW: 1.2
• GMAW: 1.0
Practical requirements of a Welding Engineer: Given a steel of known
composition or C.E., a welding engineer is to determine:
• Up to what combined thickness can be welded with normal rutile electrodes,
without danger of HAZ cracking
• Up to what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes
• Up to what thickness can be welded using Low Hydrogen electrodes properly
redried as per manufacturers recommendations
• Above what thickness pre-heat is required and degree of pre-heat.
• Is it necessary to impose any restrictions on heat input by the welding process
and parameters used
Weldability Assessment: Weldability Assessment includes:
• Calculation of relationships between the heat input, cooling time, material
thickness and preheat.
The relationships are expressed by formulas and nomograms and
made possible to determine heat input and preheat temperature for a certain
thickness with the aim to obtain the desired cooling time in the HAZ and thus
also its structure and properties.
• Prediction of susceptibility to following types of cracking:
✓ Cold
✓ Hot or liquation and solidification type
✓ Lamellar
✓ Reheat
• Prediction of the HAZ structure
• Calculation of maximum HAZ hardness.
Weldability Tests: For assessing weldability of steels various weldability tests were
developed such as:
• Lehigh Varestraint test
• Transvarestraint test
• Granjon implant test
• Murex hot crack test
• The Cranfield & Lehigh cantilever tear tests for Lamellar tearing
• The Vinckier & hot tensile tests for re-heat cracking
Grain size and process heat-input: Grain size significantly influences the
properties of steel. Finer the grain size higher the strength and toughness. The
original or re-crystallized austenite grain size determines the ferrite and pearlite grain
size. Higher the process heat input and longer the time above 1050 0C in austenite
range, coarser the grain size in the subsequent runs and HAZ.
Pre-heating To reduce cooling rates and produce softer micro-structures
in the HAZ
Inter-pass To control process heat input to the weld & HAZ to produce
temperature control finer grain structure for improved toughness
Post heating Eliminate H2 by diffusion from the weld by maintaining
heating at around 300 C without allowing the weld to cool
down
Post Weld Heating below the lower critical temperature to relieve internal
Heat-Treatment stresses, reduce hardness & improve ductility

Fig. 14: Procedures to reduce weldability problems in C – Mn steels

Weldability & Welding of Low Alloy Steels: All the issues pertaining to weldability
of C-Mn steel is applicable here also. In fact, as the CCT diagram shifts toward right
on alloy addition, the tendency of martensite formation is more in alloy steels. For
better understanding, Low Alloy Steels can be further classified as:
• Cryogenic steels for low temperature applications
• Creep-resisting steels for high temperature applications
• High strength Quenched & Tempered steels
Cryogenic Applications: The terms “low temperature” and “cryogenic” may be
defined as involving temperatures to - 50 to – 2730C. Application areas for cryogenic
steels are Space, Cryogenic air separation plant, Chemical process industries,
Storage tanks for liquefied chemicals & gases, Medical and food processing unit etc..
Effects of Nickel on Low Temperature Properties: Nickel plays a
significant role in cryogenic steels. It increases the strength and toughness of
steel at low temperatures. It imparts notch toughness to steel, reflected in the
lowering of the DBTT (Ductile – Brittle transition temperatures). Cryogenic Nickel
steels normally have 2% minimum percent nickel and addition of each percentage
increases the tensile strength by about 600 psi. Cryogenic steels must have high
strength as well as high toughness values at sub zero temperatures. Izod and
Charpy notched bar tests conducted over a range of temperatures provide data to
find out such values. These tests have been developed with the assumption that
the energy absorbed by a material is proportional to the notch toughness at
different temperatures.
In Charpy Test a rectangular bar with a square cross section and a notch of
specified geometry at the mid length and supported near its ends is struck a single
blow behind the notch. The blow is sufficient to break the specimen generally by
the swing of a weighted pendulum. Notch toughness is then assessed by:
• Percent shear appearance of the fractured surface
• Energy absorbed
• Amount of lateral deformation of the compression surface behind the notch
Electrodes for Fine grained and Nickel Steels for cryogenic service: This
group contains fine grained steels and steels bearing nickel from 1 to 7% e.g.
A333 grades to give improved low temperature toughness. For fine grained plain
carbon-manganese steels E7018-1 electrodes maybe used. For nickel bearing
grades electrodes with matching composition are used:
• E8018 – C1 2.5% Ni
• E8018 – C2 3.5% Ni
• E8018 – C3 1.0% Ni
• E8018 – C4 1.5% Ni
• E9015 – C5 6.5% Ni
Popular varieties of Nickel Steels are steels containing:
• 2.25 %Ni
• 3.5% Ni
• 5 % Ni
• 9 % Ni
 Gas Liquification Material
Temperature
Propylene -47.7degC 2.25%Ni Steel
Carbon Di Sulphide -50.2 deg C 3.5 %Ni Steel
Hydrogen Sulphide -59.5 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Carbon Di Oxide -78.5 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Acetylene - 84 deg C 3.5% Ni Steel
Ethylene(LEG) -103.8 degC 5-9% Ni Steel
Methane (LNG) -163 deg C 9% Ni Steel

Fig. 15: Liquification Temperature of gases and

associated material of construction

Material Grade Supply Electrode

Sl. No.
1. 2.25% Ni (ASTM A203) normalised AWS E 8018-C1
2. 3.5% Ni (ASTM A203/300) normalised / QT AWS E 8018-C2
3. 5% Ni (ASTM A645) QT AWS ENiCrMo-3 or
ENiCrMo-6
4. 9% Ni ASTM A353 and QT As above
A553

Fig. 16: Different Nickel bearing steel and their matching electrodes
9% Nickel Steel is used for
manufacture of LNG tankers.
The Steels have high strength
and extreme toughness at very
low operating temperatures.
ASTM A353 and A553 are typical
grades. Both are having good
notch toughness even at -196
deg. C. A553 has higher Y.S (585
N/mm2 min.) as compared to
A353 (515N/mm2 min). UTS for
both are in the range of 690 to
825 N/mm2.
Normally for lower thickness Fig. 17: LNG Tanker in service
preheat is not recommended. With higher thickness and severe joint restraint,
preheating in the range of 100 – 2000C is employed. 9% Ni based electrodes are not
suitable due to inadequate toughness in weld. So, AWS ENiCrMo-3 or ENiCrMo-6
are popular electrodes for welding of this material. Due to Magnetic Blow AC welding
is often used.
High Temperature Applications: These steels are to withstand elevated
temperature and high pressure in service condition. An alloy that is effective at
temperatures of 5000C and above can be classified as a high temperature alloy.
Above 5350C, oxidation rate of plain carbon steel increases rapidly.
Addition of chromium to steel increases the resistance to oxidation by forming a
tightly adhered layer of chromium rich oxide on the surface of the metal retarding the
inward diffusion of oxygen. Silicon and aluminum in steel also increase the oxidation
resistance appreciably. Applications are in boilers and pressures vessels & steam
pipes in thermal power plants, Chemical High pressure synthesis, parts in oil
refineries etc. Chrome – Moly steels have been found to be most suitable for this
purpose due to their high temperature strength and oxidation resistance. Chromium
from 0.5 to 9% and Mo from 0.5 to 1.0 % (sometimes with little vanadium) are
popular materials. These steels are air hardening steels.

Fig. 18: Creep resisting steels used for Boiler fabrication

Creep: Creep is defined as the time dependent deformation which occurs after
the application of load to a solid especially at elevated temperatures. Creep
strength is important above the temperature range of 425 to 535 0C and is a
primary factor in determining design stresses above these temperatures. Creep
test is carried out to determine the creep rate directly related to the applied stress
and the test temperature.
In creep test the specimen is held at constant temperature in an electric
resistance heating furnace and is subjected to a static tensile load. The load
causes the specimen to elongate gradually and the amount of elongation
measured periodically and plotted against periods of time to obtain the creep
curve. One standard of creep strength is the stress to produce a creep rate of one
percent per 100,000 hrs.

TENSILE STRENGTH 100000 HR RUPTURE STRENGTH

AT 270C (Mpa) 4270C (Mpa) 4820C (Mpa) 5380C (Mpa)

655 365 262 186

724 445 302 193

793 524 334 200

Fig. 19: Correlation between Room Temp Tensile Strength and

100000 Hrs Rupture Strength for Cr- Mo Steel
Weldability of Creep resisting steels: These steels have tempered martensite
structure with high hardenability. It is important to preserve carbide particle size
and dispersion to maintain creep strength. Traditional P11 & P22 grades now
being substituted by P91 & P92 grades for super – critical thermal plant
The air hardening property of the base metal and high alloy content of the
weld metal demand correct welding procedures including preheat, post-weld heat
treatment, low hydrogen consumables and right weld deposit composition to
prevent HAZ and weld metal cracking.
Thickness
Sl. No. Material
<12.7 mm 12.7-57 mm > 57 mm
1. 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo 20 95 150
2. 1.0Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
3. 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo 120 150 150
4. 2.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
5. 2.25Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
6. 3.0Cr – 1.0Mo 150 150 150
7. 5.0Cr – 0.5Mo 150 150 150
8. 7.0Cr – 0.5Mo 200 200 200
9. 9.0Cr – 1.0Mo 200 200 200

Tab. 1: Recommended Preheat Temperature in 0C for various thickness

PWHT of Chrome Moly Steel: Cr.-Mo Weldments, especially in pressure
piping have to be stressed relieved as required by relevant codes. Welded Joints
in piping are given local stress relieving while vessels and similar fabrications are
wholly stressed relieved.
Table 2 below gives stress relieved temperatures which are below critical
range and result in reduced hardness and residual stress level and increased
ductility of weld metal and HAZ.
 Sl. No. Material PWHT Temp.
(0C)
1. 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 700
2. 1.0Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 730
3. 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo 590 - 745
4. 2.25Cr – 1.0Mo 680 - 760
5. 3.0Cr – 1.0Mo 680 – 760
6. 5.0Cr – 0.5Mo 680 - 760
7. 7.0Cr – 0.5Mo 680 - 760
8. 9.0Cr – 1.0Mo 680 - 760

Tab. 2: PWHT temperature for various Cr-Mo Steel

Reheat cracking of Cr–Mo–V
steels: It occurs during stress
relieving heat treatment of Cr-Mo-V
steel having coarse grain HAZ. On
heating fine carbides form within
the grains making them stronger
than the Grain Boundary before
stresses are relieved. The
propensity to crack is estimated
by CS value.
Fig. 20: Reheat crack in GB in Cr-Mo-V Steel
CS = %Cr+3.3x (%Mo)+8.1x (%V) -2. Cracking occurs if CS > 0. Control of
chemical composition, low restraint joint design, multi-pass welding / low heat
input to avoid grain growth are different preventive measures.
Sl. AWS Class Weld Typical ASTM Base Material
No. composition recommended
1. E7018-B2L 1.25Cr - 0.5Mo Thin wall A335 – P11pipe or tube / A588
plate
2. E8018-B1 0.5Cr – 0.5Mo A335-P2 pipe, A387 Gr2 plate
3. E8018-B2 1.25Cr – 0.5Mo A335-P11 pipe, A387 Gr11 plate
4. E8018-B3L 2.25Cr - 1Mo Thin wall A335–P22 pipe, as welded cond.
5. E9018-B3 2.25Cr - 1Mo A335-P22 pipe, A387 Gr22 plate
6. E8015-B4L 2Cr - 0.5Mo A213-87 Gr T3b tube
7. E8016-B5 0.5Cr – 1Mo A356-58T Grs 3 or 4 castings
8. E8018-B6 5Cr - 0.5Mo A213-T5 tube, A335-P5 pipe
9. E8018-B7 7Cr - 0.5Mo A213-T7 tube, A335-P7 pipe
10. E8018-B8 9Cr - 1Mo A213-T9 tube, A335-P9 pipe

Tab. 3: Selection of electrodes for Creep Resisting steels

 Development of 9-12% cr creep resisting Stainless Steels: Development of
9-12%Cr ferritic creep resistant steels for steam power plant applications e.g. thick
section boiler components, steam lines, turbine rotors and turbine casings, has led
to doubling of the 105 hour creep rupture strength at 600°C. It has been achieved
through minor compositional changes to well-established steels like the 9Cr1Mo
and 12CrMoV. The new alloys including the modified 9Cr1Mo steel ( P91) & the
tungsten alloyed 9Cr steels (E911 and P92), have recently been used in full scale
in new power plants in Japan and Europe at advanced steam conditions up to 30
MPa and 600°C.

Mass% 12CrMoV P91 P92 E911

C 0.20 0.09 0.11 0.12
Si 0.26 0.29 0.04 0.13
Mn 0.51 0.35 0.46 0.56
Cr 11.0 8.70 8.96 8.70
Mo 0.90 0.90 0.47 0.97
W - - 1.84 0.96
Ni 0.44 0.28 0.06 0.29
V 0.29 0.22 0.20 0.20
Nb - 0.072 0.069 0.062
N - 0.044 0.051 0.066
B - - 0.001 0.0004
Austenisation 10500C 10500C 10650C 10600C
Tempering 7500C 7650C 7700C 7700C
105 hr. Creep 59MPa 94MPa 123MPa 109MPa
Rupture test at
6000C

Tab. 4: Properties of 9-12% Cr creep resisting steels

Welding of Creep of CEFS P91 & P92 (wordings to be corrected): The steel
has twice the creep strength of conventional 9 Cr- Mo steels. In general welding is
not considered difficult provided proper procedures are followed and filler material
selected.
Consumables with H4 hydrogen level for SMAW and H5 level for FCAW &
SAW are best suited. Controlled chemistry of filler is very important with Mn+Ni <
1.5 % and Mn / S ratio > 50. Also close control on Carbon - 0.09, Nb – 0.03 & N2
– 0.02 and impurities is needed.
It is important that weld joint cools to 80 -1000C (below martensite finish temp.
of 1200C) before PWHT is taken up to allow complete transformation in weld and
HAZ and achieve a fully tempered structure.
 Variable Commonly applied variant / range
Welding GTAW (including narrow gap & hotwire ), SMAW, FCAW,
processes SAW and combinations
Preheat temp GTAW : 100 C – 150 C, other processes : Min 200 C
Interpass temp Max 300 – 350 C
Post heating 200 C for 4 hrs. Not reqd for thin sections < 50 mm Thick
sections with H4 or H5 consumables and weld cooled
slowly to not below 80 C
Cooling before 80 – 100 C
PWHT
PWHT P91 : 745 – 775 C P92 : 750 – 770 C

PWHT duration GTAW : 2hrs, SMAW : 2 – 4 hrs, FCAW / SAW : 4 hrs

Gas back purging Required using Argon
Tab. 5: Welding practice for P91/P92 steels
PWHT of P91 / P92 steels:
Stringent control on PWHT
is essential to ensure proper
ductility and toughness at
room temp. Otherwise it may
not withstand hydro test. Rate
of heating and cooling is to be
controlled as per code
requirements. Composition of
base metal and weld metal is
to be considered to ensure
that lower critical temperature
is not exceeded. HAZ
hardness after PWHT should
be in the range of 200 – 275
BHN. Fig. 21: PWHT of P91 / P92 steels
Low Alloy QT & TMCP Steels: These are high tensile steel used in penstock,
earthmoving equipment, ships, submarines, offshore structures etc. QT ( Quenched
& Tempered ) steels have Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo, V, B in different percentages as alloying
elements and undergo water quenching in the austenite range during rolling
followed by a tempering treatment to impart desired combination of strength and
toughness.
 The TMCP (Thermo-mechanically processed) steels are additionally rolled to
develop higher strength at lower carbon levels. Their relatively high hardenability,
renders Q&T steels more susceptible to the thermal effects of welding than
conventional carbon and carbon-manganese structural steels.

Fig. 22: Construction of Penstock in Hydel plant using QT steels

Weldability of QT & TMCP Steels: It is necessary to observe limitations of both
maximum and minimum total weld heat inputs. The total heat input involves
consideration of
• Preheat temperature
• Inter-pass temperature
• Arc energy input (Q in kJ/mm)
Preheat & Inter-pass Temperature: Too high preheat will produce over
tempered zone near fusion line. Too low a preheat will produce hard
microstructure due to fast cooling. Heat input during welding to be carefully
controlled. Eg max. heat input for ASTM A516 Gr.F for 12.7 mm plate thickness is
2.76 KJ/mm & for 19 mm thickness 3.9KJ/mm. Consumable of H4 hydrogen level
or less is preferred to reduce risk of HICC.
Electrodes for high strength steels: High strength steels like T1 steel, HY
80 / HY100, ASTM 517 / A533 / A537 grades are welded with matching strength E
9018 G / M upto E 12018 G / M electrodes. Extra low hydrogen level electrodes
are required. Heat input to be controlled to prevent reduction in strength of HAZ.
Weldability & Welding of Cast Irons: Cast Irons contain 2 – 4 % carbon, about 10
times that of steel with 1 -3 % silicon. Different varieties are:
• Grey Cast Irons have graphite flakes in a ferritic, pearlitic or ferritic-pearlitic
matrix.
• SG (spheroidal graphite ) irons - also known as Nodular Cast irons or ductile
iron
• Heat-treated SG irons – Best strength and toughness properties
• White Cast Irons ( reduced carbon & silicon ) carbon present as cementite –
very hard
• Malleable irons – produced by heat-treatment of white cast irons
White and malleable irons not much used these days

Fig. 23: Iron - Cementite phase diagram

Grey Cast Irons: The graphite flakes give good

damping and machinability but poor tensile
properties. Graphite flakes form planes of
weakness, as such inherently brittle and often
cannot withstand weld cooling stresses.
Weldability is poor due to formation of hard and
brittle cementite and martensite in the HAZ.

Fig. 24: Grey Cast Iron

SG Cast Irons: Graphite in cast iron gets
spherodised by addition of Magnesium or Cerium
during casting. It is also known as Nodular Cast
Iron. The microstructure can be spheroids of
graphite with pearlitic or mixed ferrite matrix. It
gives greater strength and ductility with better
weldability as it is less likely to form martensite in
HAZ. Annealing further improves ductility by
breaking down cementite to give ferrite matrix.
Austempering gives bainitic matrix – major
improvement in strength & toughness. It is used
in automobile crank shafts and suspension arms.

Fig. 25: Grey Cast Iron

Welding of Cast Irons: Cast Irons are not readily weldable. They are generally
welded only for repair or joining to steel components. Formation of hard and brittle
structure in HAZ makes them prone to HAZ cracking during post-weld cooling. Pre-
heating combined with slow cooling reduces risk of HAZ cracking by producing softer
structures. Alternatively large castings, which are difficult to preheat, maybe welded
with very low heat input to minimise HAZ formation and shrinkage stresses.
Generally welded with Nickel, Monel or Fe-Nickel filler metal. Nickel alloy filler
metal has low solubility for carbon and does not form carbides. The resulting
austenitic weld metal is soft and ductile and yield preferentially to relieve shrinkage
stresses. Low-hydrogen mild steel electrodes can also be used for non-machinable
fill repair welds or after buttering with a nickel or monel electrode.
Metallurgical considerations during welding:
• Carbon may diffuse into
austenite making it prone to
transform into martensite whenComposite Zone – Austenite
cooled. Extent and hardness of
martensite depends on type and
composition of cast iron, preheat
and heat input. Ferritic cast irons
contain most of their carbon as
graphite which dissolves slowly
and produces less martensite as Unmixed Zone – White CI
compared to pearlitic matrix irons
in the HAZ.
• The partially melted zone freezes
as white iron; the extent
depending on heat input and is HAZ – Martensite &
the hardest part of the weld most undissolved graphite
prone to cracking.
Most effective way to reduce
severity of cracking problems
in cast iron is to reduce peak
temperatures and duration of
welding at high temperatures so Fig. 26: Weld deposited on Grey Cast
as to minimise width of HAZ. This Iron with Nickel Filler Wire
may be achieved by using low diameter electrodes at low currents, low
melting filler metal and reduced pre-heat.
Welding processes and procedure for Cast Irons:
• Can be Oxy-acetylene gas
welded using matching cast
iron rods with high Silicon
• Can be Braze welded using
copper alloy filler metal
• MMAW, MIG or FCAW
processes can be used with
Nickel, Monel or Fe-nickel filler
metal
• Always pre-heat parts slowly
and uniformly
• Butter faces to be welded if
possible
• Use low currents and short
runs. Peen the weld bead
while still hot to relieve
shrinkage stresses
• Cover and allow to cool slowly Fig 28: Buttering Surfaces
unless using cold process

Pre Heat Temperature in 0C

Cast Iron type
MMA MIG Gas
Ferritic Grey 300 300 600
Ferritic nodular RT-150 RT-150 600
Ferritic white-heart RT RT 600
malleable
Pearlitic Grey 300-330 300-330 600
Pearlitic nodular 200-330 200-330 600
Pearlitic malleable 300-330 300-330 600

*200C if high C core involved (No Asterix mark!)

Tab. 6: Preheating temperatures for Cast Irons

XXX END XXX