Introduction-Equilibrium of

Forces
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Hulusi Özkul
Mechanics can be defined as that science which describes and predicts the conditions of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is divided into three parts:
- mechanics of rigid bodies,
- mechanics of deformable bodies,
- and mechanics of fluids.
The mechanics of rigid bodies is subdivided into statics and dynamics, the former dealing
with bodies at rest, the latter with bodies in motion. In this part of the study of mechanics,
bodies are assumed to be perfectly rigid. Actual structures and machines, however, are never
absolutely rigid and deform under the loads to which they are subjected. But these
deformations are usually small and do not appreciably affect the conditions of equilibrium or
motion of the structure under consideration. They are important, though, as far as the
resistance of the structure to failure is concerned and are studied in mechanics of materials,
which is a part of the mechanics of deformable bodies. The third division of mechanics, the
mechanics of fluids, is subdivided into the study of incompressible fluids and of compressible
fluids. An important subdivision of the study of incompressible fluids is hydraulics, which
deals with problems involving water.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES—
MECHANICS OF RIGID BODIES
Although the study of mechanics of rigid bodies goes back to the time of Aristotle (384–
322 b.c.) and Archimedes (287–212 b.c.), one has to wait until Newton (1642–1727) to find
a satisfactory formulation of its fundamental principles.
These principles were later expressed in a modified form by d’Alembert, Lagrange, and
Hamilton. Their validity remained unchallenged, however, until Einstein formulated his
theory of relativity (1905).
While its limitations have now been recognized, newtonian mechanics still remains the
basis of today’s engineering sciences. The basic concepts used in mechanics are space,
time, mass, and force. These concepts cannot be truly defined; they should be accepted on
the basis of our intuition (perception) and experience and used as a mental frame of
reference for our study of mechanics.
The concept of space is associated with the notion of the position of a point P. The position of
P can be defined by three lengths measured from a certain reference point, or origin, in three
given directions. These lengths are known as the coordinates of P.

To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space. The time of the event
should also be given. The concept of mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on the
basis of certain fundamental mechanical experiments. Two bodies of the same mass, for
example, will be attracted by the earth in the same manner; they will also offer the same
resistance to a change in translational motion. A force represents the action of one body on
another. It can be exerted by actual contact or at a distance, as in the case of gravitational
forces and magnetic forces. A force is characterized by its point of application, its magnitude,
and its direction; a force is represented by a vector. In Newtonian mechanics, space, time, and
mass are absolute concepts, independent of each other. (This is not true in relativistic
mechanics , where the time of an event depends upon its position, and where the mass of a
body varies with its velocity.) On the other hand, the concept of force is not independent of
the other three. Indeed, one of the fundamental principles of Newtonian mechanics listed
below indicates that the resultant force acting on a body is related to the mass of the body
and to the manner in which its velocity varies with time.
You have been asked to determine the thickness, that is, the most appropriate cross-section
diameter (d), of the load-bearing metallic chains to be used in the swing. Because if the
chains are too thin, they will break; if they are too thick, they will not break, but they will be
expensive.

• Therefore, as an industrial product designer (or engineer), if you can determine the
minimum link thickness (diameter) that the chains can withstand human weight.
Now we think together: 3 people can sit on the swing. In the most critical case, the swing can
hold 3 people weighing 120 kg in total.It can carry a load of 360kg. Also, it's twice as safe. So
swing at rest, maximum W= 720kgf must carry a load of (approximately 7200N).

• As an R&D engineer, you will be asked to determine the thickness of the load-bearing
metallic chains to be used in the swing, that is, the most appropriate cross-section. You have
been asked to determine its diameter (d). Because if the chains are too thin, they will break; if
they are too thick, they will not break, but they will be expensive.• For this reason, as an
engineer, we determine the minimum link thickness (diameter) that the chains can withstand
human weight.
Remember this: The minimum diameter (d) cannot be calculated without knowing the forces
on the chains (T1, T2, T3, T4).

In that case;

The first step is to find the forces falling on the chains (T1, T2, T3, T4). It is found from
static accounts.

The second step is to calculate the safe link diameter (d) of the riskiest chain. Found
from ‘strength of materials’ calculations.
• As can be seen, statics and strength are two courses that complement each other.

• In the strength course, dimension calculations (such as determining the diameter d) that
can be directly applied to real life are made.

• However, before calculating the dimensions, the forces must be calculated. This is the
basic subject of the Statics course.

• All these calculations are activities expected from engineers.

Now let's look at the solid objects around you that are subject to the influence of external
loads. For example, chair, table, TV table, bed, closet, elevator, bookcase, stairs, your shoes...
Try to see the parts in each of them that are likely to break or break if they are thin. Please
note that you, as the designer-engineer, will be asked to calculate their optimum dimensions.

From ’strength of
materials’ course

From Statics
• By keeping these parts thin, you can save money on materials and
provide economic benefits to your business. You may think you can
benefit from it.

• However, in this case, you should be aware that you are risking
strength.

• If we consider the situation the other way around, we thicken the

parts and reduce the risk of low strength. You can reduce it, but in
this case you need to use more material. Since it is necessary, you
make the production more expensive.
• As an engineer, what is expected from you is to make calculations Broken shoe heel
that will best meet these strength and economy conditions; this
activity is called optimization and its result is called optimum
solution.
• In fact, our ultimate goal is to determine the minimum dimensions
in terms of strength. This is possible with strength calculations.​
Reference: MUKAVEMET 1 - Ders Notları / Prof. Dr. Mehmet Zor
BASIC CONCEPTS
Statics: Mechanics essentially starts with the subject of statics. In general terms, it is a
branch of science that examines the equilibrium conditions of objects under the influence
of forces in space. If an object does not move or makes a uniform linear motion, the object
is in balance.

Force: It refers to the pushing or pulling effect of one object on another object. Force can
unbalance an object or bring an unbalanced object into balance. The external effect of the
force occurs in the form of a change in the state of the object on which it acts or a tendency
to change. In statics, the external effect of force on objects is examined.
Material point: An object whose dimensions are negligibly small compared to the
dimensions of the problem under consideration is called a material point or
particle.

Rigid body: If the molecules of the material forming an object remain in a fixed
place relative to each other under the influence of force, such objects are called
rigid bodies or solid bodies. Such objects maintain their geometric shapes and
dimensions under the influence of forces and do not undergo any shape change
(deformation).

Singular (Individual) force: It refers to the loading situation acting on an object at

a point.
Newton’s Laws of Motion

F: Force
m: Mass
a: acceleration
Statikte bir kuvvet dört unsuru ile belirlenir. Bunlar;

 uygulama noktası,
 doğrultusu,
 yönü,
 büyüklüğü
olarak sıralanabilir. Bu özellikleri ile kuvvet, bir vektörel büyüklüktür.

Line of action

End
Direction
Magnitude
Point of
action 1 unit
Scale
 Equilibrium principle: The necessary condition for two forces to be in balance; The
magnitude of these two forces is equal, their directions are opposite and their lines
of actions are the same.
directions

Superposition principle: The effect of the system of forces does not change by adding
and removing the forces (P) in balance to a system of forces (F1, F2,…,Fn).
For any triangle
R = P1 + P2 R = P2 - P1

The forces have the same lines of action (Collinear forces)

 P2

(a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2
Parallel From CAD triangle:
lines
Cos q = AD/AC= AD/P2

=1 AD = P2 cos q
q q
CD = P2 Sin q
Pythagoras
Theory

= 90o
The individual components (SX and SY) of all forces in the X and Y directions are found and the
diagonal (R) of the resulting rectangle is calculated. (From the Pythagorean theorem)
X Y
180-(a+b)
Principle of action and reaction: Two objects (A and B) in contact, at the point where they
rest, apply a force (RA and RB) to each other with equal magnitudes, the same direction and
opposite directions.

W=N

SYSTEM OF FORCES
If two or more forces act on an object or a group of objects related to each other, the
resulting collection of forces is called a system of forces.
If all forces are in the same direction, the system whose directions are the same is
called the system of forces whose directions intersect at a common point, the system
whose directions intersect at a common point is called the system of forces that
intersect at one point, the system whose directions are parallel is called the system of
parallel forces, and the system whose directions are not parallel and does not have a
common intersection point is called the general system of forces.

UNIT SYSTEMS
In statics, three quantities are important: length, mass and force. The International
System of Units is an evolution of the metric system. In this system, the magnitude of
the force is expressed in Newton (N). The unit Newton is derived from the equation F =
m.a. According to this; 1 Newton is equal to the force required to accelerate 1 m/s2 to a
1 kilogram mass.

Kgf is anothewr unit used.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF STATICS

The basic principles of statics are based on some rules that cannot be verified
mathematically but can be determined experimentally.

Parallelogram principle: Two or more forces acting on a point can be replaced by a single
force. This force (R), defined as the resultant, is found by drawing the diagonals of
parallelograms whose sides are equal to the vectors of the given forces.
Addition of Forces in a Plane
Consider a body that is subjected to two forces F1 and F2, whose lines of action intersect at
point A. It is postulated that the two forces can be replaced by a statically equivalent force R.
This postulate is an axiom; it is known as the parallelogram law of forces. The force R is called
the resultant of F1 and F2. It is the diagonal of the parallelogram for which F1 and F2 are
adjacent sides. The axiom may be expressed in the following way: The effect of two
nonparallel forces F1 and F2 acting at a point A of a body is the same as the effect of the
single force R acting at the same point and obtained as the diagonal of the parallelogram
formed by F1 and F2
Now consider a system of n forces that all lie in a plane and whose lines of action intersect
at point A (Fig. ). Such a system is called a coplanar system of concurrent forces. The
resultant can be obtained through successive application of the parallelogram law of
forces. Mathematically, the summation may be written in the form of the following vector
equation:

Resultant force: R = F1 + F2 + ... + F n = SFi

.
Equilibrium in a Plane
Two forces are in equilibrium if they are oppositely directed on
the same line of action and have the same magnitude.

This means that the sum of the two forces, i.e., their
resultant, has to be the zero vector:

R = F1 + F2 = 0 .
 Concurrent (passing through the same point) forces on the
same plane in equilibrium
It is also known that a system of n concurrent forces Fi can always be replaced by its resultant

R = SFi .

Therefore, the equilibrium condition can be extended to an arbitrary number of forces.

A system of concurrent forces is in equilibrium if the resultant is zero:

R = S Fi = 0 .
The geometrical interpretation of this
is that of a closed force polygon, i.e.,
the initial point a and the terminal
point b have to coincide.
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1.
For the balance of the rectangular plate in the
figure, where and in what direction is a force
acted on the edge of DC?

Solution:Equal to the resultant of the two

forces acting on the plate,A force with the
same line of action but opposite direction will
provide balance. Let's find the resultant force.
 Example 2
In order for the forces given in the figure to be
in balance, what should be the force P and
angle φ?

In order for the forces intersecting at a point to be in

statical balance, Ʃ Fx = 0, Ʃ Fy = 0. Moment balance is out
of the question here (they meet at a common point).
Additionally, when a vector polygon is created, a closed
loop must be formed. So the resultant vector should be
zero.
Example 3 ΣFx=0 (→+)
30o
An object weighing 50 kgf as shown in the figure makes -FAC Cos30 –FBC=0
an angle of 30o degrees with horizontal and is hung on
the end of a rope. The rope passes over the end of a ΣFy=0 (↑+) FAC Sin30 –FG=0
horizontal rod. Find the intensity and direction of the y
forces. BC bar will be considered weightless. FAC Sin30 –50kgf=0 => FAC.sin30
A
Sin30=1/2 FAC=100 kgf x
Cos30=0.866 FAC.cos30
-100 Cos30 –FBC=0 => FBC= - 86,6kgf kgf

The rope, rod and weight forces intersects at point C.

Accordingly, only ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0 calculation is
sufficient. Forces at one point If they did not intersect,
ΣM = 0 should also be calculated.
Example 4.
Two forces 20 N and 25 N are acting at a point with an angle of 60° between them. Find the
magnitude and direction of resultant.
Solution:
Here P1 = 20 N, P2 = 25 N and θ = 60°

P2 R

P2
P2 sin q
60o
a q=60o
P1
P2 cos q

P2 sin q
tan a =
P1 + P2 sin q
Example 5.
Force P1 of magnitude 10 N is acting along horizontal direction and force P2 acting along
vertical direction. The resultant of P1 and P2 has magnitude of 20 N. Determine the magnitude
of force P2 and direction of resultant. Solution: Here P1 = 10 N, R = 20 N and θ = 90°. As we
know that when θ = 90° in parallelogram then, it becomes rectangle.
Example 6. Two forces of 375 N and 250 N are acting on a hook and passing through point O as shown in the
figure. Determine magnitude and direction of resultant of these two forces.

= 180 – (30 + 45)

Couple of Forces
Two parallel forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction not acting along the same
line we call a couple of forces or shortly, a couple. An experiment demonstrates that a
couple of forces acting on a rigid body causes its rotation around the axis perpendicular to
the plane defined by those two forces.
Action of a couple is commonly represented as a physical quantity called moment.
Couple of forces are two parallel forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction not acting along the same line.

Figure shows a person applying a couple of forces

on a swivel chair. This couple, called moment, is
represented as a vector M perpendicular to the
plane defined by the couple of forces F and -F. It
has a tendency to rotate the chair.
Couple
A couple consists of a pair of two forces which has the following properties:

• Equal magnitude and opposite in direction

• Act along parallel lines of action

• Separated by a perpendicular distance d, known as arm of couple. A couple is shown in the

figure Since the two forces cancels out each other giving zero resultant, a couple produces
purely rotational effect in the body without translation motion. A couple cannot be balanced
by a single force but it can be balanced only by another couple of opposite nature.
Moment
When a force causes an object to turn, this turning effect is called moments. So the moment
of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate around a specific point or axis.

Moment is the product of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the line of
action of the force to the pivot or point where the object will turn.

The point about which moment is taken is known as moment center and the perpendicular
distance is known as moment arm. If moment arm d is zero, i.e. the line of action of the force
P is passing through the moment center then moment due to this force will be zero.
Moment = Force × Distance
M=P×d
Unit is N-m or KN-m.
 Archimedes moving the Earth
There is an historical anecdote emphasizing the importance of the moments. When ancient
Greek mathematician–inventor Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) wrote “Give me but one firm
spot on which to stand, and I will move the Earth,” he obviously knew that by using a long
enough moment arm he can apply moment equal to the moment created by the weight of the
Earth applied relatively close to the point of support.
Resultant Moment
When two or more than two forces are acting about a point their combined effect is
represented by the “Resultant Moment”. To find out the resultant moment about a point, first
find the sum of the anticlockwise moments and clockwise moments about the point, than take
the lesser of these two moments from the greater and the difference is the magnitude of the
resultant moment. The direction of the resultant moment will be that of the greater of the
two component moments.
Varignon’s Theorem (Principle of Moment)
The Varignon theorem is a theorem given by French mathematician Pierre Varignon in 1687.
It states, “The moment of resultant of a force system about any point is equal to the algebraic
sum of moments of all other forces about the same point”.
A
Let R be the resultant of two concurrent forces P1
and P2.

The moment of R about an arbitrary point A is, R × d,

where d is the perpendicular distance from line of
action of R to point A. Similarly if we consider d1 and d 2
are perpendicular distances from line of action of
P1 and P 2 to point A, then the sum of moments of P1 and
P 2 about point A are P1 × d1 + P 2 × d 2. Hence,

R × d = P1 × d1 + P2 × d2
R is the resultant force of P1 and P2.

The moment with respect to the point A is:

R x d = P1 x d1 + P2 x d2 (Varignon’s Theorem)
 Resultant of Parallel Force System
Case I: Like Parallel Forces
When two parallel forces are acting in same direction they are known as like (with the same direction) parallel
forces. Their resultant can be found out using following steps, consider the figure.

1. Find resultant

R = P1 + P2.

2. Take the algebraic sum moment of forces about point O,

Moment of P1 about O = P1 × AO (clockwise moment, negative)

Moment of P2 about O = P2 × BO (anticlockwise moment, positive)

3. Position of resultant R can be obtained by applying Varignon’s theorem about point O.

– P1 × AO + P2 × BO = R × CO

In above equation, CO is the perpendicular distance between line of action of resultant R and reference point O.
Case II: Unlike Parallel Forces
When two parallel forces are acting in opposite direction they are known as unlike parallel forces. Their resultant
can be find out using following steps, consider the figure.

1. Find resultant: R = P1 – P2

2. Take the algebraic sum moment of forces about point O,

Moment of P1 about O = P1 × AO (clockwise moment)

Moment of P2 about O = P2 × BO (clockwise moment)

3. Position of resultant R can be obtained by applying

Varignon’s theorem about point O.

–P1 × AO – P2 × BO = –R × CO

In above equation, CO is the perpendicular distance between

line of action of resultant R and reference point O.
Moment of a Couple
Consider a couple as shown in the figure. The moment of couple about point A is,

MA = P × d 2 – P × d 1 MA = P (d2 – d1)

But from the figure, d2 – d1 = d

MA = P × d The moment of a couple is the product of magnitude

of one of the forces and arm of couple.

Now consider point B at distance d/2 from force P, the moment

of couple about point B is,

From above we see that, the moment of couple about any pivot point is P × d. It is important to note here that a
couple does not have moment center, like moment of force. A couple has the same moment about all points on a
body.
Force–Couple System

The concept of couple is useful in application of parallel transfer of a force. Refer to figure 1, consider a force P is
acting at point A and it is required to transfer from point A to point B without changing its magnitude and
direction. Now apply two forces of equal magnitude (their magnitude are same as that of force P acting at point
A) and opposite in direction at point B, as shown in figure 2.

Force P is shifted to
point B; a moment
(P x d) should be
added to do this.
Fig. 1 M=P x d Fig. 2 Fig. 3
(couple)

Observing figure 2., we see that two forces are acting in opposite direction at point A and B form a couple.
Moment of this couple is P × d, anticlockwise. Thus, to shift a force to point B, a couple is required to be added to
the system.

It is also possible to replace a force-couple system into a single force by following exactly the reverse procedure as
discuss above.
Example 1.
Determine the moment of the 100 N force about point O as shown in the figure.
2.