CHAPTER 1 Introduction /Basic concept

ENGINEERING MECHANICS:
Mechanics can be defined as the branch of physics concerned with the
state of rest or motion of bodies that subjected to the action of forces. OR
It may be defined as the study of forces acting on body when it is at rest or in motion is
called mechanics.

Classification of Mechanics
The engineering mechanics are classified as shown
Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Rigid bodies Mechanics of Deformed bodies Mechanics of fluid

Statics Dynamics Statics Dynamics

BRANCHES OF NGINEERING MECHANICS:

Engineering Mechanics may be divided into two branches.

1. Statics. 2. Dynamics.
a) Statics
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces acting on a
body in equilibrium. Either the body at rest or in uniform motion is called statics

b) Dynamics:

It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces on body in motion
is called dynamics. It is further divided into two branches.
i) Kinetics ii) kinematics.

i) Kinetics

It is the branch of the dynamics which deals the study of body in motion under
the influence of force i.e. is the relationship between force and motion are considered or
the effect of the force are studied

ii) Kinematics:

It is the branch of the dynamics that deals with the study of body in motion
with out considering the force.

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 IDEALIZATIONS USED IN ENGINEERING MECHANICS.

Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order to simplify application of the

theory. Here we will consider three important idealizations.

1. Rigid Body
A rigid body may be defined a body in which the relative positions of any two
particles do not change under the action of forces means the distance between two
points/particles remain same before and after applying external forces.

2. Particle
A particle may be defined as a body (object) has mass but no size (neglected),
such body cannot exists theoretically, but when dealing with problems involving distance
considerably larger when compared to the size of the body. For example a bomber
aeroplane is a particle for a gunner operating from ground.
In the mathematical sense, a particle is a body whose dimensions are considered
to be near zero so that it analyze as a mass concentrated at a point. A body may tread as a
particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to describe its position or the action of forces
applied to it. For example the size of earth is insignificant compared to the size of its
orbits and therefore the earth can be modeled as a particle when studying its orbital
motion. When a body is idealized as a particle, the principles of mechanics reduce to
rather simplified form since the geometry of the body will not be involved in the analysis
of the problem.

3. Concentrated Force. A concentrated force represents the effect of a loading which is

assumed to act at a point on a body. We can represent a load by a concentrated force,
provided the area over which the load is applied is very small compared to the overall
size of the body. An example would be the contact force between a wheel and the ground.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT

The following are the four fundamental concepts of engineering mechanics

1. Space
Space is the geometrical region occupied by an object/particle with some origin
whose positions are described by linear and angular measurement relative to coordinate
systems. For three dimensional problems there are three independent coordinates are
needed. For two dimensional problems only two coordinates are required

2. Time
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basis quantity in
dynamic. Time is not directly involved in the analysis of statics problems but it has
importance in dynamics
.
3. Mass
Mass is the property of matter by which we can compare the action of one body
with that of another. This property manifests itself as gravitational attraction between two

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bodies and provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of matter to a change in
velocity. Some important mass conversion factors are given below
4. Force
In general force is a Push or Pull, which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. In engineering mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a vector quantity.

Units of force
The following force units are frequently used.

A. Newton
The S.I unit of force is Newton and denoted by N. which may be defined as
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2

B. Dynes
Dyne is the C.G.S unit of force. 1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
One Newton force = 10-5dyne
C. Pounds
The FPS unit of force is pound. 1 lbf = 1 lbm. 1ft/s2
One pound force = 4.448 N
One dyne force = 2.248 x 10ˉ6 lbs
Some other units of force:
1 dyne = 10-5 N
1 kilogram - force (kgf) or kilopound (kp) = 9.80665 N = 1 metric slug
1 lbf = 32.174 poundals = 1 slug
1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf

BASIC QUANTITIES
In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are basic quantities

1. Length
In engineering mechanics length is needed to locate the position of a particle and
to describe the size of physical system. Some important length conversions factors
1cm = 10 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 m = 1000 mm
1 m = 3.2808’ (feet) 1 m = 39.37 Inch 1 Mile = 1.609 km

2. Mass
Mass is the property of matter by which we can compare the action of one body
with that of another. This property manifests itself as gravitational attraction between two
bodies and provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of matter to a change in
velocity. Some important mass conversion factors are given below
1 Kg = 2.204 lbm
3. Time

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 Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basis quantity in
dynamic. Time is not directly involved in the analysis of statics problems but it has
importance in dynamics.

DIFFERENT SYSTEM OF UNITS

In engineering mechanics length, mass, time and force are the basic units used
therefore; the following are the units systems are adopted in the engineering mechanics

1. International System of Units (SI):

In SI system of units the basic units are length, time, and mass which are arbitrarily
defined as the meter (m), second (s), and kilogram (kg). Force is the derived unit.
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2

2. CGS systems of units

In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are
arbitrarily defined as the centimeter (cm), second (s), and gram (g). Force is the derived
units 1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
3. British systems of units
In CGS system of units, the basic units are length, time, and mass which are
arbitrarily defined as the centimeter (cm), second (s), and gram (g). Force is the derived
units 1 lb = 1lbg. 1ft/s2
4. U.S. Customary Units
The basic units are length, time, and force which are arbitrarily defined as the foot
(ft), second (s), and pound (lb). Mass is the derived unit

SIX FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS

The following are the six fundamental principles of Mechanics

1. The Parallelogram law 2. The Principle of transmissibility

3. Newton’s First law 4. Newton’s Second law
5. Newton’s Third law 6. Newton’s law of gravitation

1. The PARALLELOGRAM METHOD

According to parallelogram method ‘If two forces (vectors) are acting
simultaneously on a particle be represented (in magnitude and direction) by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, their resultant may represent (in magnitude and direction) by the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point.
B
C

F2 FR
F2

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 θ θ α

O F1 O F1 A

2. Principle of transmissibility of forces

The state of rest of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting in the body
is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on
the body along the line of action of the replaced force.
For example the force F acting on a rigid body at point A. According to the
principle of transmissibility of forces, this force has the same effect on the body as a
force F applied at point B.

The following two points should be considered while using this principle.

1. In engineering mechanics we deal with only rigid bodies. If deformation of

the body is to be considered in a problem. The law of transmissibility of
forces will not hold good.
2. By transmission of the force only the state of the body is unaltered, but not the
internal stresses which may develop in the body
Therefore this law can be applied only to problems in which rigid bodies are
involved

3. Newton’s First law

According to Newton’s First law “If the resultant force acting on a particle is
zero, the particle will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or will move with constant
speed in a straight line (if originally in motion)”

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4. Newton’s Second law

According to Newton’s Second law “If the resultant forces acting on a particle is
not zero, the particle will have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the
resultant and in the direction of this resultant force”
According to this law
F = ma
Where F = the resultant force acting on the particle,
m = the mass of the particle
a = acceleration of the particle, expressed in a consistent system of units.

5. Newton’s Third law

According to Newton’s third law “The forces of action and reaction between
bodies in contact have the same magnitude, same line of action and opposite sense

6. Newton’s Law of Gravitation.

This states that two particles of mass “M” and “m” are mutually attracted with
equal and opposite forces F and - F of magnitude F given by the formula

F= GMm
r2
Where r = distance between the two particles
G = universal constant called the constant of gravitation
Newton’s law of gravitation introduces the idea of an action exerted at a distance and
extends the range of application of Newton’s third law, the action F and the reaction -F
are equal and opposite,

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 FREE BODY DIAGRAM

A diagram or sketch of the body in which the body under consideration is freed
from the contact surface (surrounding) and all the forces acting on it (including reactions
at contact surface) are drawn is called free body diagram. Free body diagram for few
cases are shown in below
w w R

R w

60 R1 600 N

f
R2

Procedure of drawing Free Body Diagram

To construct a free-body diagram, the following steps are necessary:

Draw Outline Shape

Imagine that the particle is cut free from its surroundings or isolated by
drawing the outline shape of the particle only

Show All Forces

Show on this sketch all the forces acting on the particle. There are two classes of
forces that act on the particle. They can be active forces, which tend to set the particle in
motion, or they can be reactive forces which are the results of the constraints or supports
that tend to prevent motion.

Identify Each Force

The forces that are known should be labeled complete with their magnitudes and
directions. Letters are used to represent the magnitudes and directions of forces that are
not known.

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 METHOD OF PROBLEM SOLUTION
Problem Statement
Includes given data, specification of what is to be determined, and a figure
showing all quantities involved.
Free-Body Diagrams
Create separate diagrams for each of the bodies involved with a clear indication of
all forces acting on each body.

Fundamental Principles

The six fundamental principles are applied to express the conditions of rest or
motion of each body. The rules of algebra are applied to solve the equations for the
unknown quantities.
Solution Check

1. Test for errors in reasoning by verifying that the units of the computed results are
correct
2. Test for errors in computation by substituting given data and computed results
into previously unused equations based on the six principles.
3. Always apply experience and physical intuition to assess whether results seem
“reasonable”

Numerical Accuracy

The accuracy of a solution depends on

1. Accuracy of the given data.
2. Accuracy of the computations performed. The solution cannot be more accurate
than the less accurate of these two.
3. The use of hand calculators and computers generally makes the accuracy of the
computations much greater than the accuracy of the data. Hence, the solution
accuracy is usually limited by the data accuracy.

REVIEW OF VECTORS

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITY

Scalar quantity
Scalar quantity is that quantity which has only magnitude (numerical value
with suitable unit) or
Scalars quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by
their magnitude using suitable units are called scalars quantities. For example mass, time,
volume density, temperature, length, age and area etc
The scalars quantities can be added or subtracted by algebraic rule e.g.
7kg + 8kg = 15 kg sugar Or 4 sec + 5 sec = 9 sec

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Vector quantity
Vector quantity is that quantity, which has magnitude unit of magnitude as
well as direction, is called vector quantity. Or
Vector quantities are those quantities, which are completely specified by
their magnitude using suitable units as well directions are called vector quantities. For
example velocity, acceleration, force, weight, displacement, momentum and torque etc
are all vector quantities. Vector quantity can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
by particular geometrical or graphical methods.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION

A vector quantity is represented graphically by a straight line the length of line

gives the magnitude of the vector and arrowhead at one end of the line indicates the
direction of vector quantity.
For example we consider a displacement (d) of magnitude 10 km in the direction
of east. Hence we cannot represent 10 km on the paper therefore we select a suitable
scale shown in fig. Scale 1 cm = 2 km
So we draw a line of length 5 cm which show the magnitude of vector
quantity that is 10 km while the arrow indicates the direction form origin to east ward as
shown in fig.
A B

5 cm
Point A is called tail that shows the origin.
Point B is called head, which shows the direction of vector quantity.
The length of line is the magnitude of the vector quantity.

RECTANGULAR CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

Two lines at right angle to each other are known as co-ordinate axes and their
point of intersection is called origin. The horizontal line is called x-axis while vertical
line is called y-axis. Two co ordinate systems are used to show the direction of a vector is
a plane. The angle which the representative line of given vector makes with + ve x axis in
anti- clock wise direction
Y

X’ X θ

Y’
In space the direction of vector requires the 3rd axis that is Z-axis. The direction of the
vector in space is specified by three angles named α, β, and γ with X, Y Z axes
respectively as show
Z

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 Y

X
EXERCIS 1

Show the following vectors graphically from 1 to 6

1. Force 15 kN 450 with x-axes.

2. Displacement 75 km 30º north of east
3. Velocity 60 km\h 90º with x-axes.
4. Velocity 5 km\h 45º with horizontal axes
5. Force 20 kN 135º with x-axes.
6. Displacement 40 k m north-east.

7. A crow flies northward from pole A to pole B and covers distance of 8 km. It then
flies eastward to pole C and covers 6 km. find the net displacement and direction
of its flight.
Ans: 10 km 53º north of
east

8. A traveler travels 10 km east 20 km north 15 km west and 8 km south. Find the

displacement of the traveler from the starting point.
Ans: 13 km 23º
north west

TYPES OF VECTORS

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CHAPTER 2 SYSTEM OF FORCES:

Force
In general force is a Push or Pull, which creates motion or tends to create motion,
destroy or tends to destroys motion. In engineering mechanics force is the action of one
body on another. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action,
A force is characterized by its point of application, magnitude, and direction, i.e.
a force is a vector quantity.

Force exerted on body has following two effects

1. The external effect, which is tendency to change the motion of the body or to
develop resisting forces in the body
2. The internal effect, which is the tendency to deform the body.

If the force system acting on a body produces no external effect, the forces are said to
be in balance and the body experience no change in motion is said to be in equilibrium.

Units of force
The following force units are frequently used.
A. Newton
The S.I unit of force is Newton and denoted by N. which may be defined as
1N = 1 kg. 1 m/s2
B. Dynes
Dyne is the C.G.S unit of force.
1 Dyne = 1 g. 1 cm/s2
One Newton force = 10 dyne
C. Pounds
The FPS unit of force is pound.
1 lbf = 1 lbm. 1ft/s2
One pound force = 4.448 N
One dyne force = 2.248 x 10ˉ6 lbs
Systems of forces

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When numbers of forces acting on the body then it is said to be system of forces

Types of system of forces

1. Collinear forces:
In this system, line of action of forces act along the same line is called collinear
forces. For example consider a rope is being pulled by two players as shown in figure

F1 F2

2. Coplanar forces
When all forces acting on the body are in the same plane the forces are coplanar

3. Coplanar Concurrent force system

A concurrent force system contains forces whose lines-of action meet at same one
point. Forces may be tensile (pulling) or Forces may be compressive (pushing)

4. Non Concurrent Co-Planar Forces

A system of forces acting on the same plane but whose line of action does not
pass through the same point is known as non concurrent coplanar forces or system for
example a ladder resting against a wall and a man is standing on the rung but not on
the center of gravity.

5. Coplanar parallel forces

When the forces acting on the body are in the same plane but their line of actions
are parallel to each other known as coplanar parallel forces for example forces acting on
the beams and two boys are sitting on the sea saw.

6. Non coplanar parallel forces

In this case all the forces are parallel to each other but not in the same plane,
for example the force acting on the table when a book is kept on it.

ADDITION OF FORCES

ADDITION OF (FORCES) BY HEAD TO TAIL RULE

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 To add two or more than two vectors (forces), join the head of the first vector
with the tail of second vector, and join the head of the second vector with the tail of the
third vector and so on. Then the resultant vector is obtained by joining the tail of the first
vector with the head of the last vector. The magnitude and the direction of the resultant
vector (Force) are found graphically and analytically.

RESULTANT FORCE
A resultant force is a single force, which produce same affect so that of
number of forces can produce is called resultant force

COMPOSITION OF FORCES

The process of finding out the resultant Force of given forces (components
vector) is called composition of forces. A resultant force may be determined by following
methods
1. Parallelogram laws of forces or method
2. Triangle law of forces or triangular method
3. polygon law of forces or polygon method

A) PARALLELOGRAM METHOD

According to parallelogram method ‘If two forces (vectors) are acting

simultaneously on a particle be represented (in magnitude and direction) by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, their resultant may represent (in magnitude and direction) by the
diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point. OR
When two forces are acting at a point such that they can by represented by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their resultant will be equal to that diagonal of the
parallelogram which passed through the same point.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant can be determined either
graphically or analytically as explained below.

Graphical method
Let us suppose that two forces F1 and F2 acting simultaneously on a
particle as shown in the figure (a) the force F2 makes an angle θ with force F1
B

F2
θ
O F1 A

First of all we will draw a side OA of the parallelogram in magnitude and direction equal
to force F1 with some suitable scale. Similarly draw the side OB of parallelogram of same
scale equal to force F2, which makes an angle θ with force F 1. Now draw sides BC and

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AC parallel to the sides OA and BC. Connect the point O to Point C which is the
diagonal of the parallelogram passes through the same point O and hence it is the
resultant of the given two forces. By measurement the length of diagonal gives the
magnitude of resultant and angle α gives the direction of the resultant as shown in fig (A).

B C B C

F2 FR F2 FR

θ α θ α θ
O F1 A O F1 A D
Fig (A) Fig (B)

Analytical method
In the paralleogram OABC, from point C drop a perpendicular CD to meet
OA at D as shown in fig (B)
In parallelogram OABC,
OA = F1 OB = F2 Angle AOB = θ
Now consider the ∆CAD in which
Angle CAD = θ AC = F2
By resolving the vector F2 we have,
CD = F2 Sin θ and AD = F2 Cosine θ
Now consider ∆OCD
Angle DOC = α. Angle ODC = 90º
According to Pythagoras theorem
(Hyp) ² = (per) ² + (base) ²
OC² = DC² + OD².
OC² = DC² + (OA + AD) ²
FR ² = F² Sin²θ + (F1 + F2 Cosine θ) ²
FR ² = F²2 Sin²θ + F²1 + F²2 Cos²θ + 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR ² = F²2 Sin²θ + F²2 Cos²θ +F²1 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR ² = F²2 (Sin²θ + Cos²θ) + F²1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR ² = F²2 (1) + F²1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR ² = F²2 + F²1+ 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR ² = F²1+F²2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
FR = F²1+F²2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
The above equation gives the magnitude of the resultant vector.
Now the direction of the resultant can be calculated by
Sin α = CD_ = F2 Sin θ _______________ 1 OR
OC FR
Tan α = CD = F2 Sin _______________ 2
OD F1+ F2 Cosine θ
The above two equation gives the direction of the resultant vector that is α.

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B) TRIANGLE METHOD OR TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

According to triangle law or method” If two forces acting simultaneously on a

particle by represented (in magnitude and direction) by the two sides of a triangle taken
in order their resultant is represented (in magnitude and direction) by the third side of
triangle taken in opposite order. OR
If two forces are acting on a body such that they can be represented by the two
adjacent sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then their resultant will be equal to
the third side (enclosing side) of that triangle taken in the opposite order.
The resultant force (vector) can be obtained graphically and analytically or trigonometry.

Graphically
Let us consider two forces F1 and F2 acting on the particle the force F1 is
horizontal while the force F2 makes an angle θ with force F1 as shown in fig (A). Now
draw lines OA and AB to some convenient scale in magnitude equal to F 1 and F2. Join
point O to point B the line OB will be the third side of triangle, passes through the same
point O and hence it is the resultant of the given two forces. By measurement the length
of OB gives the magnitude of resultant and angle α gives the direction of the resultant as
shown in fig (B).

F2 B

FR
F2
θ α β θ
F1 O F1 A
Fig (A) Fig (B)

ANALYTICAL OR TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD

Now consider Δ AOB in which
Angle AOB = α which is the direction of resultant vector OB makes with horizon
anal axis.
Angle OAB = 180º - θ. As we know
Angle AOB + Angle OAB + Angle ABO = 180º.
By putting the values we get
α + 180º -θ + angle ABO = 180º
Angle ABO = α-θ
By applying the sine law to the triangle ABO
OA = AB. = OB
Sin B Sin O Sin A
F1 = . F2 . = FR .
Sin (θ -α) Sin α Sin (180 –θ)
Note
It is better to calculate the resultant of F1 and F2 by using cosine law we get

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 FR = F²1+F²2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine β.

Where β = 180 – θ
And the direction of resultant may be determined by using sine law

F1 = . F2 . = FR .
Sin γ Sin α Sin β

C) POLYGON METHOD
According to this method” if more then two forces acting on a particle by
reprehend by the sided of polygon taken in order their resultant will be represented by the
closing side of the polygon in opposite direction“ OR
If more than two forces are acting on a body such that they can by represented by
the sides of a polygon Taken in same order, then their resultant will be equal to that side
of the polygon, which completes the polygon (closing side taken in opposite order.
The resultant of such forces can be determined by graphically and analytically.
Graphically:
Consider the following diagram in which number of forces acting on a particle.
E F4 D
F3 F2 β
F5

γ θ F F3
F4 β F1 γ
Fr C

F5 F2
α θ
A F1 B
Starting from A the five vectors are plotted in turns as shown in fig by placing the tail end
of each vector at the tip end of the preceding one. The arrow from A to the tip of the last
vector represents the resultant of the vectors with suitable scale.In this polygon the side
AF represents the resultant of the given components and α shows the direction. By
measurement of AF will give the resultant and α give direction of given scale

Analytically
The resultant and direction can be determined by solving it step-by-step
analytically using formulas of parallelogram, triangle law or trigonometry

EXAMPLE
The screw eye is subjected to two forces F1 and F2 as shown in fig.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by parallelogram by using
the graphical or analytical method.

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Draw the free body diagram of the given fig.

Given F1 = 100 N F2 = 150 N θ1 = 15º θ2 = 10º

Required Resultant = FR =?
Solution Angle AOB = 90 -15 – 10 = 65º
A) Graphically
Scale 20 N = 1 cm.
Now draw parallelogram OABC with rule and protractor according to
scale as shown in diagram.
C
B

F2 FR
65º

65º α F1 A
O
By measuring
OC = FR = 10.6 cm = 10.6 x 20 = 212 N
α = 54º with x axis
Result Resultant = 212 N Direction = 54 with x axis
B Analytical method
We know that
Fr = F²1+F²2 + 2 F1 F2 Cosine θ.
Putt the value and θ= 65º

Fr = (100)² + (150)² + 2 (100) (150) Cosine65º

Fr = 212.55 N.
We also know that Sin α = F2 Sin θ.
R
Sin α = 150 Sin 65º
212.55
α = Sin-1 150 Sin 65º
212.5
α = 39.665º with force F1

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 39.665º + 15º
= 54.665º with x axis.
Result Resultant = 212.55 N Direction = 54.665º with x axis
.
EXAMPLE 3
The plate is subjected to the forces acting on member A and B as shown. If θ = 60º
determine the magnitude of the resultant of these forces and its direction measured from
clockwise from positive x-axis. Adopt triangle method graphically and analytically.

Given
FA = 400N FB = 500N θ1 = 30º with Y axis θ2 = 60º with positive x axis
Required Resultant FR =? Direction = α =?
Solution the angle between two forces 60 + (90 – 30) = 120º

A: Graphically Scale 100 lb = 1 cm

Now draw triangle OAB with suitable scale with the help of scale and protractor as
shown in diagram A
120º
FA
FB
O α

FR
B
By measurement we get,
OB = FR = 4.6 cm x 100 = 460 lb Angle BOA = 70º α = 10º
Result Resultant = 460 lb Direction = 10º
B Analytically:
According to cosine law for given triangle AOB

FR = F²A + F²B – 2(FA) (FB) (cosine θ)

FR = (400) ² + (500) ² -2 (400) (500) (cosine (180-120)

FR = 458.257 lb
According to sine law for given triangle AOB
FB = FR .
Sin α Sin (180-θ)

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 500 = 458.257 .
Sin α Sin (180-θ)

Sin α = 500 Sin (180-θ)

458.257
α = 70.89º with force FA
And α = 70.89º -60º = 10 with x axis
Result Resultant = 458.257 lb & Direction = 10.89º
Example 4
Four forces act on a body at point O as shown in fig. Find their resultant.
110 N
100 N

30º 45º
20º 80 N
160 N
Given
F1 = 80 N θ0 = 0 at x axis
F2 = 100 N θ1 = 45º with x axis
F3 = 110 N θ2 = 30º with –ve x axis
F4 = 160 N θ3 = 20º with –x axis
Required
Resultant = FR =? Direction =α =?
Sol: Graphically Scale 20 N = 1 cm.
Starting from O the four vectors are plotted in turn as shown in fig by placing the
tail end of each vector at the tip end of the preceding one. The arrow from O to the tip of
the last vector represents the resultant of the vectors.
C
20º

D
30º B

α 45º
O A
By measurement
The resultant OB = FR = x 20 = 124 N
The direction of the resultant = = 143º with + ve x axis.
Result: Resultant = 119 N Direction = 143º

EXERCISE 2.1

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 1. Find the resultant and the direction of the following diagram.

i 8N ii 6lb

42º 60º
5N 4
lb
Ans: 12.18 N & 26.07º Ans: 8.718 lb & 36.585º

iii
20 N
30 N

140º
30º
Ans: 29.826 N & 69.059º with x-axis.
2. Two forces P and Q are applied as shown at point A of a hook support. Knowing
that P = 75 N and Q = 125 N, determine the magnitude and direction of their resultant
using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule.

3. Two forces P and Q are applied as shown at point A of a hook support. Knowing
that P = 60 lb and Q = 25 lb, determine the magnitude and direction of their resultant
using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule.

4. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force as shown in fig

Prob. 2 & 3 Prob. 4

5. Two forces are applied to an eye bolt fastened to a beam. Determine the
magnitude and direction of their resultant using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle
rule.

- 21 -
6. Two forces are applied at point B of beam AB. Determine the magnitude and
direction of their resultant using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule

Prob.5 Prob. 6
7. Two control rods are attached at A to lever AB. knowing that the force in the left-
hand rod is F1 = 120 N, determine (a) the required force F2 in the right-hand rod if the
resultant of the forces exerted by the rods on the lever is to (b) the corresponding
magnitude of FR.

Prob. 7 Prob. 8 & 9

8. Two forces are applied as shown to a hook support. Knowing that the magnitude
of P is 35 N, determine by (a) the required angle α if the resultant of the two forces
applied to the support is to be horizontal, (b) the corresponding magnitude of resultant.

9. For the hook support of Prob. 9, knowing that P = 75 N and α = 50°, determine
the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces applied to the support.

- 22 -
 Prob. 10 Prob. 11

10. For the hook support, knowing that the magnitude of P is 75 N, determine (a) the
required magnitude of the force Q if the resultant R of the two forces applied at A is to
be vertical, (b) the corresponding magnitude of R

11. The two forces P and Q act on bolt A as shown in diagram. Find their resultant
and direction
12. Two structural members A and B are bolted to a bracket as shown. Knowing that
both members are in compression and that the force is 30 kN in member A and 20 kN in
member B, determine, the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces applied
to the bracket by members A and B.

13. Two structural members A and B are bolted to a bracket as shown. Knowing that
both members are in compression and that the force is 10 kN in member A and 15 kN in
member B, determine by trigonometry the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
forces applied to the bracket by members A and B.

Prob.12 Prob. 13

14. Two structural members B and C are riveted to the bracket A. Knowing that the
tension in member B is 6 kN and the tension in C is 10 kN, determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force acting on the bracket.

- 23 -
15. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces.

Prob.14 Prob. 15

16. The cable stays AB and AD help support pole AC. Knowing that the tension is
500 N in AB and 160 N in AD, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of
the forces exerted by the stays at A using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle

17. The cable stays AB and AD help support pole AC. Knowing that the tension is
120 lbs in AB and 40 lb in AD, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of
the forces exerted by the stays at A using (a) the parallelogram law, (b) the triangle rule.

Prob.16 Prob. 17

18. The two structural member one in tension and other in compression, exerts on
point O, determine the resultant and angle θ

19. The force P and T act on body at point B replace them with a single force

- 24 -
 Prob.18 Prob. 19

20. A trolley that moves along a horizontal beam is acted upon by two forces as
shown. (a) Knowing that α = 25°, determine the magnitude of the force P so that the
resultant force exerted on the trolley is vertical. (b) What is the corresponding magnitude
of the resultant

21. A trolley that moves along a horizontal beam is acted upon by two forces as
shown. Determine by the magnitude and direction of the force P so that the resultant is a
vertical force of 2500 N.

Prob. 20 & 21

22. A steel tank is to be positioned in an excavation. Knowing that α = 20°, determine

a) the required magnitude of the force P if the resultant R of the two forces applied at A is
to be vertical, (b) the corresponding magnitude of R.

23. A steel tank is to be positioned in an excavation. Knowing that the magnitude of P

is 500 lb, determine by trigonometry (a) the required angle a if the resultant R of the two
forces applied at A is to be vertical, (b) the corresponding magnitude of R.

- 25 -
 Prob. 22 & 23

RESOLUTION OF FORCE
The processes of finding the components of given vector (resultant) is
called resolution of vector. Or
The processes of splitting up of single vector into two or more vector is called
resolution of the vector A vector can be resolved into two or more vectors which have
the same combined affect as that the effect of original vector

RESOLUTION OF VECTOR INTO RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

If vector is resolved into such components which are at right angles

(perpendicular) to each other then they are called the rectangular components of that
vector, now let us consider a resultant vector F to be resolved into two components
which makes an angle θ with horizontal axes as shown in fig.

C
F

θ
O

Now draw a line OC to represent the vector in magnitude, which makes an angle
θ with x-axis with some convenient scale. Drop a perpendicular CD at point C which
meet x axis at point D, now join point O to point D, the line OD is called horizontal
component of resultant vector and represents by Fx in magnitude in same scale.
Similarly draw perpendicular CE at point C, which will meet y-axis at point E now join

- 26 -
 O to E. The line OE is called vertical component of resultant vector and represents by
Fy in magnitude of same scale.

E C

Fy F

θ
O Fx D

Analytically or trigonometry
In ∆COD Angle COD = θ Angle ODC = 90° OC = F

OD = Fx OE = CD = Fy
We know that
Cosine θ = OD. Cosine θ = Fx
OC F
And Fx = F Cosine θ
Similarly we have
Sin θ = DC Sin θ = Fy
OC F
And Fy = F Sine θ

RESOLVING OF A FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS WHICH ARE NOT

MUTUALLY AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER
If a force or vector is to be required to resolved into such components
which are not at right angle to each other then it can be determined in reverse manner as
we find the resultant vector of given components by Parallelogram method, Triangle
method or Trigonometry
A) Parallelogram method
Now consider a force FR, which is resolved into components F 1 and F2. The force
F makes an angle α with force F 1 and force F2 makes an angle θ with component F 1, so
we can make a parallelogram with suitable scale as shown in fig.
B C

F2 FR

θ α β θ
O F1 A D

We can also determine the components of force F by analytically as we know that

direction of the resultant vector can be determined by
Sin α = F2 Sin θ. OR ___________________1
FR
Tan α = F2 Sin θ _________________ 2

- 27 -
 F1+ F2 Cosine θ
So we can find F2 from equation 1
F2 = FR Sin α
Sin θ
Similarly from equation 2
F1 = F2 Sin θ - F2 Cosine θ
Tan α

B) Triangle method: Now consider a force F, which is resolved into components F 1

and F2. The force F makes an angle α with force F 1 and force F2 makes an angle θ with
component F1, so we can make a triangle with some suitable scale as shown in fig.
B

γ
FR F2

α β θ
O F1 A

By measurements we get the components F1 and F2.

Similarly we can find the components F1 and F2 by using the formula

F1 = F2 = FR .
Sin γ Sin α Sin β
For component F1
F1 = FR Sin γ
Sin β
For component F2
F2 = FR Sin α
Sin β

EXAMPLE 5
Resolve the force 200 N into components along x and y direction and
determine the magnitude of components.
200 N

30º

Given: Force = F = 200 N Direction =θ = 30º

Required Horizontal components = Fx =?
Vertical components = Fy =?
Solution

- 28 -
 A) Graphically Scale 1 cm = 20 N
Now draw a line OC to represent t vector in magnitude with given scale, which
makes an angle 30º with x-axis. Draw a perpendicular CD at point C which meet x axis
at point D, now join point O to point D, the line OD is called horizontal component (F x)
of resultant vector. Similarly draw perpendicular CE at point C, which will meet y-axis
at point E now join O to E. The line OE is called vertical component (F y) of resultant
vector. As shown in fig

By measuring we get E C

OD = Fx = 8.6 cm x 20 = 172 N
OE = Fy = 5 cm x 20 = 100 N Fy
Result:
Fx = 173.20 N Fy = 100 N
30º
O Fx D

B) Analytically
We know that Fx = F cosine θ = 200 cosine30 Fx = 173.20 N

We also know that Fy = F Sin θ = 200 Sin 30 Fy = 100 N

Result: Fx = 173.20 N Fy = 100 N

EXAMPLE 6
A push of 40 N acting on a point and its line of action are inclined at an angle of
30º with the horizontal. Resolve it along horizontal axis and another axis which is
inclined at an angle of 65º with the horizontal.
C B
Given Force = F = 40 N
Direction = θ = 65º F2 F
Direction = α = 30º
Required Force component = F1 =?
Force component = F2 =? 65º 30º
A D

Solution Graphical Method

Let Scale 10 N = 1 cm
Now draw the parallelogram ABCD with given scale as shown in fig
By measurement AD = F1 = 2.5 x 10 = 25 N
AC = F2 = 2.3 x 10 = 23 N
Result F1 = 25 N F2 = 23 N
Analytically
We have F2 = F Sin α = 40 Sin 30
Sin θ Sin 65º

- 29 -
 F2 = 22.06 N
Similarly from equation
F1 = F2 Sin θ - F2 Cosine θ
Tan α
F1 = 22.06 Sin 65 - 22.06 Cosine 65
Tan 30
F1 = 25.32 N
Result F1 = 25.32 N F2 = 22.06 N

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Resolve the given forces as shown in following diagrams into components F1 and F2
i ii

10 kips 200 N

F2 30º
25º 40º
F1 F1

iii iv 156 lb
35 º
F2 100 N F2

30º 75º
F1 F1
3. A force of 800 N is exerted on a bolt A as shown in fig. Determine the horizontal
and vertical components of force.

4. A man pull with force of 300 N on a rope attached to a building as shown in fig,
what are the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted by the rope at point
A

Prob.3 Prob. 4

- 30 -
5. A Member BD exerts on member ABC a force P directed along line BD.
Knowing that P must have a 300-lb horizontal component, determine (a) the magnitude
of the force P, (b) its vertical component.

6. A The hydraulic cylinder BD exerts on member ABC a force P directed along line
BD. Knowing that P must have a 750-N component perpendicular to member ABC,
determine (a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its component parallel to ABC.

Prob.5 Prob. 6

7. The guy wire BD exerts on the telephone pole AC a force P directed along BD.
Knowing that P must have a 120-N component perpendicular to the pole AC, determine
(a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its component along line AC.

8. The guy wire BD exerts on the telephone pole AC a force P directed along BD.
Knowing that P has a 180-N component along line AC; determine (a) the magnitude of
the force P, (b) its component in a direction perpendicular to AC.

Prob. 7 &8 Prob. 9

9. Member CB of the vise shown exerts on block B a force P directed along line CB.
Knowing that P must have a 1200-N horizontal component, determine (a) the magnitude
of the force P, (b) its vertical component.

- 31 -
10. Cable AC exerts on beam AB a force P directed along line AC. Knowing that P
must have a 350-lb vertical component, determine (a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) its
horizontal component.

Prob.10 Prob. 11& 12

11. The 300-lb force is to be resolved into components along lines a-a’ and b-b’. (a)
Determine the angle a knowing that the component along line a-a’ is to be 240 lb. (b)
What is the corresponding value of the component along b-b’

12. The 300-lb force is to be resolved into components along lines a-a’ and b-b (a)
Determine the angle a by trigonometry knowing that the component along line b-b’ is to
be 120 lb. (b) What is the corresponding value of the component along a-a’

13. A barge is pulled by two tugboats. If the resultant of the forces exerted by the
tugboats is a 5000-lb force directed along the axis of the barge, determine (a) the tension
in each of the ropes knowing that α = 45°, (b) the value of α for which the tension in rope
2 is minimum.

14. A jet aircraft is being towed by two trucks B and C. Determine the magnitude of
two forces FB and FC. If the force has a magnitude of FR = 10 KN and it is directed along
positive x-axis. Set θ = 15º

- 32 -
 Prob.13 Prob. 14

15. A stake is pulled out of the ground by means of two ropes as shown. Knowing
that the tension in one rope is 30 lb, determine the magnitude and direction of the force P
so that the resultant is a vertical force of 40 lb.

16. The boat is to be pulled onto the shore using two ropes, determine the magnitude
of two forces T and P acting in each rope in order to develop a resultant force of 80 lb in
direction along the keel as shown in fig. take θ = 40º

Prob.15 Prob. 16
17. Find the x and y components of each force and determine the resultant and
direction

i) ii)

- 33 -
 iii) iv)

v) vi)

18. Knowing that the tension in cable BC is 725 N, determine the resultant of the
three forces exerted at point B of beam AB.

- 34 -
19. Knowing that α = 35° determine the resultant of the three forces shown.

α α

Prob.19 Prob. 20&21

20. Knowing that α = 40°, determine the resultant of the three forces shown.

21. Knowing that α = 75°, determine the resultant of the three forces shown.

FORCES IN SPACE OR THREE DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEM

Rectangular components of a force in three dimensions

- 35 -
 Consider a force F acting at the origin O of the system of rectangular coordinates
x, y, z. To define the direction of F, draw the vertical plane OBAC containing F. This
plane passes through the vertical y axis; its orientation is defined by the angle φ it forms
with the xy plane. The direction of F within the plane is defined by the angle θy that F
forms with the y axis as shown in figure
Now the force F may be resolved into a vertical component Fy and a horizontal
component Fh as shown in figure which is carried out in plane OBAC according to the
resolving rule.
The Vertical component = Fy = F cos θy ---------------------------- 1
The horizontal component = Fh = Fsin θy
Now resolve the Fh may be resolved into two rectangular components Fx and Fz
along the x and z axes, respectively as shown in figure.

The component along x -axis = Fx = Fh cos φ

------------------------------------2
The component along z-axis = Fz = Fh cos φ -----------------------------------
3
Where Fh = Fsin θy
The equation 1, 2 and 3 are the required rectangular component of the given force F.
THE RESULTANT OF RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS IN SPACE

Let us consider three forces that is F x, Fy and Fz are acting at origin “O” of the coordinate
system x, y and z as shown in figure
Fy Fy

Fx R Fx

Fz Fz

- 36 -
 Fy

Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the triangles OAB and OCD of Fig. we write F2
46 Statics of Particles The relationship existing between the force F and its three
components F x , F y , F z is more easily visualized if a “box” having F x , F y , F z for
edges is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.31 . The force F is then represented by the diagonal
OA of this box. Figure 2.31 b shows the right triangle OAB used to derive the first of the
formulas (2.16): F y 5 F cos u y . In Fig. 2.31 a and c , two other right triangles have also
been drawn: OAD and OAE. These triangles are seen to occupy in the box positions
comparable with that of triangle OAB. Denoting by u x and u z , respectively, the angles
that F forms with the x and z axes, we can derive two formulas similar to F y 5 F cos u y.
We thus write

EXERCISE 2.3

1. A force F has the components Fx = 20 lb, Fy = 230 lb, Fz = 60 lb. Determine its magnitude
F and the angles θx , θy , θz it forms with the coordinate axes.

2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force F = (320 N)i + (400 N)j - (250 N)k.

3. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force F = (240 N)i - (270 N)j + (680 N)k.

4. A force acts at the origin of a coordinate system in a direction defined by the angles θ x =
70.9° and θy = 144.9°. Knowing that the z component of the force is -52 lb, determine (a)
the angle θz (b) the other components and the magnitude of the force.

- 37 -
5. A force acts at the origin of a coordinate system in a direction defined by the angles θ y =
55° and θz = 45°. Knowing that the x component of the force is -500 lb, determine (a) the
angle θx (b) the other components and the magnitude of the force.

6. A force F of magnitude 210 N acts at the origin of a coordinate system. Knowing that F x
= 80 N, θz = 151.2°, and Fy ˂ 0, determine (a) the components Fy and Fz, (b) the angles θx
, θy.

7. A force F of magnitude 230 N acts at the origin of a coordinate system. Knowing that θ x
= 32.5°, Fy = - 60 N, and Fz > 0, determine (a) the components Fx and Fz, (b) the angles θy
, θz.

8. Determine (a) the x, y, and z components of the 750-N force, (b) the angles θx , θy , θz z
that the force forms with the coordinate axes.

9. Determine (a) the x, y, and z components of the 900-N force, (b) the angles θx , θy , θz
that the force forms with the coordinate axes.

10. A tower guy wire is anchored by means of a bolt at A. The tension in the wire is 2500 N.
Determine ( a ) the components Fx , F y , Fz of the force acting on the bolt, ( b ) the angles
θx , θy , θz defining the direction of the force

Prob. 8, 9 Prob. 10
11. A horizontal circular plate is suspended as shown from three wires that are attached to a
support at D and form 30° angles with the vertical. Knowing that the x component of the
force exerted by wire AD on the plate is 110.3 N, determine (a) the tension in wire AD,
(b) the angles θx , θy , θz that the force exerted at A forms with the coordinate axes.

12. A horizontal circular plate is suspended as shown from three wires that are attached to a
support at D and form 30° angles with the vertical. Knowing that the z component of the
force exerted by wire BD on the plate is -32.14 N, determine (a) the tension in wire BD,
(b) the angles θx , θy , θz that the force exerted at B forms with the coordinate axes.

- 38 -
13. A horizontal circular plate is suspended as shown from three wires that are attached to a
support at D and form 30° angles with the vertical. Knowing that the tension in wire CD
is 60 lb, determine (a) the components of the force exerted by this wire on the plate, (b)
the angles θx , θy , θz that the force forms with the coordinate axes.

14. A horizontal circular plate is suspended as shown from three wires that are attached to a
support at D and form 30° angles with the vertical. Knowing that the x component of the
force exerted by wire CD on the plate is - 20 lb, determine (a) the tension in wire CD, (b)
the angles θx , θy , θz that the force exerted at C forms with the coordinate axes.

Prob. 11,12,13,14 Prob. 15,16

15. The end of the coaxial cable AE is attached to the pole AB, which is strengthened by the
guy wires AC and AD. Knowing that the tension in wire AC is 120 lb, determine (a) the
components of the force exerted by this wire on the pole, (b) the angles θx , θy , θz that the
force forms with the coordinate axes.

16. The end of the coaxial cable AE is attached to the pole AB, which is strengthened by the
guy wires AC and AD. Knowing that the tension in wire AD is 85 lb, determine (a) the
components of the force exerted by this wire on the pole, (b) the angles θ x , θy , θz that the
force forms with the coordinate axes.

17. A transmission tower is held by three guy wires anchored by bolts at B, C, and D. If the
tension in wire AB is 525 lb, determine the components of the force exerted by the wire
on the bolt at B.
18. A transmission tower is held by three guy wires anchored by bolts at B, C, and D. If the
tension in wire AD is 315 lb, determine the components of the force exerted by the wire
on the bolt at D.

- 39 -
 Prob. 17,18 Prob. 19, 20

19. A frame ABC is supported in part by cable DBE that passes through a frictionless ring at
B. Knowing that the tension in the cable is 385 N, determine the components of the force
exerted by the cable on the support at D.
20. For the frame and cable of Pr ob. 19, determine the components of the force exerted by
the cable on the support at E.
21. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces shown knowing that P
= 300 N and Q = 400 N.
22. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces shown knowing that P
= 400 N and Q = 300 N.
23. A wall section of precast concrete is temporarily held by the cables shown. Knowing that
the tension is 840 lb in cable AB and 1200 lb in cable AC , determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the forces exerted by cables AB and AC on stake A.

Prob. 21, 22 Prob. 23

CHAPTER 3 MOMENT OR MOMENT OF A FORCE

We know that the effect of the force on the body is the tendency to push or
pull the body in the direction of force. Similarly it is also the tendency of a force to rotate
a body about any fixed axis. This axis may be any line which is neither intersects nor
parallel to the line of the action of the force. This rational tendency of force is known as

- 40 -
the moment of force or simply moment. The magnitude of this moment is given by scalar
multiplications of force and moment arm while its direction is normal to the plane
containing force and moment arm. The moment is denoted by letter “M”.
As a familiar example of the concept of moment, consider the pipe wrench as
shown in figure. A force applied perpendicular to the handle of the wrench, the one of the
effect is the tendency to rotate the pipe about its vertical axis. The magnitude of this
tendency depends on both the magnitude of the force and the effective length (moment
arm) “d” of the wrench handle. Common experience shown that a pull which is not
perpendicular to the wrench handle is less effective than the right angle pull. This
tendency of force (moment) is calculated by multiplying force to the moment arm (d)

Moment about a point

Consider a body (two dimensional) acted by a force F in its plane. The magnitude
of moment or tendency of the force to rotate the body about the axis O-O perpendicular
to the plane of the body is proportional both to the magnitude of the force and to the
moment arm d.
Magintude of moment about point A is given by.
Moment = Force(moment arm)
MA = Fd
Where d = moment arm and F = magnitude of force
Moment arm is defined as the perpendicular distance between axis of rotation and
the line of action of force.

Figure a Figure b
Moment at a point also define as the vector or cross product of position vector r and force
F.
Therefore the moment about A is given by
Moment about A = position vector x Force
MA = r x F = rF sin θ
From the geometry of figure “a” we get r sin θ = d

- 41 -
Therefore MA = Fd
Where d = moment arm and F = magnitude of force

Direction of moment
The direction of Moment “M” is always perpendicular to the plane containing
force “F” and moment arm “d” as shown in figure a or
it is given by right hand rule as shown in figure b, we represent the moment of
force about O-O as a vector pointing in the direction of the thumb, with the fingers curled
in the direction of the rotational tendency. It means the direction of M is upward when
the body rotates counter clock wise and the direction of M will be downward when the
rotation of body is clockwise.

CLOCK WISE AND ANTI CLOCK WISE MOMENT

The moment are classified as clockwise and anticlockwise moment according to

the direction in which the force tends to rotate the body about a fixed point
Clockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the same direction in which the hands
of clock move is called clockwise moment the clockwise moment is taken as negative or
other wise mentioned as shown in figure and direction of moment will be perpendicular
to the plane.

Anticlockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the opposite direction in which the
hands of clock move is called anti clockwise moment which is taken as positive or other
wise mentioned. The directional sense of moment is perpendicular into the plane

Unit of moment
S.I unit is N.m. (Newton. meter)
F.P.S unit is lb. ft (Pound. foot)
G.G.S unit is dyne.cm (dyne. Centimeter) etc

- 42 -
Example 1
Determine the moment of the force about point “O” for following diagram.

1 Given Force=100 N
Moment arm=2m
Required Mo=?
Working formula: - MO=Force x Moment arm.
Sol putt the values in first w, f
Mo= F x r = 100 x 2
Mo= 200N.m.
Result: - Moment = 200N.m Direction = clock wise
2

Given
Force = 40lb
Required; M0 =?
W.F, Mo = F x d.
Sol
By geometry of fig
Moment arm = 4ft + 2cos 30º = 5.73ft
Put the value in W.F.
Mo = F x r
Mo = 40 x 5.73
Mo = 229.282lb.ft
Resultant Moment = 229.282 lb.ft Direction = clock wise

Example2
Determine the moment of the force 800 N acting on the frame about points A, B, C
and D.

Given
Force = F = 800 N
Required MA=? MB? MC=? MD=?
Working formula
Moment =force x moment arm.
Sol Solve this question step by step
Now first consider the Point A.
MA = F x r
MA = 800 x (1.5+1)
MA = 2000 N.m clock wise_______ I
Now Moment about B
MB = F x r = 800x 5
MB = 1200 N m clock wise________ (2)
From (1) and (2) it is evidence that when force remain constant then moment
varies with moment arm that is moment depends upon moment arm. Similarly it can be
proved that moment about any point varies with force when moment arm remain same.

- 43 -
Now consider point C
Moment = Force x distance
Mc = 800 x 0
Mc = 0. _______ (3)
As the line of action of force passes through point C that is point of application it
shows that the line of action should be perpendicular to the point i.e. “C”
Now consider the point D.
MD = F x r.
MD = 800 x 0.5
MD= 400 N.m
Result
MA =2000 N.m clock wise Or MA = + 200 N.m
MB = 1200 N.m clock wise Or MB = + 1200 N.m
MC = O. Mc = O
MD =. 400 N.m anti clock wise MD = - 400N.m
Note: - The positive sign shows that the moment is clock wise direction and it is also
proved that moment defends upon following two factors.
1. The magnitude of the force
2. The perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fixed point
or line of the body about which it rotates.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT/ VARIGNON’S THEOREM

It is stated that the moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the
moments of the force components about the point. Or the moment produce by the
resultant force is equal to the moment produce by the force components.

Mathematically MFo = ∑ Mo
Moment produce by the force F about point O = Moment produce due to force
components. Let us consider a force F acting at a point A and this force create the
moment about point O which is r distance away from point A as shown in fig (a)

F F2

A A F1

r r

O O
fig (a) fig (b)
The moment produce due to Force F is given by
MFo = r x F_____________ 1
Now resolve the force into its components F1 and F2 as shwon in figure
F = F1 + F2
The moment produce by these components F1 and F2 about O is given by

- 44 -
∑ Mo = moment produce by F1 + moment produce by F2
∑ Mo = r x F1 + r x F2
∑ Mo = r x (F1 + F2)
Put F = F1 + F2 in the above formula
∑ Mo = r x (F)
∑ Mo = r x F ________________ 2
By comparing the equation 1 and by equation 2
MFo =∑ Mo
The above equation shows that moment produce by the Force (resultant) is equal to the
moment produce by components F1 and F2.

Note the above equation is important application to solution of problems and proofs of
theorems. Such it is often easier to determine the moments of a force’s components rather
than the moment of the force.

EXAMPLE 3
A 200 N force acts on the bracket as shown determine the moment of force about “A”

Given F=200N θ = 45º

Required MA =?
Solution Resolve the force into components F1 am F2
F1= F cos θ F1=200 cosine 45º
F1=141.42N.
F2= F sin θ F2 = 200 sin 45º
F2= 2.468N.
We know that MA = 0
MA = moment produce due to component F1+ moment produce due to component F2.
MA =F1 x r1+ F2 x r2.
Let us consider that clock wise moment is + ve.
MA = F1 x r1+ F2 x r2
MA = - 141.42 x 0.1 + 2.468 x (0.1 +0.1)
MA = - 13.648 N
MA = 13 .648 N anti clock wise.
EXERCISE 3

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1. Find the moment of the force about “O” as shown in diagram
i ii

Ans : 37.5 N m clockwise Ans : 42.426 clockwise

iii

Ans: 21 kN m

2. Determine the resultant moment of four forces acting on the rod about “O” as shown is
diagram.
Ans: 333.92 N m
clock wise

3. The Force F acts at the end of angle bracket shown determine the moment of forces about
“O”
Ans : 98.56 clockwise

- 46 -
 Prob. 2 Prob. 3
4. A force of 40N is applied to the wrench. Determent the moment of this force about point
“O”
Ans: 7.107
clockwise

5. The wrench is used to loosen the bolt. Determine the moment of each force about the
bolt’s axis passing through point O. (Ans: 24.1 N-m,
14.5 N-m)\

6. Determine the moment of each of the three forces about point A.

Prob. 5 Prob. 6

7. Determine the moment about point A of each of the three forces

Ans: 600 N-m, 1.12 KN-m, 518
N-m

- 47 -
8. A 100-lb vertical force is applied to the end of a lever which is attached to a shaft at O.
Determine ( a ) the moment of the 100-lb force about O ; ( b ) the horizontal force applied
at A which creates the same moment about O ; ( c ) the smallest force applied at A which
creates the same moment about O ; ( d ) how far from the shaft a 240-lb vertical force
must act to create the same moment about O ( e ) whether any one of the forces obtained
in parts b , c , and d is equivalent to the original force.

Prob. 8 Prob. 9

9. A force F of magnitude 60 N is applied. Determine the magnitude of moment about point

O Ans: N-
m

10. Calculate the moment of force 250 N on the handle of monkey wrench about the centre of
bolt

11. A force of 200 N is applied to the end of the wrench to tighten a flange bold which holds
the wheel to the axle. Determine the moment M produced by this force about the center O
of the wheel for the poison of the wrench shown Ans: 78.3
N-m CW

- 48 -
 Prob. 10 Prob. 11

12. Compute the moment of the force 0.4 lb about the pivot O of the wall switch toggle

13. The 30 N force P is applied perpendicular to the portion BC of the bent bar. Determine
the moment of P about point A and B

Prob. 12 Prob. 13

14. The towline exerts a force of P = 4 kN at the end of the 20 m long crane boom. If θ = 30º,
determine the displacement x of the hook at A so that the force creates a maximum
moment about point O. What is this moment? (Ans:
24.0 m, 80 kN-m)

15. Determine the direction θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 180°) of the force F so that it produces (a) the
maximum moment about point A and (b) the minimum moment about point A.
Compute the moment in each case. (Ans: 56.3°,
146°, 1442 N-m, 0 N-m)

- 49 -
16. The tool at A is used to hold a power lawnmower blade stationary while the nut is being
loosened with the wrench. If a force of 50 N is applied to the wrench at B in the direction
shown, determine the moment it creates about the nut at C. What is the magnitude of
force F at A so that it creates the opposite moment about C? (Ans: 13.0, N-m,
35.2, N-m)

Prob. 16 Prob. 17

17. A praybar is used to remove a nail as shown. Determine the moment of the 60-lb force
about the point O of contact between prybar and small support block.
Ans: 70 lf-ft cw

18. It is known that a vertical force of 800 N is required to remove the Nail at C form the
board. As the nail first starts moving determine (a) the moment about B of the force

- 50 -
 exerted on the nail (b) the magnitude of the force P which creates the same moment about
B if α = 10° (c) the smallest force which creates the same moment about B

19. The 120 N forces is applied as shown to one end of the curved wrench. If α = 30°,
calculate the moment of F about the center O of the bolt. Determine the value of α which
would maximize the moment about O state the value of this maximum moment
Ans: 41.5 N= m CW 32.2° 41.6
N-m CW

20. The member is subjected to a force of F = 6 KN and θ = 45°. Determine the moment
produced by F about point A.

21. Determine the angle θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 180°) of the force F so that it produces a maximum
moment and a minimum moment about point A. Also, what are the magnitudes of these
maximum and minimum moments?

- 51 -
 Problem 20, 21

PARALLEL FORCES
When the lines of action of Forces are parallel to each other called parallel forces.
The forces never meet to each other. There are two types of parallel forces as discussed
as under

1. Like parallel forces

When two parallel forces acing in such away that their directions remain same are
called like parallel forces

2. Un like parallel forces

When two parallel forces acing in such away that their directions are opposite to
each other called like parallel forces

COUPLE
The moment produce by two equal opposite and non-collinear parallel forces is
known as couple when applied on a body. As matter of fact a couple is unable to produce
any straight-line motion but it produces rotation in the body on which it acts. So couple
can be defined as unlike parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction which
produce rotation about a specific direction and whose resultant is zero. The couple is also
denoted by letter M
Consider the action of two equal and opposite forces F and –F acting on the body at a
distance “d” apart as shown in figure “a”, the resultant of these two forces is equal to
zero in any direction their only effect is to produce rotation in the body. The combined

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moment of the two forces about an axis normal to their plane and passing through any
point such as O in their plane is called couple and denoted by M. the magnitude of this
couple is given by
M = F (a+d) – Fa
M = Fd
Where M= the couple produce by the two equal and opposite forces F
d = Perpendicular distance between F and -F

Figure a Figure b
The direction is counterclockwise when viewed from above for the case as shown in
figure. The couple is independent of the distance “a” which locates the force with respect
to the moment center O. it follows that the moment of a couple has the same value for all
moment center.

Direction of couple
The direction and sense of a couple’s moment is determined using the right hand
rule, where the thumb indicates the direction when the fingers are curled with the sense of
rotation caused by the two forces.

CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLE
The couplet are classified as clockwise couple and anticlockwise couple

1. Clockwise couple

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 A couple whose tendency is to rotate the body in a clockwise direction is known
as clockwise couple. The clockwise couple is taken as negative or other wise mentioned
as shown in figure and direction of moment will be perpendicular to the plane.

2. Anticlockwise couple
A couple whose tendency is to rotate the body in anticlockwise direction is known
as anticlockwise couple. The counterclockwise couple is taken as positive or other wise
mentioned. The directional sense of moment is perpendicular into the plane

FORCE- COUPLE SYSTEM

When a single force (resultant force) is replaced by a force and couple is called
force-couple system. Let us consider a force F acting at point A as shown in figure. This
force can be replaced by another force and couple acting another point B. To do this,
apply two equal and opposite forces at point B without producing any net external effects
on the body. We know that the original force “F” at A and equal and opposite force “–F”
at B produce counterclockwise couple at B.
Thus we have replaced the original force at A by the same force acting at a
different point B and a Couple, without altering the external effects of the original force
on the body. This combination of the force and couple system is referred as force-couple
system.

EXAMPLE
Determine the moment of couple acting on the moment shown
200 N

- 54 -
 4m 2m

200 N
Given
F1=200 N L1=4m F2=200 N L2 = 2m.
Required Moment of couple = M =?
Working Formula M = F x r.
Solution
Put the values in working formula
M= 200(4+2)
M=1200 N. m

Result M= 1200 N. m

EXAMPLE
Determine the moment of couple acting on the moment shown.

Given F1=F2 =90lb F3 = F4 = 120lb.

Required Moment of couple = M=?
Solution The moment of couple can be determined at any point for example at A, B or
D.
Let us take the moment about point B
MB = ∑ F R.
MB = -F1 x r1 – F2 x r2 .
MB = - 90(3) – 120 (1)
MB = - 390 lb ft
Result MB = MA=MD =390 lb .ft counter clock wise.
Moment of couple = 390 lb.ft count cloche wise

- 55 -
- 56 -
CHAPTER 3 EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLE AND BODY

Equilibrium of a Particle

When numbers of forces acting on a particle, if the resultant of such forces is equal
to zero then the net effect of force on the particle is zero, it means the particle retains its
stats of rest or moves with constant speed and particle is said to be in equilibrium.
A particle is in equilibrium if it is at rest if originally at rest or has a constant
velocity if originally in motion. The term equilibrium or static equilibrium is used to
describe an object at rest. To maintain equilibrium it is necessary to satisfy Newton’s first
law of motion, which requires the resultant force acting on particle to be equal to zero.
That is
∑FR = 0 A
Where ∑FR = Sum of all the forces acting on the particle

Example 1
A particle which is acted upon by two forces will be in equilibrium if the two
forces have the same magnitude and the same line of action but opposite sense. The
resultant of the two forces is then zero. Such a case is shown in Fig.

Example 2
A particle which is acted by four forces will be in equilibrium, if the resultant of these
forces is equal to zero as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 Figure 2

- 57 -
 The resultant of the given forces is determined by the polygon rule. Starting from
point O with F1 and arranging the forces in tip-to-tail fashion, we find that the tip of F4
coincides with the starting point O. Thus the resultant R of the given system of forces is
zero, and the particle is in equilibrium as shown in figure. The closed polygon drawn in
Fig provides a graphical expression of the equilibrium of A.
To express algebraically the conditions for the equilibrium of a particle, calculate the
resultant of all the forces acting on the particle we have

FR = (ΣFx) 2 + (ΣFY) 2 --------------------------- 1

And the direction of resultant is given by
Tan α = ΣFY/ΣFx
Now resolve each force into its horizontal components we get
+ ΣFx = Fx1 + Fx2 + Fx3 + Fx4 ΣFx = Fx1 + Fx2 - Fx3 - Fx
ΣFx = F1 + 0 - F3 sin 30° - F4 sin 30° ΣFx = 300 + 0 - 200 sin 30° - 400 sin
30°
ΣFx = 300 + 0 - 100 – 200
ΣFx = 0 --------------------------- A
Now resolve each force into its vertical components we get
+ ΣFY = FY1 + FY2 + FY3 + FY4 ΣFY = FY1 - FY2 - FY3 + FY4
ΣFY = FY1 - F2 - F3 cos 30° + F4 cos 30° ΣFY = 0 – 173.2 - 200 cos 30° + 400
cos 30°
ΣFY = 0 – 173.2 – 173.2° + 346.4
ΣFY = 0 --------------------------- 2
Put in equation 1 to calculate the resultant we get
FR = 0 --------------------------- 3
The equation 3 shows that the particle retains its position (state of rest or moves with
constant speed) is in equilibrium, means there is no net effect of force on the particle. The
equation 1, 2 or 3 is the necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium of a
particle.

METHODS FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

There are many methods of finding the equilibrium but the following are important
1. Analytical Method 2. Graphical Method
1. Analytical method for the equilibrium of forces
The equilibrium of forces may be studied analytically by Lami’s theorem as
discussed under
LAMI’S THEOREM
It states, “If there are three forces acting at a point be in equilibrium then each
force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces”.
Let three force F1, F2 and F3 acting at a point and the opposite angles to three
forces are γ , β, and α as shown in figure
F2
F1

- 58 -
Mathematically α
F1 = F2 = F3 β γ
Sin β Sin γ Sin α
F3
EXAMPLE
Determine the tension in cables AB and AD for equilibrium of the 250 kg engine as
shown.

TAB

30º
TAD

FDB

Given Mass of Engine = 250 Kg. Angle = θ = 30º

Required: Tension in the cable = TAB =? TAD =?
Working Formulas TAD = TAB = W
Sin α Sin β Sin γ
Solution
We know that W = mg.
W = 250 x 9.81 = 2452.5 N = 2452.5/1000
W = 2.453 KN
From the geometry of diagram we have
α = 90 + 30 = 120º
β = 90º
γ = 180 – 30 = 150º
Put the values in the working formula
TAD = TAB = W
Sin 120 Sin 90 Sin 150
Therefore TAD = 4.249 KN
Similarly TAB = 4.906 KN
Result: TAD = 4.249 KN
TAB = 4.91 KN
Alternate method TAB
The same question may be solved by resolving method
Working Formulas ∑F=0
Solution TAD 30º
We know that W = mg.
W = 250 x 9.81 = 2452.5 N = 2452.5/1000

- 59 -
 W = 2.453 KN
Now resolve force TAB, TAD and W, as shown in following diagram

Force Magnitude Angle Horizontal Vertical Components

# N θº Components Fy = F Sine θ
Fx = F Cosine θ
1 TAB - 30 TAB Cosine 30 = . TAB Sine 30 = 0.5
866 TAB TAB
2 TAD - 0 TAD Cosine 0 = TAD Sine 0 = 0
TAD
3 W 2452.5 90 2452.5 Cosine 90 2452.5 Sine 90 =
0 2452.5
We know that
+ ∑ Fx = 0
.866 TAB – TAD – 0 = 0 A
+ ∑ Fy = 0
0.5 TAB + 0 – 2.4525 = 0 B
From Equation A
TAB = TAD C
0.866
Put in equation B
.5 (TAD) + 0 - 2.4525 = 0
0.866
TAD = 4.248 KN
Put in equation C
TAB = 4.248
0.866
TAB = 4.91 KN
Result: TAD = 4.248 KN TAB = 4.91 KN

EXERCISE 4
1. Determine the magnitude of F1 and F2 so that the partial is in equilibrium

2. Determine the magnitude and direction of F1 and F2 so that the partial is in equilibrium

- 60 -
 Prob. 1 Prob. 2
3. Determine the force in each cord for equilibrium of the 200-kg crate. Cord remains
horizontal due to the roller at C, and AB has a length of 1.5 m. Set y = 0.75 m.

4. The members of a truss are connected to the gusset plate. If the forces are concurrent at
point O, determine the magnitudes of F and T for equilibrium. Take θ = 30°.

5. The gusset plate is subjected to the forces of four members. Determine the force in
member B and its proper orientation for equilibrium. The forces are concurrent at point
O. Take F = 12 kN.

Prob. 3 Prob. 4 & 5

6. Determine the forces in cables AC and AB needed to hold the 20-kg ball D in
equilibrium. Take and d = 1 m. F = 300 N

Prob. 6
7. In a ship-unloading operation, a 3500-lb automobile is supported by a cable. A rope is
tied to the cable at A and pulled in order to center the automobile over its intended
position. The angle between the cable and the vertical is 2°, while the angle between the
rope and the horizontal is 30°. What is the tension in the rope?

- 61 -
 Prob. 7

Prob. 8
8. As part of the design of a new sailboat, it is desired to determine the drag force which
may be expected at a given speed. To do so, a model of the proposed hull is placed in a
test channel and three cables are used to keep its bow on the centerline of the channel.
Dynamometer readings indicate that for a given speed, the tension is 40 lb in cable AB
and 60 lb in cable AE. Determine the drag force exerted on the hull and the tension in
cable AC.
9. Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. Knowing that α = 20°
determine the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in cable BC.
10. Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. Determine the tension (a) in
cable AC, (b) in cable BC.

Prob. 9 Prob. 10

11. Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. Knowing that P = 500 N and
α = 60° determine the tension in (a) in cable AC, (b) in cable BC.

12. Two cables are tied together at C and are loaded as shown. Determine the tension (a) in
cable AC, (b) in cable BC.

Prob. 11 Prob. 12

13. Knowing that α = 55° and that boom AC exerts on pin C a force directed along line AC,
determine (a) the magnitude of that force, (b) the tension in cable BC.

14. Knowing that α = 20°, determine the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in rope BC.

- 62 -
 Prob. 13

Prob. 14

15. Two forces P and Q are applied as shown to an aircraft connection. Knowing that the
connection is in equilibrium and that P = 500 lb and Q = 650 lb, determine the
magnitudes of the forces exerted on the rods A and B.

16. Two forces P and Q are applied as shown to an aircraft connection. Knowing that the
connection is in equilibrium and that the magnitudes of the forces exerted on rods A and
B are FA = 750 lb and FB = 400 lb, determine the magnitudes of P and Q.

Prob. 15 & 16 Prob. 17 & 18

17. A welded connection is in equilibrium under the action of the four forces shown.
Knowing that FA = 8 kN and FB = 16 kN, determine the magnitudes of the other two
forces.

18. A welded connection is in equilibrium under the action of the four forces shown.
Knowing that FA = 5 kN and FD = 6 kN, determine the magnitudes of the other two
forces.

19. Two cables tied together at C are loaded as shown. Knowing that Q = 60 lb, determine
the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in cable BC.

- 63 -
 Prob. 19 Prob. 20 & 21

20. A sailor is being rescued using a boatswain’s chair that is suspended from a pulley that
can roll freely on the support cable ACB and is pulled at a constant speed by cable CD.
Knowing that α = 30° and β = 10° and that the combined weight of the boatswain’s
chair and the sailor is 900 N, determine the tension (a) in the support cable ACB, (b) in
the traction cable CD.
21. A sailor is being rescued using a boatswain’s chair that is suspended from a pulley that
can roll freely on the support cable ACB and is pulled at a constant speed by cable CD.
Knowing that α = 20° and β = 25° and that the tension in cable CD is 80 N, determine
(a) the combined weight of the boatswain’s chair and the sailor, (b) the tension in the
support cable ACB.

22. Knowing that portions AC and BC of cable ACB must be equal, determine the shortest
length of cable that can be used to support the load shown if the tension in the cable is not
to exceed 870 N.

23. Collar A is connected as shown to a 50-lb load and can slide on a frictionless horizontal
rod. Determine the magnitude of the force P required to maintain the equilibrium of the
collar when (a) x = 4.5’ b) x = 15’’

Prob. 22 Prob. 23

Equilibrium of body
When numbers of forces and moments acting on body, if the resultant of such
forces and moments is equal to zero the body is said to be in equilibrium. For a rigid
body in static equilibrium, the external forces and moments are balanced and will impart
no translational or rotational motion to the body
Let us consider a body is acted by number of forces and moments as shown in
figure (a).

- 64 -
 We are able to calculate the resultant force of these forces and resultant moment
produce by four forces and two given moments at any point with in body (in given figure
that point is O). Let us suppose the resultant force and resultant moment is equal to zero.
Then there is no net effect of these forces and couples. It means no translational or
rotational motion in the body (static equilibrium). Therefore the sufficient and necessary
equations for equilibrium of a body are A and B
FR = 0---------------------------- 1
It means the components of FR is also zero, we get
ΣFx = 0
ΣFY = 0 ------------------------------------- A
ΣFz = 0
Similarly the moment produce by each force and given moments are also equal to zero to
maintain the equilibrium.
MR = 0---------------------------- 1
It means the components of MR is also zero, we get
ΣMx = 0
ΣMY = 0 ------------------------------------- B
ΣMz = 0

Supports or connections:
The supports or connections are provided in structure (frame, truss, machine) to
prevents the motion (Translational and rotational) of the body in particular direction. The
supports or connections provide the necessary reactions needed to maintain the structure
in the same position will also be contained in this plane. These supports and connections
are classified according to the reaction provided by supports as shown in figure and
discussed as under.

1. Reactions Equivalent to a Force with Known Line of Action.

Those supports and connections which prevent motion in one direction only have
one reaction. The magnitude of reaction is unknown but the line of action of reaction is
known. Supports and connections causing reactions of this type include
1.Rollers 2. Rockers 3. Frictionless surfaces 4. Short links
5. Cables 6. Collars on frictionless rods 7. Frictionless pins in
slots.
These supports are shown in table 1 and table 2, together with the reactions they produce.
Each of these reactions involves one unknown. The line of action of the reaction is
known and should be indicated clearly in the free-body diagram.

- 65 -
 Table 1

Table 2

2. Reactions Equivalent to a Force of Unknown Direction and Magnitude.

These Supports and connections prevent translation of the body in all directions,
but they cannot prevent the body from rotating about the connection. Causing reactions of
this type include
1. Frictionless pins in fitted holes 2. Hinges 3. Rough surfaces
All these supports as shown table 3 and table 4 They can. Reactions of this group
involve two unknowns and are usually represented by their x and y components. In the
case of a rough surface, the component normal to the surface must be directed away from
the surface.

- 66 -
 Table 3

Table 4

3. Reactions Equivalent to a Force and a Couple (moment).

Those supports and connections prevents the motion in all the direction as well as
the rotation for example fixed supports, which oppose any motion of the free body and
thus constrain it completely. Reactions of this group involve three unknowns, consisting
usually of the two components of the force and the moment of the couple.

TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Supports and connections provide necessary reaction (resisting force) to prevents
the body from linear or rotational motion there are different types of supports are as
follows
1. Rollers 2. Rockers
3. Frictionless surfaces 4. Short links
5. Cables 6. Collars on frictionless rods
7. Frictionless pins in slots. 8. Frictionless pins in fitted holes
9. Hinges 10. Rough surfaces
11. Fixed support or cantilever
The important supports are discussed as under

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1. Roller Support.
A roller support is equivalent to a frictionless surface. It can only exert a force
that is perpendicular to the supporting surface. The magnitude of the force is thus the
only unknown introduced in a free-body diagram when the support is removed

2. Pin Support.
A pin is a cylinder that is slightly smaller than the hole into which it is inserted, as
shown in figure. Neglecting friction, the pin can only exert a force that is normal to the
contact surface, shown as F. A pin support thus introduces two unknowns: the magnitude
of R and the angle φ that specifies the direction of F (φ is unknown because the point
where the pin contacts the surface of the hole is not known). More commonly, the two
unknowns are chosen to be perpendicular components of F, such as Fx and Fy shown in
Fig.

3. Built-in (Cantilever) Support.

A fixed, built-in support also known as a cantilever support prevents all motion of
the body at the support. Translation (horizontal or vertical movement) is prevented by a
force, and a couple prohibits rotation. Therefore, a built-in support introduces three
unknowns in a free-body diagram: the magnitude and direction of the reactive force F
(these unknowns are commonly chosen to be two components of F, such as Fx and Fy)
and the magnitude M of the reactive couple.

Equilibrium of two dimensional body

For two dimensional problems there are three sufficient and necessary equations
to maintain the equilibrium are
ΣFx = 0
ΣFY = 0
Mo = 0
Example 1 Let us consider an airplane as shown in digamma.

- 68 -
 The external force acting on the airplane is the only weight of the airplane, which
acts at the center of gravity of airplane and its direction is vertically upward towards the
center of earth. This load of air plane is transmitted to the earth by the three tires of the
airplane, in return the earth pull the airplane upward by a force known as reaction of earth
on airplane. In this case the reactions are shown by T and R. Now applying the equations
of equilibrium
A little consideration will show that the there is no horizontal forces applied on
the airplane therefore
ΣFx = 0 ------------------- 1
ΣFY = 0
W – R – T – T = 0 or W = R + T + T
W = R + 2T ------------------- 2
The above equation shows that for equilibrium the weight of the airplane must be
equal to the sum of R and 2 times. In the above equation there are only two unknown that
is T and R, these two unknown can be determined by using the 3 rd equation of motion ( or
by taking the moment produce by each force about rear or front wheel) that is
ΣMo = 0
Example 2
Consider a truss shown in fig (a) is subjected to the given forces P, Q, and S. The truss is
held in place (statics Equilibrium) by providing a pin support at A and a roller support at
B. The pin prevents point A from moving by exerting on the truss a force which can be
resolved into the components Ax and Ay.
The roller keeps the truss from rotating about A by exerting the vertical force B.
The free-body diagram of the truss is shown in Fig. (b)

Fig. a Fig. b

In FBD all the unknown reactions Ax Ay, and B as well as the applied known
forces P, Q, S (the rectangular components of each force) and the weight W of the truss
shown.
The possible equations of equilibrium of for all forces and moments acting on
structure is given by
ΣFx = 0 ΣMx = 0
ΣFY = 0 ΣMY = 0
ΣFz = 0 ΣMz = 0

For two dimensional Structures it will become

- 69 -
 ΣFx = 0 --------------------------------1
ΣFY = 0 --------------------------------2
ΣMA = 0 -------------------------------3
Where A is the point about which the structure may rotates, the above three equations are
used to calculate unknown but not more than 3
To calculate the unknown B we may apply the 3 rd equation of equilibrium (by
Taking the moment produce by each force about support A and equating it equal to zero)
ΣMA = 0
Moment produce by B + Moment produce by S x + Moment produce by Sy + Moment
produce by Qx + Moment produce by Qy + Moment produce by Px + Moment produce by
Py = 0
The other two unknown Ax and Ay may be determined by using the 1 st and 2nd
equations of equilibrium respectively.
ΣFx = 0
Ax + Sx + Qx + Px = 0 or Ax – Sx – Qx – Px = 0
Similarly ΣFY = 0
Ay + B + SY + QY + PY + w = 0 or
Ay + B – S Y – QY – PY – w = 0
Example 3
The homogeneous, 120-kg wooden beam is suspended from ropes at A and B. A
power wrench applies the 500-N · m clockwise couple to tighten a bolt at C.

EXERCISE 5
1. The 480-kg bent bar ABC of uniform cross section is supported by a pin at A and a
vertical cable at C. Determine the pin reactions and the force in the cable.

2. The bent beam ABC is attached to a pin at C and rests against a roller support at B.
Neglecting the weight of the beam, find the reactions at B and C caused by the 150-kg
load

- 70 -
 Problem 1 Problem 2

3. Compute all reactions at the base A of the traffic light standard, given that the tension in
the cable BC is (a) T = 544 lb; and (b) T =0. The weight of the standard is negligible
compared with the 320-lb weight of the traffic light.

4. The system of parallel forces acts on the top of the Warne truss. Find reactions

Problem 3 Problem 4

5. A fixed crane has a mass of 1000 kg and is used to lift a 2400-kg crate. It is held in place
by a pin at A and a rocker at B. The center of gravity of the crane is located at G.
Determine the components of the reactions at A and B.

6. Three loads are applied to a beam as shown. The beam is supported by a roller at A and
by a pin at B. Neglecting the weight of the beam, determine the reactions at A and B
when P 5 15 kips.

Problem 5 Problem 6

7. For the beam and loading shown, determine (a) the reaction at A, (b) the tension in cable
BC

8. The frame shown supports part of the roof of a small building. Knowing that the tension
in the cable is 150 kN, determine the reaction at the fixed end E

- 71 -
 Problem 7 Problem 8

9. A loading car is at rest on a track forming an angle of 25° with the vertical. The gross
weight of the car and its load is 5500 lb, and it is applied at a point 30 in. from the track,
halfway between the two axles. The car is held by a cable attached 24 in. from the track.
Determine the tension in the cable and the reaction at each pair of wheels.

10. Find reaction at point A and B for the beam shown set P= 600lb a = 5ft b = 7ft.

11. The cantilever beam is built into a wall at O. Neglecting the weight of the beam;
determine the support reactions at O.

12. Find the reaction at the points for the beam as shown

- 72 -
- 73 -
 BEAM A beam is a long straight bar having a constant cross-sectional area.
Beams are classified as
1 Cantilever beam 2 Simply supported beam
3 Over hanging beam 4 Rightly fixed or built in beam
5 Continuous beam.
1. Cantilever beam
A beam, which is fixed at one and free at the other end, is called cantilever
beam. As shown in fig

2. Simply supported beam

A beam which is pinned (pivoted) at one end and roller support at other end
is called simply supported beam. As shown in fig

LOAD
The external applied force is called load. Load is in the form of the force or
the weight of articles on the body is called load.
1. Concentrated or Point load
A load, which is applied through a knife-edge, is called point or concentrated
load.

- 74 -
 30 N

2. Uniformly distributed load

A load which is evenly distributed over a part or the entire length of beam is called
uniformly distributed load or U D.L

3. Uniformly varying load

The load whose intensity varies lineally along the length of beam over which it is
applied is called uniformly varying load.

Note
Any beam may be point, uniformly distributed and uniformly varying load

EXAMPLE 10 Find the reaction of the shaft at point shown.

Given Span = L = 8m x = 2m, y = 2m, Z = 2m

F1 = 2 KN F2 = 3 KN F3= 2 KN.
Required Shear force and moment diagram
Solution Take moment about “A” also consider the upward force and clock wise
moment is positive ∑MA = 0
RE (L) – F3 (x + y + z) – F2 (x + y) – F1 (x) + RA (0) = 0.
RE (8) - 2 (6) – 3 (4) – 2 (2) + 0 = 0
RE = 3.5 KN
Now for RA we can calculate by
∑F = 0
RA - F1 - F2 - F3 + RE = 0
RA - 2 - 3 - 2 + 3.5 = 0

EXAMPLE 2.11

- 75 -
 Find reaction at A and C for shaft shown. The support at A is a thrust
bearing and support C is a Journal bearing. Also draw shear force bending moment
diagram.

Given Span = L = 4m. Load = P = 5 kN.

Required RA =? RC =?
Solution Take moment about “A” also considers upward force and clockwise
moment is positive.
∑MA = 0
Rc (L) – P (x) + RA (0) = 0.
Rc (4) – 5 (2) = 0
Rc = 2.5 k N
To calculate the reaction at point A
∑F = 0
RA - P+ Rc = 0
RA – 5 + 2.5 = 0 RA = 2.5 k N
EXAMPLE 2
Find the reaction of a simply supported beam 6m long is carrying a
uniformly distributed load of 5kN/m over a length of 3m from the right hand.
Given
P = 5 k N /m L = 6 m Y = 3m, Z = 3m.
Required Reaction at A & B = RA & RB =?
Solution first of all we will change the uniformly distributed load into the point load
= 5 x 3= 15 kN
Take moment about A also consider that the upward force or load and clockwise
moment is positive.
∑MA = 0
Rc (L) – P (y + z/2) + RA (0) = 0
RB (6) – (15) (3 + 1.5) + RA (0) = 0
RB = 11. 25 kN
To calculate the reaction at point A
∑F = 0
RA - P+ RB = 0
RA -15 - 11.25
RA = 3.75.kN
Exercise 2
6. Find the moment of couple shown what must the force of a couple balancing this
couple having arm of length of 6ft. Ans: 36 lb ft, 6 lb

- 76 -
7. The tires of a truck exert the forces shown on the deck of the bridge replace this
system of forces by an equivalent resultant force and specify its measured form
point A.
Ans: 12.1 kip, 10.04 ft

The system of parallel forces acts on the top of the Warne truss. Determine the
equivalent resultant force of the system and location measured from point A
Ans: 4.5 kN, 2.22 m

9. A man and a boy carry a mass of 20 kg b/w them by means of a uniform pole
1.7m long and mass of 9kg. Where the weight must placed so that the man may
carry twice as mush of weight as that boy. Ans: 111.18
N, .04646 m

10. Two unlike parallel forces of magnitude 400 N and 100 N acting in such a way
that their lines of action are 150 mm apart. Determine the magnitude of the
resultant force and the point at which it acts.
Ans: 300 N & 50 mm
11. Find reaction at point A and B for the beam shown set P= 600lb a = 5ft b = 7ft.

12. Find the reaction at the points for the beam as shown

- 77 -
13 Find the reaction at the points as shown in diagram

14 Find the reaction at the points as shown in diagram

- 78 -
CHAPTER 3 FRICTION
A force which prevents the motion or movement of the body is called friction or
force of friction and its direction is opposite to the applied external force or motion of the
body. Friction is a force of resistance acting on a body which prevents or retards motion
of the body. Or
When a body slides upon another body, the property due to which the motion of one
relative to the other is retarded is called friction. This force always acts tangent to the
surface at points of contact with other body and is directed opposite to the motion of the
body.
Explanation
Consider a block resting on, a horizontal plane surface. Attach a string to one side of
the block as shown in Fig.

- 79 -
 The other end of the string is connected to the spring balance. Apply an external
force on the balance. Gradually increase the magnitude of the external force. Initially the
body will not move and the effect of the applied force is nullified. This is because there
acts a force on the block which opposes the motion or movement of the block. The nature
of this opposing force is called friction. It depends upon many factors. The major cause
of friction is the microscopic roughness of the contact surfaces. No surface is
perfectly smooth. Every surface is composed of crests and falls as shown in fig b. It
is the interlocking of the crests of one surface into the falls of the other surface which
produces the resistance against the movement of one body over the other body. When the
force exerted is sufficient to overcome the friction, the movement ensures and the crests
are being sheared off. This gives rise to heat and raises the local temperature. This is also
the reason of the wear of the contact surfaces. This phenomenon of friction necessitates
the presence o fluid film between the two surfaces to avoid wear of surfaces. The process
of creating the fluid film is called lubrication.

TYPES OF FRICTION
Friction is of the following two types.

1. Static Friction
It is the friction acting on the body when the body is at the state of rest or the
friction called into play before the body tends to move on the surface is called static
friction. The magnitude of the static friction is equal to the applied force. It varies from
zero to maximum until the movement ensures.

- 80 -
2. Dynamic Friction
It is the friction acting on the body when body is in motion is called dynamic
friction. Dynamic friction is also known as kinetic friction. The magnitude of the
dynamic friction is constant.
The dynamic friction has two types
i. Sliding Friction ii. Rolling Friction
i. Sliding friction
The sliding friction acts on those bodies, which slide over each other for example
the friction between piston, and cylinder will slide friction because the motion of the
motion of the piston in cylinder is sliding and there is surface contact between piston and
cylinder.
ii. Rolling Friction
The rolling friction acts on those bodies which have point contact with each other
for example the motion of the wheel on the railway track is the example of rolling motion
and the friction between the wheel and railway track is rolling friction. It is
experimentally found that the magnitude of the sliding friction is more than the rolling
friction because in the rolling friction there is a point contact rather than surface contact.

LIMITING FRICTION
The maximum friction (before the movement of body) which can be produced by
the surfaces in contact is known as limiting friction
It is experimentally found that friction directly varies as the applied force until the
movement produces in the body. Let us try to slide a body of weight w over another body
by a force P as shown in fig
Motion of the body

F P

Pan

A little consideration will show that the body will not move because the friction F
which prevents the motion. It shows that the applied force P is exactly balanced by the
force of friction acting in the opposite direction of applied force P. if we increase the
force P by increasing the weight in the pan, the friction F will adjust itself according to
applied force P and the body will not move. Thus the force of friction has a property of
adjusting its magnitude to become exactly equal and opposite to the applied force which
tends to produce the motion.
There is however a limit beyond which the friction cannot increase. If the applied
force increases this limit the force of friction cannot balance applied force and body
begins to move in the direction of applied force. This maximum value of friction, which
acts on body just begin to move, is known as limiting friction. It may be noted that when
the applied force is less than the limiting friction the body remains at rest, and the friction
is called static friction, which may have any values zero to limiting friction.

- 81 -
NORMAL REACTION
Let us consider a body A of weight “W” rest over another surface B and a force P
acting on the body to slide the body on the surface B as shown in fig
R

Body A P

Surface B
F
W = mg
A little concentration will show that the body A presses the surface B downward
equal to weight of the body and in reaction surface B lift the body in upward direction of
the same magnitude but in opposite direction therefore the body in equilibrium this
upward reaction is termed as normal reaction and it is denoted by R or N.
Note
It is noted the weight W is not always perpendicular to the surface of contact and
hence normal reaction R is not equal to the weight W of body in such a case the normal
reaction is equal to the component of weight perpendicular to surface.

CO EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
The ratio of limiting friction and normal reaction is called coefficient of friction
and is denoted by µ.
Let R = normal reaction
And F = force of friction (limiting friction)
µ = Co efficient of friction
F=µ
R
F=µR

ANGLE OF FRICTION
The angle of a plane at which body just begins to slide down the plane is called
angle of frication. Consider a body resting on an inclined plane as shown in diagram.

R
F

w
θ

The body is in equilibrium under the Acton of the following forces

1. Weight of the body acting vertically downwards = w
2. Friction force acting along upwards = F
3. Normal reaction acting at right angle to the plane =R

- 82 -
 Let the angle of inclination be gradually increased till the body just starts sliding down
the plane. This angle of inclined plane at which a body just begins to slide down the plane is
called the angle of friction. And it is equal to the angle between normal reaction R and the
resultant between frictional force F and normal reaction R
w

F
θ FR
R
From diagram
Tan θ = F / R
But F/R=µ
Where µ is the co-efficient of friction,
Tan α = µ

LAWS OF FRICTION
These laws are listed below:

1. Laws of Static Friction

1 The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the
body tends to move.
2 The magnitude of force of static friction is just sufficient to prevent a body from
moving and it is equal to the applied force.
3. The force of static friction does not depend upon, shape, area, volume, size etc.
as long as normal reaction remains the same.
4. The limiting force of friction bears a constant ratio to normal reaction and this
constant ratio is called coefficient of static friction.

2. Laws of Dynamic Friction

1 When a body is moving with certain velocity, it is opposed by a force called

force of dynamic friction.
2 The force of dynamic friction comes into play during the motion of the body
and as soon as the body stops, the force of friction disappears.
3 The force of dynamic friction is independent of area, volume, shape, size etc. of
the body so long the normal reaction remains the same.
However, to some extent it varies with the magnitude of velocity of the body. Force
of dynamic friction is high for low speeds and low for very high speeds.
4 The ratio of force of dynamic friction and normal reaction on the body is called
coefficient of dynamic friction.

- 83 -
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE

We know that a body lying on a rough horizontal plane will remain in equilibrium
but when ever a force is applied on the body it will tend to move in the direction of force.
Consider a body moving on a horizontal Plane under the influence of force P which is
inclined at an angle θ to the surface. As shown in fig
R P

Where
w = weight of the body
P = applied force
α = Angle of Repose
F = friction
θ = angle of inclination of the plane the horizontal
Resolve the applied force P into its component that is
Horizontal component = P Cos θ Vertical component = P Sin θ
Now consider the horizontal & vertical equilibrium condition of the body then
F = P Cos θ _____________________ 1
And w = R + P Sin θ __________________ 2
The value of P can be determined by following formula
P= w Sin α.
Cos (θ – α)
For minimum force P
P = W Sin α

- 84 -
MOTION OF BODY ON INCLINED PLANE IN UPWARD DIRECTION
Let
W = weight of the body P = applied force
α = Angle of Repose θ = angle of inclination of the plane the horizontal
Now consider the following two cases
Case 1) When angle of inclination of the force to plane is β

R P

w Sine θ θ w Cos θ
F w
θ

Consider the forces acting on body which are parallel to the plane also consider the
equilibrium of body
P cosine β = w sin θ + F
P cosine β = w sin θ + µR ______________________ 1
Similarly the forces acting on body normal to the plane and consider the equilibrium
condition
R + P sin β = w cosine θ ________________________2
The magnitude of the force P can be calculated by the following formula

P= W Sin (θ + α)
Cosine (β – α)

Case 2) When the force is parallel to the plane

R
P

w Sine θ w Cos θ
F
θ w

By considering the equilibrium of the forces parallel and normal to the plane we have
P = w Sine θ + F
P = w Sine θ + µR_________________ 1
And R = w Cosine θ _________________ 2
The force P can be calculated by the following formula
P = .W Sin (θ + α)
Cos α

- 85 -
Motion of body on Inclined plane in downward direction
Let
W = weight of the body P = applied force
θ = angle of inclination of the plane the horizontal
α = Angle of Repose β = angle of force P
Now consider the following two cases
Case 1 When angle of inclination of the force to plane is β
P
R
β

w Sine θ θ w Cos θ

θ w

Now consider the forces acting parallel to the plane also the equilibrium of forces
P cosine β + F = w sin θ
P cosine β +µR = w sin θ _______________ 1
Similarly consider the force normal to the plane
R + P sin β = w cos θ ________________ 2
The magnitude of the force P can be calculated by the following formula
P = .W Sin (θ - α)
Cos (β – α)

Case 2 when the force is parallel to the plane

R P

θ w Cos θ
w Sine θ
θ w
From diagram we have
P + F = w Sine θ
P + µR = w Sine θ _________________ 1
Similarly R = w Cos θ _________________ 2
The force P can be calculated by following formula
P = .W Sin (θ - α)
Cos α

- 86 -
EQUILIBRIUM OF LADDER
A ladder is a device which is used to climb up or down to the roof or walls. It
consists of two long uprights and number of rungs which makes the steps of the ladder.
Consider a ladder which is resting on ground and leaning against walls as shown in the
fig. Let
L = Length of ladder
w1 = Weight of ladder acts at middle of the ladder
w2= Weight of man climbing up acts at the distance x from the lower end
μf = co efficient of friction between floor and ladder
μw = co efficient of friction between ladder and wall
Let us suppose ladder slips down wards
Ff = friction produce between floor and ladder towards wall as ladder moves away
from the wall.
Fw = friction produce between wall and ladder upwards as ladder moves down
wards Fw
B Rw

L2
w2 w1
A θ C
Ff L4
L3
L1
For the sake of convince we consider that the friction at B is zero i.e. the wall is
perfectly smooth. Now take the moment about B.
Rf x L1 = Ff x L2 + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
Where Ff = μf x Rf
Rf x L1 = (μf x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x L4 _________________________ A
Similarly consider the friction at A is zero i.e. the floor is perfectly smooth as shown in
figure. Fw
B Rw

L2

w2 w1
A θ C
L4
L3
L1
Therefore Rw x L2 = Fw x L1 + w1 x L3 + w2x L4
Where Fw = μw x Rw

- 87 -
Rw x L2 = (μw x Rw x L1) + w1 x L3 + w2x L4 _______________________ A

- 88 -
EXAMPLE 1
A horse exerts a pull of 3 KN just to move a carriage having a mass of 800 kg.
Determine the co efficient of friction between the wheel and the ground
Take g = 10 m/sec²
Given P = 3 KN Mass = m = 800 Kg g = 10 m/sec²
Required co efficient of friction = µ =?
Working formula F = µ R
Solution we know that W = mg
W = 800 x 10 = 8000 N
A little consideration will show that the weight of the carriage is equal to the normal
reaction because that the body is horizontal to the plane as shown in fig
Therefore W = R and P=F R
Put the values in working formula we get
300 = µ 8000
µ = 0375 P
Result co efficient of friction = 0.375

F w = mg
EXAMPLE 2
A pull of 490 N inclined at 30º to the horizontal is necessary to move a block of
wood on a horizontal table. If the coefficient of friction between to bodies in contact is
0.2 what is the mass of the block
Given P = 490 N θ = 30º µ = 0.2
Required mass of block =?
Solution
Now consider the following diagram and also resolve the force P into horizontal and
vertical components.
R P = 490 N

θ P Sine θ
P Cosine θ
F= µR

w = mg
Now apply the condition of equilibrium the forces acting in x axis is positive
+ ∑ Fx = 0
P Cosine θ – F = 0
P Cosine θ – µ R = 0
490 Cosine 30– 0.2 x R = 0 Therefore R = 2121.762
Now consider the forces acting in y axis is positive
+ ∑ Fy= 0
R + P Sine θ – W = 0
R + P Sine θ – mg = 0
2121.762 + 490 Sine 30– m x 9.81 = 0 m = 241.260 Kg
Result mass of the wooden block = 241.260 Kg

- 89 -
EXAMPLE 3
A body of mass 100 Kg rests on horizontal plane the co efficient of friction
between body and the plane 0.40. Find the work done in moving the body through a
distance of 20 m along the plane.

Given m = 100 Kg µ = 0.40 d = 20 m

Required work done =?
Working formula 1 W = F x d
2 Fs = µ R
Solution we know that R = W = mg
R = W = 10 x 9.81 = 98.1 N
Put the values in 2nd working formula we get
Fs = 0.40 x 98.1
Fs = 39.24 N
st
Now put the values in 1 working formula
W = 39.24 x 20
W = 748.8 N
Resultant weight = 748.8 N

EXAMPLE 4
A weight of 50 N is resting on the horizontal table and can be moved by a
horizontal force of 20 N. Find the co efficient of friction, the direction and magnitude of
the resultant between normal reaction and frictional force

Given W = 50 N P = 20 N
Required co efficient of friction = µ =?
Direction = θ =?
Resultant = S =?
Working formula 1 F=µR w = 50 N
2 S = R² + Fs²
3 Tan θ = µ
Solution put the value in 1st working formula P = 20 N
Fs = µ R
20 = µ x 50 F
µ = 0.4 R
put the value in the 2nd working formula S
S = 50² + 20²
S = 53.85 N
Put the value in the 3rd working formula
Tan θ = µ
Tan θ = 0.4
θ =21.801º
Result Co efficient of friction = µ = 0.4
Direction = θ = 21.801º
Resultant = S = 53.85 N

- 90 -
 EXAMPLE 5
A ladder 5 m long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against a smooth vertical
wall at an angle 70º with the horizontal. The weight of the ladder is 900 N and acts at its
middle. The ladder is at the point of sliding, when a man weighing 750 N stands on a
rung 1.5 m from the bottom of the ladder. Calculate the coefficient of friction between
the ladder and the floor.
2.5 m B
20º
L4
x
1.5 m L3 L2
w2 w1
70º
Ff A L1 C
Rf

Given Length of leader = L = 5 m weight of leader = w1 = 900 N

Weight of man = w2 = 750 N inclination of leader = θ = 70º
Distance covered by man from bottom = 1.5 m
Required coefficient of frication between ladder and floor = μf =?
Working formula Rf x L1 = (μf x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
Solution we know that
Rf = w 1 + w 2
Rf = 900 + 750
Rf = 1650 N
We can calculate L1, L2, by considering the geometry of the figure. Now consider the
triangle ABC
Cos 70 = L1/L = L1/5 L1 = 1.7101 m
And Sin 70 = L2/L = L2/5 L2 = 4.698 m
Similarly we can calculate the L3 & L4 by considering the geometry of the figure
Sin 20 = L4/2.5 L4 = 0.85 m
And Sin 20 = L3/5-1.5 L3 = 1.197 m
Put the values in the working formula to calculate the coefficient of friction between the
floor and ladder
Rf x L1 = (μf x Rf x L2) + w2 x L3 + w1x L4
1650 x 1.7101 = μf x 1650 x 4.698 + 750 x 1.197 + 900 x 0.85
μf = 0.149
Resultant Coefficient of friction = μf = 0.15
EXERCISE 3
1. A block having a mass of 220 Kg is resting on a wooden table what is the minimum
force necessary to impart motion to the block when the coefficient of friction between the
block and the table is 0.25.
Ans: 539 N

- 91 -
2. A 12 N force is just able to slide a block of weight of 100 N on a horizontal plane
board. What is the co efficient of friction? What is the least value of the inclination of the
plane so as to allow the block to slide downward by self?
Ans: 0.21 and 6.0º
3. A block of wood weighing 3 lb. rests on a horizontal table. A horizontal force 1.25 lb.
is just sufficient to cause it to slide. Find the coefficient of friction for the two surfaces
and the angle of friction
Ans: 0.42 & 22.6º
4. A block of wood weighing 7.5 kg rests on a horizontal table and can just be moved
along by a force equal to 2 kg weight. Another 3 kg is placed on the block what is the
least horizontal force which will just move the block
Ans: 2.8 kg & 0.2667
5. A body of weight 6 lb rests on a horizontal table and the coefficient of friction
between the two surfaces is 0.32. What horizontal force will be required to start the body
moving?
Ans: 1.92 lbs
6. A block of wood of weight 2.5 kg rests on a rough horizontal board and the
coefficient of friction between the surfaces is 0.4 by means of string inclined at 30º to the
board. A pull is exerted on the block witch is just sufficient to make it move. Calculate
the amount of the pull.
Ans: 0.938 kg
7. A body rests on a rough horizontal board. This is gradually tilted until, when it is
inclined at 22º to the horizontal, the body begins to move down the plane. What is the
coefficient of friction between the body and the plane? If the body weighs 2.5 what is the
magnitude of the force of friction when the body begins to slip.
Ans: 0.936 N
8. A block of wood rests on an inclined plane and the coefficient of friction between it
and the plane is 0.31. At what angle must the plane be inclined to the horizontal so that
the block begins to move down the plane?
Ans: 17.22º
9. A block rests on a horizontal board. The board is gradually tilted upward and the
block begins to slide down the board when the angle of inclination is θ 1 is 21º. After the
block starts moving, it is found that it keep sliding at constant speed when the angle of tilt
is 15º. Find the coefficient of static friction and the coefficient of dynamic friction
between the block and the board.
Ans: 0384 & 0.268
10. A body of weight is 20 lb is placed on a rough inclined plane whose slope 37º. if the
coefficient of friction between the plane and the body is 0.2 find the least force acting
parallel to the plane required
To prevent the body by sliding down Ans: 8.842 lbs
To pull the body up the plane Ans: 15.23 lbs
11. A uniform ladder of length 3.25 m and weighing 250 N is placed against a smooth
vertical wall with its lower end 1.25m from the wall. The coefficient of friction between
the ladder and floor is 0.3. What is the frictional force acting on the ladder at the point of
contact between the ladder and the floor?
Ans: 52.083 N

- 92 -
CHAPTER 4 CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The center of gravity is a point where whole the weight of the body act is called
center of gravity. As we know that every particle of a body is attracted by the earth
towards its center with a magnitude of the weight of the body. As the distance between
the different particles of a body and the center of the earth is the same, therefore these
forces may be taken to act along parallel lines. A point may be found out in a body,
through which the resultant of all such parallel forces acts. This point, through which the
whole resultant (weight of the body acts, irrespective of its position, is known as center of
gravity (briefly written as C.G). It may be noted that every body has one and only one
center of gravity.
CENTROID
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only areas, but no
mass. The center of area of such figures is known as Centroid. The method of finding out
the Centroid of a figure is the same as that of finding out the center of gravity of a body.
AXIS OF REFERENCE
The center of gravity of a body is always calculated with referrer to some assumed axis
known as axis of reference. The axis of reference, of plane figures, is generally taken as
the lowest line of the figure for calculating y and the left line of the figure for
calculating x.

METHODS FOR CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SIMPLE FIGURES

The center of gravity (or Centroid) may be found out by any one of the following
methods
I. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments method
3. By graphical method

1 Center of Gravity by Geometrical Considerations

The center of gravity of simple figures may be found out from the geometry of the figure

A) The center of gravity of plane figure

1. The center of g of uniform rod is at its middle point.

A B
L

Center of gravity = L / 2 from point A or B

2. The center of gravity of a rectangle is at a point, where its diagonals meet each other.
It is also a mid point of the length as well as the breadth of the rectangle as shown in fig
C D

G = L/2 from AD or BC
h G = h/2 from AB or DC
Area = L x h
A B

- 93 -
L

- 94 -
3. The center of gravity of a square is a point, where its diagonals meet each other. It is a
mid point of its side as shown in fig

G = a/2 from any side

a Area = 2x a

a
4. The center of gravity of a parallelogram is at a point, where its diagonals meet each
other. It is also a mid point of the length as well as the height of the parallelogram as
shown in fig
C D

G = L/2 from AD or BC
h G = h/2 from AB or DC
Area = L x h
A B

L
5. The center of gravity of a triangle is at the point, where the three medians (a median is
a line connecting the vertex and middle point of the opposite side) of the triangle meet as
shown in Fig.
C

G = 2h/3 from point C

h G = h/3 from point A,B
Area = b x h
2

A b B

6. The center of gravity of the circle is the center of the circle

G = r or d/2 from any point from the circumference

Area =  x r²

7. The center of gravity of the semi circle is at a distance 4 r/3  from diameter AB
G = 4 r/3  from diameter AB
Area =  x r²
2
G

A B

- 95 -
8. The center of gravity of quarter circular at a distance 4 r/3  from diameter AC
C
G = 4 r/3  from radius AC
Area =  x r²
4

A B
r

9. The center of gravity of sector is at a distance 2rsinθ/3θ from center c.

r G = 2rsinθ/3θ
Area = θ x r²
O

10. The center of gravity of a trapezium is at a distance of h/3x [b+2a/b+a] form the side
AB as shown in Fig.
a
G = h b + 2a
b 3 b+a

h
h G Area = h (a + b)
2
b

11. The center of gravity semi circular arc is at distance 2 r/  from AB

G = 2 r/ from AB
G Length of Arc = 2 x r


A B

8. The center of gravity of quarter arc is at a distance 2 r/ 

B
G = 2 r/ 
Length of arc AB = r/2

G
A
r

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B) THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODY

1. The center of gravity of a sphere is at a distance r from any point

G = r or d/2 from any point from the circumference

Volume of sphere = 4 x  x r³
3

2. The center of gravity of a hemisphere is at a distance of 3r/8 from its base, as shown in
fig.

G=3xr
8
Volume of sphere = 2 x  x r³
3

3. The gravity of right circular solid cone is at a distance h/4 from its base, measured
along the vertical axis

G = h/4
Volume of cone = 1 x  x r² x h
3

4. The center of gravity of a cube is at a distance of h/4 from every face (where h is the
length of each side).

G = h/4
Volume of cube = length x width x height

5. The center of gravity of a cylinder is h/2 from diameter AB

G = h/2
Volume of cylinder =  x r² x h
h

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS
The center of gravity of a body may also be found out by moments as discussed
below. Consider a body of mass M whose center of gravity is required to be found out.
Now divide the body into small strips of masses whose centers of gravity are known as
shown in fig

x1
x2
x3
x
x

Let
m1, m2, m3 ……. = mass of strips 1, 2, 3,
x1, x2, and x3… = the corresponding perpendicular distance or the center of
gravity of strips from Y axis
According to principal of moment
M x = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3
Mx=∑mx
x=∑mx 1
M
Where ∑ m = m1 + m2 + m3 + …………..
And ∑ x = x1 + x2 + x3 + ……………..
Similarly
y=∑my 2
M
The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, 1-section, L-section etc.) have only
areas but no mass the center of gravity of such figures is found out in the same way as
that of solid bodies. Therefore the above two equations will become

x=∑ax
A
Or x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +………
a1 + a2 + a3 +……
y = ∑a y
A
Or y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 + a3 y3 +………
a1 + a2 + a3 +………

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EXAMPLE 4
Find the center of gravity of a 100 mm x 150 mm x 30 mm T-section. As shown in
the fig
100 mm

30 mm

150 mm

Given Height = 150 mm width = 100 mm thick ness = 30 mm

Required center of gravity = y =?
Working formulae y = ∑a y or y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 + a3 y3 +………
A a1 + a2 + a3 +………
Solution
# Body Area Distance (y) mm Area x y
mm²
1 Rectangular ABCD a1 = 100 x 30 = 3000 30/2 = 15 3000 x 15 = 45000
2 Rectangular EFGH a2 = (150 – 30) x 30 = 3600 150-30/2 = 135 3600 x135= 486000
∑ = 9600 ∑ = 531000
Put in the working formula
y = ∑a y = 531000 Y = 94.09 mm
A 9600
Result center of gravity = 94.09 mm

EXAMPLE 2
Find the center of gravity of a channel section 100 mm x 50mm x 15 mm.
A B

C D
E

100 mm

G
F H
15 mm
I J
50 mm

Required center of gravity =?

Working formula x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 +………

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a1 + a2 + a3 +……

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Solution Consider the rectangle ABC
Area = a1 = 50 x 15 = 750 mm² x1 = 50 / 2 = 25 mm
Consider the rectangle CEFG
Area = a2 = (100 -15-15) x 15 = 1050 mm² x21 = 15 / 2 = 7.5 mm
Consider the rectangle FHIJ
Area = a3 = 50 x 15 = 750 mm² x3 = 50 / 2 = 25 mm
Put the values in the working formula
x = a1 x1 + a2x2 + a3 x3 = 750 x 25 + 1050 x 7.5 x 750 x 25
a1 + a2 + a3 25 + 7.5 + 25

x = 17 .8 mm
Result Center of gravity = 17.8 mm

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

Sometimes, the given section, whose center of gravity is required to be found out,
is not symmetrical either about x-axis or y-axis. In such cases, we have to find out both
the values of center of gravity of x and y which means with reference to x axis and y axis

EXAMPLE 3
Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm x 80 mm x 20mm.
C D

100 mm
F G

20 mm
A B E
80 mm
Required center of gravity =?
Working formula x = a1 x1 + a2 x2
a1 + a2
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2
a1 + a2
# Body Area mm² Distance (x) mm Distance (y) mm
1 Rectangular ABCD a1 = 100 x 20 = 2000 x1 = 20/10 =10 y1 =100/2 = 50
2 Rectangular BEFG a2 = (80 – 20) x 20 = 1200 x2 = 20 – 60/2 =50 y2 = 20/2 = 10

Put the value in the first working formula

x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 = (2000 x 10 ) + (1200 x 50) x = 25 mm
a1 + a2 10 + 60
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 = ( 2000 x 50 ) + (1200 x 10) y = 35 mm
a1 + a2 10 + 60
Result x = 25 mm y = 35 m

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODIES
The center of gravity of solid bodies (such as hemisphere, cylinder, right circular
solid cone etc) is found out in the same way as that of the plane figures. The only
difference between the plane and solid bodies is that in the case of solid bodies we
calculate volumes instead of areas

EXAMPLE 4
A solid body formed by joining the base of a right circular cone of height H to the
equal base of right circular cylinder of height h. calculate the distance of the center of
gravity of the solid from its plane face when H = 120 mm and h = 30 mm

Given cylinder height = h = 30 mm

Right circular cone = H = 120 mm
Required center of gravity =? 120 mm
Working formula

y = v1 y1 + v2 y2
v1 + v2
Solution
Consider the cylinder 30 mm
Volume of cylinder = π x r² x 30 = 94.286 r²
C.G of cylinder = y1 = 30/2 = 15mm
Now consider the right circular cone
Volume of cone = π/3 x r² x 120 = 377.143 r²
C.G of cone = y2 = 30 + 120/4 = 60 mm
Put the values in the formula
y = v1 y1 + v2 y2 = 94.286 r² x 15 + 377.143 r² x 60
v1 + v2 94.286 r² +377.143 r²
y = 40.7 mm
Result center of gravity = 40.7 mm

CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SECTIONS WITH CUT OUT HOLES

The center of gravity of such a section is found out by considering the main
section; first as a complete one and then deducting the area of the cut out hole that is
taking the area of the cut out hole as negative. Now substituting the area of the cut out
hole as negative, in the general equation for the center of gravity, so the equation will
become
x = a1 x1 - a2 x2
a1 - a2
Or y = a1 y1 - a2 y2
a1 - a2

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EXAMPLE 5
A semicircles of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezium as shown in fig find
the position of the center of gravity

C a = 200 mm D

h = 120 mm

A B
b = 300 mm
90 mm
Given
Trapezium ABCD
b = 300 mm a = 200 mm h = 120 mm
Semicircle radius = r = 90 mm
Working Formula y = a1 y1 - a2 y2
a1 - a2
Solution
Area of trapezium = a + b x h = 200 + 300 x 120 = 30000 mm²
2 2
centre of gravity of trazezium = y1 = h = [ b + 2 a]
3 b+a
4
y1 = 120 [ 300 + 2 x 200] = 56 mm
3 300 + 200
4
Area of semicircle = area of the circle = π r² = π 90² = 89100 mm²
2 2 2
Center of gravity of the semicircle = 4 r = 4 90 = 38.183
3π 3π

Put the values in working formula

y = 30000 x 56 – 89100 x 38.183
30000 - 89100
Result Center of the gravity = 69.1 mm

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EXERCISE 4
1. An I section has the following dimensions in mm units.
Top flange = 150 x 50 Bottom flange = 300 x100 Web = 300 x 50
Find the center of gravity (centroid)
Ans: 160.7 mm
2. A uniform lamina shown in fig consists of rectangle, a semi circle and a triangle. Find
the centre of gravity

Ans: 71.1 mm
3. Find the centre of gravity of T section with flange 150 mm x 10 mm and web also 100
mm x 10 mm.
150

10

150 mm

Ans: 115 mm
4. Find the center of gravity a T section with top flange 100 mm x 20 mm web 200 mm x
30 mm and the bottom flange 300 mm x 40 mm
100 mm
20 mm

200 mm
30 mm

40 mm

300 mm Ans: 79mm

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5. Find the center of gravity of an unequal angle section 10 cm x 16 cm x 2 cm

10 cm

2 cm

16 cm
Ans: 5.67 mm and 2.67 mm
6. A body consists of a right circular solid cone of height 40 mm and radius 30 mm
placed on a solid hemisphere of radius 30 mm of the same material find the position of
the center of gravity of the body

40 mm

30mm

Ans: 28.4 mm
7. A hemisphere of 60 mm diameter is placed on the top of the cylinder having 60 mm
diameter. Find the center of gravity of the body from the base of the cylinder if its height
is 100 mm.
Ans: 60.2 mm
8. A semicircular area is removed from a trapezium as shown in fig determine the
position of the center of gravity

60 mm

30 mm

40 mm 40 mm Ans

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9. A circular hole of 50 mm diameter is cut out from a circular disc of 100 mm diameter
as shown in fig find the center of gravity of the section

100 mm 50 mm

Ans: 41.7 mm
10. Find the center of gravity of a semicircular section having outer and inner diameters
of 200 mm and 160 mm respectively as shown in fig.

160 mm

200 mm
Ans: 57.5 mm

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Units of measurement
The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a
one kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s−2.[55] The
corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to accelerate a one gram mass by
one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s−2. A newton is thus equal to 100,000 dyne.
The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf),
defined as the force exerted by gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field
of 9.80665 m·s−2.[55] The pound-force provides an alternative unit of mass: one slug is the
mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by one pound-
force.[55]
An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps
system, is the poundal, defined as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a
rate of one foot per second squared.[55] The units of slug and poundal are designed to
avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's second law.

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The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the
kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on
one kilogram of mass.[55] The kilogram-force leads to an alternate, but rarely used unit of
mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at 1 m·s−2
when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI
system, and is generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as
expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension, torque wrench settings and engine output
torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthène which is equivalent to 1000 N and
the kip which is equivalent to 1000 lbf.
Units of force
newton kilogram-force,
dyne pound-force poundal
(SI unit) kilopond
1 N ≡ 1 kg·m/s² = 105 dyn ≈ 0.10197 kp ≈ 0.22481 lbF ≈ 7.2330 pdl
1 dyn = 10−5 N ≡ 1 g·cm/s² ≈ 1.0197×10−6 kp ≈ 2.2481×10−6 lbF ≈ 7.2330×10−5 pdl
1 kp = 9.80665 N = 980665 dyn ≡ gn·(1 kg) ≈ 2.2046 lbF ≈ 70.932 pdl
1 lbF ≈ 4.448222 N ≈ 444822 dyn ≈ 0.45359 kp ≡ gn·(1 lb) ≈ 32.174 pdl
1 pdl ≈ 0.138255 N ≈ 13825 dyn ≈ 0.014098 kp ≈ 0.031081 lbF ≡ 1 lb·ft/s²
The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational
units.
[edit] Notes
Kilogram-force
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A kilogram-force (kgf), or kilopond (kp, from latin pondus meaning weight), is a unit of
force equal to the magnitude of the force exerted on one kilogram of mass by a
9.80665 m/s2 gravitational field (standard gravity, a conventional value approximating
the average magnitude of gravity on Earth).[citation needed] Therefore one kilogram-force is by
definition equal to 9.80665 newtons.[1][2] Similarly, a gram-force is 9.80665 millinewtons
(or 0.00980665 newtons), and a milligram-force is 9.80665 micronewtons (or
9.80665×10−6 newton).
The kilogram-force has never been a part of the International System of Units (SI), which
was introduced in 1960. The SI unit of force is the newton.
Prior to this, the unit was widely used in much of the world; it is still in use for some
purposes. The thrust of a rocket engine, for example, was measured in kilograms-force in
1940s Germany, in the Soviet Union (where it remained the primary unit for thrust in the
Russian space program until at least the late 1980s), and it is still used today in China and
sometimes by the European Space Agency.
It is also used for tension of bicycle spokes, for torque measured in "meter-kilograms",
for pressure in kilograms per square centimeter, for the draw weight of bows in archery,
and to define the "metric horsepower" (PS) as 75 metre-kiloponds per second.[1]
The gram-force and kilogram-force were never well-defined units until the CGPM
adopted a standard acceleration of gravity of 980.665 cm/s2 for this purpose in 1901,
though they had been used in low-precision measurements of force before that time.
A tonne-force, metric ton-force, megagram-force, or megapond (Mp) is 1000 kilograms-
force.

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The decanewton or dekanewton (daN) is used in some fields as an approximation to the
kilogram-force, being exactly rather than approximately 10 newtons.
Units of force
newton kilogram-force,
dyne pound-force poundal
(SI unit) kilopond
1 N ≡ 1 kg·m/s² = 105 dyn ≈ 0.10197 kp ≈ 0.22481 lbF ≈ 7.2330 pdl
1 dyn = 10−5 N ≡ 1 g·cm/s² ≈ 1.0197×10−6 kp ≈ 2.2481×10−6 lbF ≈ 7.2330×10−5 pdl
1 kp = 9.80665 N = 980665 dyn ≡ gn·(1 kg) ≈ 2.2046 lbF ≈ 70.932 pdl
1 lbF ≈ 4.448222 N ≈ 444822 dyn ≈ 0.45359 kp ≡ gn·(1 lb) ≈ 32.174 pdl
1 pdl ≈ 0.138255 N ≈ 13825 dyn ≈ 0.014098 kp ≈ 0.031081 lbF ≡ 1 lb·ft/s²
The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational
units.
Three approaches to mass and force units
System Engineering Gravitational Absolute
Force (F) F = m·a F = m·a/gc = w·a/g F = m·a
Weight (w) w = m·g w = m·g/gc ≈ m w = m·g
Units English Metric English Metric English Metric
Acceleration (a) ft/s2 m/s2 ft/s2 m/s2 ft/s2 m/s2
Mass (m) slug hyl pound-mass kilogram pound kilogram
Force (F) pound kilopond pound-force kilopond poundal newton
[edit] References

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