Current-Limiting Reactors
Their Design, Installation and Operation
BY F. H. KIERSTEAD
Associate, A. I. E. E.
Both of General Electric Co., Pittsfield, Mass.
Review of the Subject .-The essential features in the design,
installation and operation of current-limiting reactors are pointed
out. The application of reactors to different circuits is not treated
because a number of good papers dealing with this subject has been
presented at Institute meetings.
Design.-A current-limiting reactor should have low reactance
at low currents and high reactance at high currents. Such a
reactor has been developed and is known as the "saturated core"
reactor. It has not been used as yet for current-limiting protection
to any extent. A reactor having an iron core and only an a-c.
uinding gives a drooping voltage-ampere characteristic and, there-
fore, is not suitable for current-limiting protection. Reactors
with air ccres have straight line volt-ampere characteristics and,
therefore, are wdl adapted for this protection.
Since the only function of current-limiting reactors is to limit
the current during short circuits to safe values, they should be
capable of performing this function when other apparatus is being
destroyed, due to excessive current. For this reason, heat resisting
materials should be used for holding and insulating the conductor
of a reactor. A useful formula is given for determining short-
temperature rtses.
circqzit
A current-limiting reactor functions as such only when there are
short circuits on the system. Short circuits are almost sure to be
preceded or accompattied by voltage disturbances of abnor-mal value,
Therefore, the insulation factor of safety in a reactor should be
relatively high.
Reactors uith shunting resistors give to the system in which
IT is the purpose of this paper to point out the
essential features in the design, installation and
operation of current-limiting reactors. The appli-
cation of reactors to different circuits is not treated,
since a number of good papers dealing with this subject
have been presented at Institute meetings.
Design
Under this heading the fundamental conditions in
the design of reactors for satisfactory and reliable
service will be considered. These conditions are ar
follows:
I -Straight Line Volt-Ampere Characteristics
II -Liberal Thermal Capacity
III-Insulation Strength Should be High Since
a Reactor is a Protective Device
IV -High Mechanical Strength
V -Most Economical Losses
In order to show why these characteristics are essen-
tial, we have considered the design of reactors from
each of these five points of view.
I-STRIGHTLINE OLT-MPERE CHARCTERITICS
High efficiency and good regulation require current-
Preaentcd at the Anntual Convention of the A. I. E. E.,
Edgewater Beach, Chicago, Ill., June 23-27, 1924.
902
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and H. O. STEPHENS
Associate, A. I. E. E.
they are placed, the protection from over-voltage that the resistors
afford and are, therefore, to be recommended.
Reactors are subjected to internal magnetic forces due to the
current in the reactor itself and to external magnetic force due to the
field between adjacent reactors. A method is given for calculating
the magnitude and direction of the internal forces. Tests show
that the peak magnetic force should be used in calculating the strength
of the conductor.
The direction of the external forces is discussed and reference is
made to H. B. Dwight's formulas for calculating their magnitude.
Tests show that the stresses on the members which support the
reactor against the external forces depend in a decisive way upon
the ratio of the mechanical frequency to the electrical frequency.
Installation.-The installation of reactors is considered from
the following view points.
I. Arrangement.
II. Compartments.
IV. Bracing
III. Support and Securing in Place.
of tecLeads.
IV. Support of the Leads.
V. Ventilation.
Operation.-In general, reactors require very little attention in
service, but no effort should be spared to keep them free from foreign
conducting material. Loose nagnetic material such as nails, etc.,
are particularly dangerous because the magnetic field of the reactor
during a short circuit will pick up nails at quite a distance from the
reactor and draw them into the winding. Tests show that such
foreign material lodged in the winding causes the reactor to instantly
arc over during a short circuit.
limiting reactors to have as low reactive drop as possible
when normal current is flowing. Good short-circuit
current control, on the other hand, demands the maxi-
mum reactive drop possible.
A reactor having low reactance at low currents and
high reactance at high currents would meet these
conditions. Such a reactor has been developed and is
known as the "saturated core" reactor.1 It has an a-c.
and a d-c. winding on an iron core. Normally the d-c.
ampere turns are so large compared with the a-c. that
the core is saturated with a d-c. flux and the normal
a-c. ampere turns have no appreciable effect in changing
the core density. For this reason, the reactance at all
currents up to normal rated current is negligible. At
high currents the a-c. ampere turns begin to have an
appreciable effect on the core density and the reactance
of the reactor increases ve-ry rapidly. Such reactors,
however, are in the devrelopmental stage, and as yet
have not been used for current-limiting protection to
any extent.
A reactor having an iron magnetic circuit and only
an a-c. winding gives a drooping volt-ampere character-
1. See A. I. E. E. paper by Boyajian on "Theory of D-C.
Excitation of Reactors and Regulators" and A. I. E. E. paper by
Bla,ke on "Application of Saturated Core Reactors and Regu-
lators."
 June 1924 KIERSTEAD A'ND STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS
istic due to saturation of the iron and, therefore, is not
suitable for current-limiting protection. For example,
the magnetic flux in a 5 per cent reactor must increase
20 times normal at short circuit, if the flux wave is
symmetrical, and 40 times if it is assymmetrical. The
flux wave will be assymmetrical if the short circuit
occurs when the voltage wave is passing through zero.
If the flux density in the core was 500 lines per sq. cm.
at normal current (a ridiculously low value), then at short
circuit with assymmetrical current the flux density
would have to increase to 20,000 lines per sq. cm.
Therefore, the reactance in ohms introduced in the
circuit by an iron core reactor would be very much
lower at short-circuit current than at normal current
and to limit the short-circuit current to a particular
value would require a much greater reactance at normal
current than a reactor having a straight line character-
istic. For this reason, iron core reactors have not been
used to any extent for short-circuit protection.
Reactors with air magnetic circuits have constant
reactance for any current and for this reason are well
adapted for current limiting protection.
II. LIBERAL THERMAL CAPACITY
Since the only function of current-limiting reactors
FIG. 1-REACTOR AFTER HAVING BEEN Sl-BJECTED TO A
TEMPERATURE Op 72.5 DEG. CENT. RESULTING FROMI SllORT
CIRCUIT.
is to limit the current during short circuits to safe
values, they should be capable of satisfactorily per-
forming this function when all the other apparatus in
the circuit is being destroyed due to the excessive cur-
rent. As long as the reactor is operative, the short
circuit is limited to a single circuit, but if the reactor
fails due to a prolonged short circuit, the whole station
may become involved. Of course, it would be imprac-
ticable to build all reactors with sufficient thermal
capacity to withstand a short circuit for an indefinite
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903
length of time and it is the duty of the operator to clear
the circuit within a reasonable time. On the other hand
every effort should be made to use heat-resisting
material for supporting and insulating the conductor
of the reactor. If this is done, the temperature of the
conductor may be carried nearly to the melting point
during short circuits without failure. Fig. 1 shows a
reactor on which a short-circuit test was continued until
the conductor reached a temperature of 725 deg. cent.
The reactor was uninjured by this test and was fully
-
1
FIG. 2-RECORD OF Bus BAR VOLTAGE SiIoWIXG 6-AINm.
SniOutT CIRCUIT
operative. This shows the value of heat-resisting
supports.
A number of reports of long continued short circuits
have been received. Among these reports is one from
a large central station describing a six-minute short
circuit on a 0.5-ohm reactor in a 12,000-volt feeder.
Fig. 2 gives the record of the station bus voltage during
this interval. The duration of the drop in voltage
indicates the time during which the feeder was short-
circuited. This reactor is still in service. Other
reports simply give additional instances where the heat-
resisting supports had enabled the reactor to function
through a long continued short circuit. Actual experi-
ence with reactors in service for many years has proven
beyond doubt that the supports which hold the con-
ductor should be heat-resisting.
The size of the conductor to be used in a reactor may
depend on the heating at normal load or during short
circuit, or again it may be determined by the maximum
permissible losses.
The temperature limits depend on the materials in
contact with the conductor. With organic material
there is always the danger of carbonization at the hot
inaccessible spots during operation and during short
circuits this danger becomes more imminent. Further-
more, there are usually no indications of such carboni-
 904 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS Transactions A. I. E. E.

zation until it has caused a failure. With inorganic occasions voltages of more than double line voltage may
material this danger does not exist and higher tempera- be reflected from the reactor, as for instance, when there
tures may be permitted. has been a disturbance which has resulted in a wave of
In 1914 when the first cast-in-concrete reactors were more than line voltage being sent out toward the re-
being built, there was some doubt as to what should be actor. If, when this wave reaches the reactor its value
the limiting temperatures. Tests indicated that very is still more than line voltage, then it will be reflected
high temperatures would be safe but the conservative with a value of more than double line voltage. Tests
practise of 125 deg. cent. for the limiting temperature at have proven that steep front impulses are rapidly
normal current and 350 deg. cent. at short circuit was damped out, so that unless such a disturbance happens
adopted. In determining short-circuit temperatures, it near a reactor its wave will be considerably reduced
is assumed that the full voltage is maintained across the before it reaches the reactor. This is especially true of
reactor and that all of the heat is stored in the conductorunderground cables since their insulation losses very
during the specified duration of the short circuit. Since rapidly damp out impulses. Therefore, it should be
that time ther-e have been many indications that these exceptional for voltage impulses higher than double
reactors could be safely operated at higher temperatures line voltage to be reflected from reactors in underground
and no indications that these temperatures are too high. cable systems.
However, these conservative limits are being maintained. On overhead lines lightning disturbances may
The following is a useful formula for determining the cause impulse voltages on the lines as high as the line
short-circuit temperature rise, assuming that all of the insulators or the lightning arresters will permit. Such
heat is stored in the conductor. disturbances may be reflected by the reactor at double
their initial value. During such disturbances the
T =
92 X A2 X 106 1
_1voltage from the reactor to ground and across its
terminals is liable to reach any value which the line
K (1 + 0 x * 00427) t 12 2 (234.5 + 0) insulators or the lightning arresters will permit.
Resonance between two circuits, one containing high
where, electrostatic capacity and low inductance and the other
T is the short-circuit temperature rise in degrees cent. containing low electrostatic capacity and high induct-
A is the cross section of conductor in sq. in. ance, may cause high voltages to be built up not only
Total copper losses across reactors but also from the line to ground.
K is the eddy current factor = R- Authorities differ as to the magnitude of these voltages.
In laboratory tests high voltages are obtainable. In
0 is the initial temperature tests on a large underground cable system 36 per cent
t is the time in seconds over-voltage was observed with circuits considerably
I is the short-circuit current in amperes out of resonance. On account of operating conditions
The maximum anticipated time required to clear the investigation had to be discontinued before tests
a short circuit should be given by the purchaser in his could be made with the circuits in resonance. This
specifications, since he has the necessary data on the subject should be investigated more thoroughly because
time settings of the relays which open the circuit. of its bearing on central station disturbances.
Where these data are not given, it is customary to Operating experience with cast-in concrete reactors
design the reactor to stand full short-circuit current with liberal spacing and low voltage between adjacent
for at least three seconds. layers and turns has indicated that voltages high enough
to cause flash-over have not been obtained. On the
III. INSULATION STRENGTH SHOULD BE HIGH SINCE other hand, a very high voltage is required to flash over
A REACTOR IS A PROTECTIVE DEVICE these reactors. For instance, a reactor for a 13,200-
A current-limiting reactor functions as such only volt circuit requires 60,000 volts to arc over the insu-
when there are short circuits on the system. Short lators to ground and 100,000 volts at high frequency to
circuits are almost sure to be preceded or accompanied flash over the winding. In other words, this experience
by voltage disturbances of abnormal value. Therefore, has simply indicated that voltages higher thani the above
the insulation factor of safety in the reactor should be have not been experienced.
relatively high. Formerly, it was believed that some of the early
The reactor is a point of reflection for steep front failures of reactors were due to over-voltage, but later
waves and thus doubles any such wave that strikes it. investigations using an especially constructed short-
It is, therefore, to be expected that nearly double line circuit testing generator proved conclusively that these
vroltage will appear between the reactor and ground failures were due to magnetic forces causing adjacent
and across the reactor termninals during sudden changes turns to touch. These tests practically eliminated any
in the system as when switching or during a disturbance apprehension of reactor trouble due to excessive voltages.
such as a flashover of an insulator. Voltages of this The voltage concentration at the end turns and end
order are an every-day occurrence. On more rare layers in reactors due to steep front waves is very much

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 June 1924 KIERSTEAD AN'D STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REAC'TORS
less than in transformers, because the series capacity
(that is, the capacity between turns and layers) is so
much greater than the capacity of the reactor to ground.2
In tests on reactors with steep front waves 29 per cent
of the voltage of the initial wave has been observed be-
tween the first and second layers of the reactor and 10
per cent between the first and second turns.3
The conclusions to be drawn from these investi-
gations of the transient voltages that reactors may
have to stand, is that these voltages may be as high as
the weakest insulation or the lightning arrester setting
will permit, and the reactor should have a reasonable
factor of safety above these limits.
Reactors with shunting resistors give to the system
in which they are placed the protection from over-
voltage that the resistors afford and are, therefore, to be
recommended. Shunting resistors also reduce the
transient voltages on the reactor and conceivably it
would be permissible to reduce the insulation of such
reactors, but this practise has not been recommended.
The reasons for the use of resistors shunting reactors
are two-fold. First, resistors protect a circuit by
absorbing the energy which would cause high voltages.
Such energy is always of higher frequency than the
generated frequency and, therefore, piles up high volt-
ages across reactors. If these reactors are shunted by
Fi(. 3-REACTORI WITH RESISTOR RE3IOVED
resistors this voltage is applied to the resistors and the
high frequency energy is absorbed. On the other hand,
under normal conditions the voltage across the reactor,
and therefore across the resistor, is very small and little
energy is absorbed. A resistor shunting a reactor is,
2. A paper by Blume and Boyajian entitled "Abnormal
Voltages within Transformers" published in the A. 1. E. E. TRANS.
1919, page 577 gives the reasons.
3. See paper by Kierstead and Meeker entitled "Voltage
Stresses in Reactors," A. I. E. E. TRANS. 1920, page 1289.
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90';
therefore, selective in its operation, absorbing a negli-
gible amount of useful energy but absorbing a high
percentage of destructive energy. Second, when re-
actors are placed in all the feeders from a central sta-
tion, any disturbance originating in the station (as in
switching) is prevented by the reactors from passing
freely out in the lines where it may be dissipated, but
if each reactor is shunted by a resistor, each furnishes a
path for the escape of the disturbance into the feeders.
Fie F.4-R1EACTOR MWITH RESISTOR ASSEM-BLED
The resistor is assembled in the center of the reactor
so that no additional space is required. Fig. 3 shows a
reactor and its resistor and Fig. 4 shows the same reactor
with its resistor assembled.
IV. HIGH MECHANICAL STRENGTH
Reactors are subjected to magnetic forces due to the
current in the reactor itself, which we will call internal
forces, and to magnetic forces due to the field between
adjacent reactors, which we will call external forces.
a. Internal Forces. The direction and relative
magnitude of the internal forces are shown in Fig. 5.
It will be noted that they are in a direction to place the
supports for the conductor in compression and most of
the turns of the conductor itself in tension.
In order to calculate the strength of a reactor to
withstand these interal forces, it is necessary to deter-
mine the turn that is most liable to fail, which we will
call the critical turn. The magnetic force on this turn
 906 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRENST-LIMITING REACTORS Transactions A. I. E. E.

and its ability to withstand this force should be calcu- and the second layer from the bottom are the critical
lated. The force on the critical turn is determined by turns. Fig. 6 shows the critical turn of a reactor just
summing up the forces of each individual turn upon it. starting to bend under a short-circuit test to determine
This is most conveniently done by determining separ- the effect of these forces.
ately the arithmetical sum of the axial and radial forces
and combining these results vectorially, which gives the
resultant force on the critical turn both in magnitude 0 00
and direction. Where the turns are all equally and CRIT CAL \ O0
symmetrically placed, this summation can be obtained TiN 0 00 0
by integration, but in the type of reactor shown in oo ooo
Fig. 5, this integration becomes too involved and it is Q o
more convenient to calculate the forces separately and
record the results in curves and tabulations suitable for °00000e i
the particular type of reactor. The following formulas, 0
o l
derived from Maxwell's equation for the mutual induct- 'z o 0 0 °
ances between circles, are convenient and accurate for 0 0 0 00
calculating the axial and radial forces between two turns - _ - - _
Z 1 .iJ0OO00
Pt- 4.5 X 10 -s X A x1
P1_4.5X108X X v(a + A)2 +Z2 ooo
a2 +A2 + Z2 O00000O(
(a 2A42X2+R-l]L
- ooo o

P2 =4.5 X 10- X >/(a + A)2 +x[~~A)I+zIE±F]

Z2 CRIlY.ALi
~
TRNs ,8 ° ° °
0 0 0 oGf6_
0
CENER IN

a2 -A2 _ Z2 0 0 G
X[(a
- A)' + Z2 J )9 or lf'EACTOR
where, SECTION Of COIL SUPPORT
PI and P2 are respectively the axial and radial forces
in pounds per ampere per inch length of the conductor.
A is theAistheradusofthelrgercirclininchesFIG.
radius of the larger circle in inches 5-DIRECTION FORCES
AND RELATIVE MAGNIrt.l)E OF INTERNAL
IN A REACTOR
a is the radius of the smaller circle in inches
Z is the distance between the planes of the circles in
inches.
F and E are the complete elliptic integrals of
the first and second kind, respectively, to modulus
2 \/aA
k
v\(a + A)2+ Z2
Their value may be obtained from Table XII and
XIII in the Appendix of Bulletin of the Bureau of
Standards, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Scientific Papers No. 169).
Referring to Fig. 5, it will be noted that the inner
turns are subjected to the greatest forces. However,
they are not the critical turns because the span of these
turns between supports is much less than that of the l
outside turns, and the force is in such a direction as to
place the conductor in tension. While the force on an
outside turn is less, the greater span between supports,
coupled with the fact that the direction of the force is
such as to cause the turn to slacken, makes the turn much
less capable of resisting it. If all the turns were sym- FIG. 6-ILLUSTRATING BENDING OF CRITICAL TURN OF REACTOR
metrically placed, the outside top and bottom turns BY MAGNETIC FORCE DURING SHORT CIRCUIT
would be the critical turns, but in the type of reactor
shown in Fig. 5, due to the converging of the layers of Investigation of these forces has shown that the
turns, the outside turn in the second layer from the top force on the critical turn in some ratings of reactors

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 June 1924 KIERSTEAD AN7D STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS
may be as great as 300 lb. per inch of length of con-
ductor. Such a reactor with a critical turn of 32 in.
diameter would have a total force on the turn of 30,000
lb. When it is realized that this is only the force on one
turn of a reactor, and at that, not the turn with the
maximum force, an idea is obtained of the tremendous
forces that reactor supports must withstand.
FiG. 7-M1ETHl(OD oF APPLYINO FoutCE To TEST STREXN.TII OFl
In order to measure the strength of the conductor
to withstand magnetic forces, weights were applied
to the conductor as shown in Fig. 7 and the deflection
was measured for different weights.
With an accurate method of calculating the forces and
with data for determining the strength of the turns,
FIG. 8-SET OF THREE-PHASE REi.ACTORS PLACED ivrIT AxF:s
PARALLEIL VITH IIBRACES 13ETWVEEN PHASES
the ability of a reactor to withstand a steady magnetic
force could be determined. It was necessary, however,
to test reactors under short circuits up to destruction to
determine their strength under the suddenly applied
force of a short circuit. The results of these tests
proved that the peak magnetic force and not the
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907
average should be used in calculating the strength of the
conductors.
b. External Force. When reactors which are wound
in the same direction are placed with their axes parallel
as in Fig. 8, the magnetic forces will be attractive if the
current in the one flows in the opposite direction to the
current in the other, and repulsive if the currents are
in the same direction. If they are mounted coaxially
as in Fig. 9, the direction of the forces will be just the
reverse. Therefo-re, the direction of the forces between
similar reactors with their axes parallel will be attractive
if the reactors are all connected symmetrically, and
repulsive if the connection to the middle phase is re-
versed to that of the other phases. If the reactors are
placed coaxially, the direction of the forces will be
repulsive if symmetrically connected, and attractive
if the middle phase is reversed.
FIG. 9-SETrOF THIRIRE-PIIASE REAC'TORS PULACED ((COAX1AI.I Y
WI'ITII PI SIXXON FBRAVING
F(lt AGAINST WVAL OF CO MI'ARTMF:XT
The magnitude of the force between adjacent re-
actors of a three-phase circuit is greater during single-
phase short circuits than it is during three-phase short
circuits, (although the single-phase short-circuit current
is only 86.6 per cent of the three-phase current) and,
therefore, stresses caused by these forces should be based
on single-phase short circuits. Forces due to single-
phase short circuits are higher because the fluxes from
adjacent reactors are in phase or l8O deg. out of phage
during single-phase short circuits, whi'e they are 120
deg. or 60 deg. out of phase during three-phase short
circuits.
Forces of considerable magnitude may occur between
adjacent reactors in different circuits as well as between
adjacent reactors in the same circuit. A good example
of this is where two feeders in parallel feed the same
substation. A failure of either feeder results in a short
 908 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: GURREN-T-LIMITING REACTORS Ttansaetions A. I. E. E.

circuit on both, and if the failure occurs near the sub- reactors placed coaxially4 and with their axes parallels
station, then the current flowing in the two feeders will have been given by H. B. Dwight. These formulas
be approximately equal. If the reactors in these two have been checked and found to give good agreement
feeders are adjacent they will exert a magnetic force with tests and, therefore, the method of calculation of
upon each other. These forces will be greater if the these forces is not being given here.
adjacent reactors are connected to the same phase, since With the formulas developed, the calculation of
the currents will be in phase during either three-phase these forces is a simple problem. However, it is a more
or single-phase short circuits. If the adjacent reactors difficult problem to determine the stresses on the mem-
are connected to different phases, the forces will have bers which support the reactor against this force, for
the reason that it varies with time after short-circuit in
t- - - -a very complicated manner, as shown on Curve c, Fig.
___ .-,-¢1<)- 10. Curves a, b, and c have been reproduced from an
-_ =: ~-~~=- _
8
- ~ oscillogram taken during a short-circuit test in an
= -- --
investigation to determine these stresses, while Curve
_____________________________ d is a calculated curve. Fig. 11 shows the set-up of the
- --= apparatus for these tests. The tests consisted in
/14--<-~A+\~-F--F7N exciting a 25-cycle 27,000-kv-a. generator for 13,200
|V y "*\v\ \Y \Y \Y" \Y \-Y- volts, then throwing a switch which short-circuited two
'V reactors connected in series across two of the terminals
Fio. 10-08CILLjOURtAuimc RECORD OF SHORIT-C(IR(I-IT TEST of the generator and measuring the voltage across the
TO D:TER-MIN Fo.RCES BETWEEN ADJACENT REACTORS AND reactors, current in the reactors and the forces on the
STRESSES ON BRACES

the same value as is the case of reactors connected in

the same circuit. The resulting forces will be 33 per
cent. greater if the reactors are in the same phase than
if they are in different phases. It must be remembered,
however, that with two feeders in parallel short-cir- --- t - - -t-
cuited, the current in each reactor will not be as great
as it would be if only one feeder was short-circuited,
since the station bus voltage will drop more with the

FI(;. 12 -DETAILS OF BRACES AND PRESSURE R:ECORDER FOR

TESTS RECORDED IN FIG. 10

braces between the reactors. The reactors were con-

nected so that the forces were attractive. Fig. 12 shows
more of the details of braces and pressure drum than
can be seen in Fig. 11. The porcelain braces are not
of normal size but were made small so that they could
be broken in other tests by the magnetic force between
reactors. It will be noted that the ball and socket
joint allows freedom for lateral movement but prevents
lengthwise motion. The wooden structure around the
reactors was intended to prevent the reactor falling
when tests were made to determine the magnetic force
necessary to break the porcelain supports and braces.
1l'1(:. 1 1-SETUP(OF SREACTORS FO)R SIIORTClCII[T TESTS Curve a Fig. 10 gives the voltage across the reactors,
Curve b gives the current in the reactors and Curve c
gives the pressure exerted upon the braces by the
two feeders short-circuited than with one. The react- magnetic force. Curve d was obtained from Curve b by
ance of the feeders out to a substation would further multiplying the square of the current at any instant
reduce the current. Therefore, it is probable that the by the force constant. This curve thus gives the mag-
forces between adjacent reactors in different feeders
willfbeoasrgreatcasethe
between adjacent re-
never will be as great as those
.
between adjacent 4. "Repulsion and Mutual Inductance of Reactance Coils
re- with the Same Axis" by H. B. Dwight, El. Journal 1918, page 166.
actors in the same circuit. 5. "Some new Formulas for Reactance Coils" by H. B.
Formulas for the calculation of the forces between l)wight, TRANS. A. I. E. E. 1919, page 167.5.

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 JUne 1924 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRE\NT-LIMITiNG REACTORS 909

netic force exerted by the reactor at any instant while and the pressure on the braces was greater than the
Curve c gives the stress placed upon the braces by this peak force. In the second set of tests, the mechanical
force. Attention is called to the fact that the instru- frequency was naturally very much reduced by the
ment which measured the pressure on the braces was removal of the braces and the inertia of the reactor
not equipped to measure any tension that may have effectively smoothed out the sharp peaks of the mag-
been placed upon them by the oscillation of the reactors. netic force thereby materially decreasing the stress on
It will be noted that while the first peak of pressure the supporting insulators.
on the braces is almost as high as the first peak of the In a paper6 presented at the Spring Convention last
magnetic force, the second peak of pressure is higher year by Doherty and Kierstead entitled "Short-Circuit
than the highest peak of force. Thus, it is shown that Forces on Reactor Supports" the following statement
not only is it not safe to use the average magnetic force was made. "If a reactor is not held rigidly against
in calculating the stresses on the braces but it is not all motion, the maximum force on the holding device
even safe to use the peak force. will depend in a decisive way upon the ratio of the
In order to determine the stresses on the supporting frequency n of natural oscillation to the electrical
insulators with no braces, similar short-circuit tests were frequency f." Although the investigation is not com-
made with the supporting insulators bolted down to the pleted the results of these tests are given here because
frame work but with no braces between the reactors. they are experimental proof of the accuracy of the
The tests were started at low current and the current conclusions reached in the paper mentioned.
was gradually increased until the insulators were The following data on the reactors tested are given
broken. The tests were repeated until sufficient insu- for the benefit of those who may be interested in check-
ing up their mathematical calculations of forces with
these tests.
Weight of Reactors .................. 1550 lb.
Force between reactors at one ampere. .2 X 1a- lb.
Force required to decrease distance be-
tween reactors 0.0625 in.
(a) with braces assembled .....20,000 lb.
(b) without braces ........11001lb.
Electrical frequency..........25 cycles
Pressure between reactors with no mag-
netic force applied......... 0
Since the forces between reactors vary with their
FIG. 13-METHOD OF APPL'.YING A STEADY FORCE HFTWVF:EsEN shape, dimensions, distance between centers and their
RIEACTORS TO DETERHIINE TIIE STRENGTH OF TIIE StiPoPRTING short-circuit ampere turns, it follows that these forces
INSITLATOR.s THE SPRING WAS CALIBRATED AND A KN,OWVN vary tremendously with different reactors. Peak forces
FORCEiAPPLIED TENDING TO D)RAW THE REACTORS To/;THER as high as 33,000 lb. have come to the authors' atten-
tion. In the average feeder reactor this force is not
lators were broken to obtain a good average of the force over 10,000 lbs.
required to break them. It was then desired to compare Because of the great force placed upon reactors, both
this with a steady force applied at the same points of the internal and external, they require a construction of
reactors. Therefore, a calibrated spring was placed very high mechanical strength.
between the reactors in such a manner that by screwing V. MOST ECONOMICAL LoSSES
up bolts a known force tending to draw the reactors
together was applied. The set-up for these tests is It is generally possible to reduce materially the losses
shown in Fig. 13. Sufficient insulators were broken so in a given reactor by using larger conductors or more
that a good average of the steady force required to conductors in multiple. While this results in greater
break them was obtained. The result of these tests first cost, the ultimate cost may be less on account of
showed that the peak magnetic force (calculated from the reduced operating expense. Fig. 14 indicates how
the observed current) was 2.5 times the steady force the most economical value of losses may be reached.
required to break the insulators and, therefore, indi- In order for the manufacturer to determine this value,
cates that the average magnetic force is more nearly the the following data should be available.
correct force to use in calculating the stresses on the 1. Cost per kw. hour of supplying losses.
supporting insulators when no braces are used. 2. The root mean square current in the circuit for
The difference between these two sets of tests con- an entire year.
sists chiefly in the fact that the mechanical frequency 3. The investment charge in per cent.
of the reactors was changed. In the first set of tests From the first two items the total yearly cost of
the mechanical frequency was close enough to the supplying the losses in a given reactor can be calcu-
electrical frequency so that partial resonance occurred 6. See JOURNAL A. I. E. E., August, 1923.

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 910 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS Transactions A. I. E. E.

lated and the operating expense curve obtained. From
the last item, the investment expense curve can be
calculated. The total expense curve is obtained from
the sum of the ordinates of the other two. The most
economical reactor for the given case can be selected
from this curve.
The eddy current losses in reactors may be made
comparatively small by properly stranding the con-
ductor and by the use of properly placed conductors in
multiple. In good designs these losses are rarely over
MOST KCQMQOMC L0Ob.E6
\PA!
dq2.
oC
ijb StIVZ$?m?NI. ~~XP~NSZ
reactor in a separate compartment as is shown in Fig.
15. The great advantage of this is that if anything
should happen to cause the failure of a reactor in one
phase, the arc will not be communicated to the other
phases. This not only saves the other reactors from
damage, but what is worth more, it gives to the system
the protection afforded by the other two reactors, which
is a very substantial percentage of the protection
afforded by all three. When reactors are installed in
separate compartments, the compartments are usually
arranged side by side and often with three tiers of
compartments so that the reactors of one circuit are
placed one above the other. When reactors in differ-
ent circuits are placed side by side the forces between
them can be reduced 33 per cent if care is taken not
to connect adjacent reactors to the same phase. One of
\ a Othe best arrangements for reactors is the so-called
phase isolation arrangement where the reactors in
>:different phases are placed on different floors of the
station.

II. COMPARTMENTS
-J.o6b1s >There is a decided tendency to make the compart-
Fio. 14-CURVES Siiowrim HOAV THE MIOST ECONOMICAL -AL.UE ments for reactors too small for a liberally designed
oF LossFs (AN BIE ARivED AT reactor. It should be realized that a reactor is a pro-
tective apparatus and conditions should be made as
20 per cent of the 12 R loss and usually not more than favorable as possible for it to give this protection.
10 per cent.
Structural steel work and other magnetic material if
located too close to the reactors will cause additional
losses. If a clearance from the winding of the reactor
to these materials of one-half the diameter of the wind-
ing is maintained, the additional loss from this source is
usually negligible.
If the magnetic field of a reactor links a loop of con-
ducting material, as for instance, structural steel or
pipe frame-work, current will be induced in the loop
and will result in additional losses.
Since the power factor of reactors is very small, their
losses cannot be accurately measured by ordinary
wattmeters and especially designed low power-factor
wattmeters are required.
Installation
The installation of reactors will be considered from
the following points of view:
I--Arrangement FiG. li-REACTOR INSTALLED IN A SEPARATE COMPARTM ENT
II-Compartments
III-Bracing and Securing in Place a. Electrical Clearance. In keeping with the princi-
IV-Support of the Leads ple that the insulation of reactors should be higher than
V-Ventilation that of other apparatus in the circuit, electrical clear-
ances for reactors should be greater than those allowed
I. ARRANGEMENT other apparatus in the same station.
Reactors are usually arranged in a station as close to b. Magnetic Clearance. Clearances are required be-
the circuit breakers as possible. A three-phase set of tween reactors and magnetic materials for the reason
reactors may be placed side by side in the same com- that reactors have a strong stray magnetic field which
partment as is shown in Fig. 8, or one above the other will cause magnetic material to heat, and such heating
as in Fig. 9. A much better practise is to place each which may or may not be objectionable from a tem-

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 June 1924 KIERSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS 911

perature standpoint will result in higher losses in the be less than one-half of the overall diameter of the
reactor. winding.
Reinforcing rods in concrete walls and floors while Care should be taken to avoid any loops or turns
magnetic, usually are not large enough to cause appre- formed by structural steel near a reactor where its
ciable heating or extra losses. An idea of the size and field can link them. Plans for a recent installation
shapes of iron bodies which are objectionable can be contemplated reactors on a frame-work similar to that
obtained from an investigation made many years ago. shown in Fig. 17. The legs of this frame-work were to
The reactor used in the test and the location of the mag- be cast in concrete so that it would be a strong enough
netic material are shown in Fig. 16. The reactor was mechanically. With this arrangement, the flux from
rated 25 cycles, 400 kv-a., 229 volts, 1750 amperes, and the reactor would pass through the square turn made
was carrying 25-cycle current of 1750 amperes when the by the top of the frame-work and cause a circulating
tests were made. current to flow. A temporary set-up wasmade as shown
A description of the materials of which temperatures in Fig. 17 and tests gave a temperature rise of 125 deg.
were measured is as follows: The Part numbers refer
to the numbers shown in Fig. 16.
Part 1-Iron plate 14 in. by 12 in. by 10 ft.
Part 2-Galvanized iron wire screen 3 ft. by 10 ft.
Part 3-Fine Brass netting 3 ft. by 10 ft.
Part 4-Rolled Steel I-Beam 4 in. by 44 ft.
Parts 5, 6, and 7-Rolled steel angles 3 in. by 3 in. by
y2 in. by 2ft.
The following table gives the temperature rises of the
above materials and their distances from the winding
of the reactor:
TEMIPERATURE RISES
Iron Plate
Distance Part 1 Iron Screen Brass Screen
from the lPart 2 Part 3
Reactor Top |Middle Bottom M
Middle Middle
4 in .54 deg 84 dog. 36 dog. 4 deg. 5 deg.
8 in. 36 deg. 0i dog 24 d g.
12 in. 29 deg. 51 deg. 20 desg.

Distance Steel I-Beam Steel Angles

from top Part 4 Distance Part No.
of from
Winding End Middle Coil 5 6 7

14 in. |16 deg. l39 dog. 1 in. 11 deg. 33 deg. 20 deg.

18 in. 13 deg. 25 deg. 8 in. 9 deg. 13 deg 7 deog
22 in. 11 deg. 16 deg. 12 in. 9 deg. 9 deg. 5 deg.
*Part No. 7 was 20 in. below winding.

It will be noted that the highest observed temperature

rise was on the iron plate and the next highest on the
eye-beam. These parts should be expected to get the
hottest for two reasons: first, they are the longest parts
used, and second, they are each placed with their long
dimensions approximately parallel to the path of the
flux.
The effect of the magnetic field is enormously different
for different ratings of reactors and these rises are not
given as a guide to the magnitudes which might be
expected with other reactors, but are given to show how
the shape and position of the magnetic parts affect the
heating.
Special care should be taken to avoid long magnetic
bodies with their axes parallel to the field of the reactor.
Experience has shown that the clearance between large
magnetic parts and any point of the winding should not
FIEACTOR r\ HEATING INVESTIGATCION
cent., but when one corner of the frame-work was insu-
lated so as to open the turn, the temperature rise
dropped to 56 deg. cent.
A rectangular copper bar loop as shown in Fig. 18 was
placed over the structural steel supporting base with
the steel loop complete as in the first test. The copper
loop effectively shielded the steel structure and with the
same current in the reactor a rise of 56 deg. cent. was
obtained in the copper loop. The loss and heating of
the short-circuited shielding loop can be controlled by
varying its cross section. This method of reducingstray
losses may prove useful in special cases.

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 912 KIE,RSTEAD AND STEPHENS: CURRENT-LIMITING REACTORS
III. BRACING AND SECURING IN PLACE
Many reactors can be sufficiently secured against the
magnetic force of the next adjacent reactor by bolting
the supporting insulators to the floor and in such cases
they should be rigidly bolted.
Transactions A. I. E. E.
connected so that the magnetic force places compres-
sion on the insulators. In the first part of this paper,
the direction of the forces for different connections was
given. The supporting insulators should be bolted to
the floor whether or not braces between reactors are
used.
When reactors are placed in separate cells, the
distance between adjacent reactors may be such that
braces are required and in this case, the reactors must
be braced against the cell walls or to the ceiling above,
if the lifting force due to the reactor above is sufficient.
IV. SUPPORT OF THE LEADS
The reactor exerts a force upon the leads which

Tk.PX1tATVRX~ It.".~~ ~ S IS'.

FIG. 19-ARRANGEMENT OFIREACTO IN CELL FOi TESTS TO

DETF:RM1NE SIZE OF MINI14um
VENTILATOR
~ ~ ~ ~OPEXNINGS
AIA-14

'' tut"$ by TSG t

FIF. 17-SET-t19AR FOIt MEASURING HEATITG IN STINCCTtTRAL T

STEEL FRAMUE WORKIC.AUSED 1UY _N1lA(,XET1c FIELD OF REACTOR --------------PETat
IN IF TLATOTR OPENINGL
7w0 , ______

VSTt
* EAtt TMOT UMNIk.
FIG. 20-EFFECT OF CELL VENTILATION ON MAXIMUMS
TEMPERATURE RISE OBTAINED FROM RZEACTOR SET-UP SIIOWN
IN FIG. 19

connect it in the circuit and the leads should be securely

supported, but flexible enough to allow a slight move-
ment. In general, the supports for the leads should be
within a foot from the terminal and the direction of the
lead as it approaches the reactor should be radial if
STRFICT STEEL RAME WOIKFROFlB MAGNETIR
RA, CN ORF
FOELD possible. Potheads in general have been shown to be
REACTOR STEELNIN FOTIG. 17 vulnerable points in a circuit and they should be located
where a failure of a pothead will not communicate to the
Where the magnetic force is large, braces must be reactor.
used to brace the reactor. Since these braces are V. VENTILATION
generally porcelain, which is many times stronger in Reactor cells should be adequately ventilated so as
compression than in tension, the reactors should be not to increase the temperature rise appreciably. Fig.

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 June 1924 KR1,IRSTEAD AXD STEPIIENS: CURRENT-,IMITlI.NG REACTORS
19 shows how tests were made with varying dimensions
of openings at the top and bottom of one wall of the
cell, and Fig. 20 gives the results of these tests. The
conclusion reached is that the ventilation should be not
less than one square foot of opening at both the top and
bottom of the cell for each kilowatt of loss.
Fie 21-REIPRODU CTION OF SECTION OF \MOTION PICTURE
FILM SHOWING NAILS (PAINTED WHITE) BEING D)RAWN TOW ARD
REACTOR BY ITS MAGNETIC FIELD. AtaRROWS INDICATE N'AILS.
Operation
In general, reactors require extremely little attention
in service but no effort should be spared to keep them
free from foreign conducting material. Loose magnetic
material, such
as nails, etc., are particularly dangerous ~~~~~~~~~~~~Alternators"
material,
because the magnetic field of the reactor during short A. I. E. E. 1911, P. 1143.
FIG. 22--REPRODUCTION OF SECTION OF MOTION PICTURE
FILMI SIIOWIXG ARCING UNDER SHORT CIRCUIT CAUSED BY NAAIL
PLACED ACROSS Tw o LAYERtS OF TURNS. ARRA(oW INDICATES
NAIL. ExposuREs 1(6 PER SECOND.
circuits will pick up nails at quite a distance from the
reactor and draw them into the winding.
Short-circuit tests were made with nails strewn along
the floor foor nderareator
theunder a reactor but strings sotnattney
tied tto strms
ut te( so that they
could not reach the winding. When the short circuit
occurred the nails were drawn up from the floor and as
close to the reactor winding as the strings would allow.
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913
Motion pictures were taken during this test and Fig. 21
gives enlargements of three of these pictures showing
the nails (which are painted white) being drawn up
from the floor.
A test was also made with a nail tied so as to bridge
between the first and second layers of turns at the top.
Fig. 22 shows enlargement of motion pictures taken
during this test. The first picture was taken im-
mediately before the failure, the second when the arc
was just starting at the nail and the third (one sixteenth
second later) shows the reactor subjected to a complete
flash-over. This indicates how rapidly an incipient
arc may be spread magnetic-ally throughout a reactor
under short circuit.
These tests show that it is necessary not only to keep
the reactor itself free from foreign conducting material
but also to remove all unsecured magnetic material
from its vicinity. This is about the only precaution
that need be observed in the operation of current-
limiting reactors.
"Voltage Stresses in Reactors" by F. H. Kierstead and R.
Meeker, TIIANs. A. I. E. E., 1920, p. 1289.
"Repulsion and Mutual Inductances of Reactance Coils with
the Same Axis" by H. B. Dwight, El. Joutrnal 1918, p. 166.
"Some New Formulas for Reactance Coils" by H. 13. Dwight,
TIRANS. A. I. E. E. 1919, p. 1675.
"Short Circuit Forces on Reactor Supports" by R. E. Doherty
JOURNAL,
and F. H. Kierstead, A. 1. E. E., August, 1923.
"The Useorby Power-Liniting
R. F. SchucblardtReactances with Large TRANS.
andl E. 0. Sebwertzer, Turbo-
"Application of Current-Limiting Reactors" by H. H. Rudd
and W. M. Dana, El. Joutrnal, 1916, p. 280.
"Results of Short-Circuit Tests on Outdoor Type Reactance
Coils" by A. F. Bang, El. llWorld 1922, p. 425.
"Generator Reactance and Circuit Breaker P'erformance Under
Short-Circuit Conditions" by F. D. Newberry, W. NN1. Dann,
and J. N. Mahoney, El. Journal 1914, p. 188.
"Mechaical Stress in Reactors" by W. M. Dann, El. Journal,
1914, p. 204.
"Two Versus Three Reactors for Current Linuttationi in Three-
Phase Feeder Cireuits" by F. ff. Kierstead, G. E. Rcrvieu,
1916, p. 626.
"Effect of Current-Limiting Reactors on Turbo-Generator
Systems under Conditions of Shiort Cicruit" by P. B. Julhnke,
TRANs. A. I. E. E. 1917, p. 125.
"Reactors in Hydroelectric Stations" by J. Allen Johnson,
TRANS. A. 1. E. E. 1917, p. 105.
"Power Control and Stability of Electric Generating Stations"
by Charles 1P. Steirnmetz, TRANS. A. 1. E. E. 1920, p. 1215.
"Theoretical Investigation of Electric Transmission Systems
Under Short-Cirecuit Con(litions" by I. W. Gross, TRANS.
A. I. E. E. 1915, p. 25..
"Protective Reactance in Large Power Stations" by James
Lyman, Allen M. Rossman and Leslie L. Perry, TRANS. A. 1. E. E.
1914, p. 23.
"Protective Reactors for Feeder Circuits of Large City Power
Jam,es Lyman, Leslie L. Perry an(d A. M. Rossman,
Systems"A. by
TRANS.
T I. E. E. 1914, p. 1.509.
Discussion
For discussion of this naper see page 940.